Introduction to sociology seagull 11th edition ebook

IntroductIon to

Sociology 11 E

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Anthony Giddens LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

Mitchell Duneier PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

Richard P. Appelbaum UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,

SANTA BARBARA

Deborah Carr BOSTON UNIVERSITY

B W. W. norton & company, Inc.

New York • London

IntroductIon to

Sociology 11 E

S E a g u l l

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W. W. norton & company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year— W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.

Copyright © 2018, 2016, 2014, 2012, 2009 by Anthony Giddens, Mitchell Duneier, Richard P. Appelbaum, and Deborah Carr Copyright © 2007, 2005, 2003 by Anthony Giddens, Mitchell Duneier, and Richard P. Appelbaum Copyright © 2000 by Anthony Giddens and Mitchell Duneier Copyright © 1996, 1991 by Anthony Giddens

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The Library of Congress cataloged another edition as follows:

Names: Giddens, Anthony, author.  Title: Introduction to sociology / Anthony Giddens [and three others]. Description: Eleventh edition. | New York : W.W. Norton & Company, [2018] |  Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017052564 | ISBN 9780393623956 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Sociology. Classification: LCC HM585.G53 2018 | DDC 301—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017052564

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Contents v

contents

PREFACE xiii

Part I: tHE StUDY OF SOCIOLOGY 1

WHat IS SOCIOLOGY? 3

BaSIC CONCEPtS 6

Social Construction 7 • Social Order 8 • Agency and Structure 9 • Social Change 10

tHE DEVELOPMENt OF SOCIOLOGICaL tHINKING 11

Theories and Theoretical Approaches 11 • Neglected Founders 15 • Understanding the Modern World: The Sociological Debate 17

MODErN tHEOrEtICaL aPPrOaCHES 18

Symbolic Interactionism 18 • Functionalism 19 • Conflict Theories 21 • Rational Choice Theory 22 • Postmodern Theory 23 • Theoretical Thinking in Sociology 24

HOW CaN SOCIOLOGY HELP US? 26

aSKING aND aNSWErING SOCIOLOGICaL QUEStIONS 31

BaSIC CONCEPtS 33

The Research Process 34

aSKING aND aNSWErING SOCIOLOGICaL QUEStIONS: HIStOrICaL CONtEXt 37

aSKING aND aNSWErING SOCIOLOGICaL QUEStIONS tODaY: rESEarCH MEtHODS 38

Ethnography 38 • Surveys 40 • Experiments 44 • Comparative Historical Research 45

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 48

Can Sociology Identify Causes and Effects? 48 • How Can Social Research Avoid Exploitation? 49 • Can We Really Study Human Social Life in a Scientific Way? 49

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vi Contents

Part II: tHE INDIVIDUaL aND SOCIEtY 53

CULtUrE aND SOCIEtY 55

BaSIC CONCEPtS 58

Cultural Universals 59 • Nonmaterial Culture 60 • Material Culture 63

tHE SOCIOLOGICaL StUDY OF CULtUrE 64

Culture and Change: A “Cultural Turn” in Sociology? 64 • Early Human Culture: Greater Adaptation to Physical Environment 65 • Industrial Societies 69

rESEarCH tODaY: UNDErStaNDING tHE MODErN WOrLD 71

The Global South 72 • Contemporary Industrial Societies: Cultural Conformity or Diversity? 74

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 80

Does Nature or Nurture More Powerfully Influence Human Behavior? 80 • Does the Internet Promote a Global Culture? 82 • Does Globalization Weaken or Strengthen Local Cultures? 84 • How Easily Do Cultures Change? 85

SOCIaLIZatION aND tHE LIFE COUrSE 91

BaSIC CONCEPtS 94

Agents of Socialization 94 • Social Roles 99 • Identity 100 • Socialization through the Life Course 101

tHEOrIES OF SOCIaLIZatION 105

G. H. Mead and the Development of Self 106 • Charles Horton Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self 106 • Jean Piaget and the Stages of Cognitive Development 107 • Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Gender Identity 109 • Nancy Chodorow’s Theory of Gender Identity 109 • Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development 110

rESEarCH ON SOCIaLIZatION tODaY: raCE SOCIaLIZatION 110

Race Socialization 110

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 113

Are Gender Differences Caused by Social Influences? 113 • Is It Possible to Practice Nonsexist Child Rearing? 116 • How Do Children Learn to Bully? Can They Unlearn? 116

SOCIaL INtEraCtION aND EVErYDaY LIFE IN tHE aGE OF tHE INtErNEt 121

BaSIC CONCEPtS 123

Impression Management: The World as a Stage 123 • Audience Segregation 126 • Civil Inattention 126 • Nonverbal Communication 127 • Response Cries 129 • Focused and Unfocused Interaction 130 • Interaction in Time and Space 131

tHEOrIES OF SOCIaL INtEraCtION 132

Erving Goffman 132 • Edward T. Hall—Personal Space 133 • Harold Garfinkel: Ethnomethodology 134

CONtEMPOrarY rESEarCH ON SOCIaL INtEraCtION 136

Interactional Vandalism 136 • Interaction on the “Digital Street” 139 • The Macro-Micro Link: Anderson’s Streetwise 140

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Contents vii

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 143

How Do We Manage Impressions in the Internet Age 143 • What Happens When Dating Moves Online? 143 • How Far Can Electronic Communication Substitute for Face-to-Face Communication? 145

GrOUPS, NEtWOrKS, aND OrGaNIZatIONS 151

BaSIC CONCEPtS 153

Groups 153 • Conformity 155 • Organizations 157 • Networks 158

tHEOrIES OF GrOUPS, OrGaNIZatIONS, aND NEtWOrKS 159

In-Groups and Out-Groups 159 • Reference Groups 159 • The Effects of Size 160 • Theories of Organizations 162

CONtEMPOrarY rESEarCH ON GrOUPS aND NEtWOrKS 167

The “McDonaldization” of Society? 167 • Personal Taste 168 • Obesity 169 • The Internet as Social Network 170

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 171

Is Democracy Meaningless in the Face of Increasingly Powerful Bureaucratic Organizations? 171 • How Are Late-Modern Organizations Reinventing Themselves? 172 • Can the Traditional Organization Survive? 174

CONFOrMItY, DEVIaNCE, aND CrIME 179

BaSIC CONCEPtS 181

What Is Deviance? 181 • Norms and Sanctions 183

SOCIEtY aND CrIME: SOCIOLOGICaL tHEOrIES 184

Functionalist Theories 184 • Interactionist Theories 186 • Conflict Theory 188 • Control Theory 189 • Theoretical Conclusions 191

rESEarCH ON CrIME aND DEVIaNCE tODaY 191

Race and the Criminal Justice System 191 • Mass Incarceration 192 • The Death Penalty 194 • Security and Terrorism 195 • Reporting on Crime and Crime Statistics 196 • Victims and Perpetrators of Crime 198

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 203

Why Have Crime Rates Gone Down? 203 • Can We Reduce Crime through New Policing Techniques? 204 • Will New Surveillance Technologies Eliminate Deviance? 206 • Can We Prevent Crime by Building Stronger Communities? 208

Part III: StrUCtUrES OF POWEr 213

StratIFICatION, CLaSS, aND INEQUaLItY 215

BaSIC CONCEPtS 217

Systems of Stratification 217

tHEOrIES OF StratIFICatION IN MODErN SOCIEtIES 224

Marx: Means of Production and the Analysis of Class 224 • Weber: Class and Status 225 • Davis and Moore: The Functions of Stratification 226 • Erik Olin Wright: Contradictory Class Locations 226

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viii Contents

rESEarCH ON SOCIaL StratIFICatION tODaY 228

A Contemporary Portrait of the U.S. Class Structure 228 • Social Mobility: Moving Up and Down the Ladder 233 • Poverty in the United States 236

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 242

Is Inequality Declining or Increasing in the United States? 242 • Why Are Poverty Rates Rising in the United States? The Sociological Debate 244 • What Can Be Done to Combat Poverty? 246 • How Will These Economic Patterns Affect Your Life? 247

GLOBaL INEQUaLItY 251

BaSIC CONCEPtS 253

High-Income Countries 254 • Middle-Income Countries 255 • Low-Income Countries 256

tHEOrIES OF GLOBaL INEQUaLItY 256

Market-Oriented Theories 257 • Dependency Theories 258 • World-Systems Theory 260 • Global Commodity-Chains Theory 262 • Evaluating Theories of Global Inequality 264

rESEarCH ON GLOBaL INEQUaLItY tODaY 265

Health 266 • Hunger and Malnutrition 267 • Education and Literacy 268

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 269

What Are the Causes of Inequality in the World Today? 269 • Is Global Poverty Increasing or Decreasing? 270 • What about Inequality within Countries? 271 • What Does Rapid Globalization Mean for the Future of Global Inequality? 272

GENDEr INEQUaLItY 279

BaSIC CONCEPtS 283

Understanding Sex Differences: The Role of Biology 284 • Gender Socialization: How Gender Differences Are Learned 286 • The Social Construction of Gender: How We Learn to “Do Gender” 288

SOCIOLOGICaL tHEOrIES OF GENDEr INEQUaLItIES 292

Functionalist Approaches 292 • Feminist Theories 294

rESEarCH ON GENDEr tODaY: DOCUMENtING aND UNDErStaNDING GENDEr INEQUaLItIES 298

Gendered Inequalities in Education: Unequal Treatment in the Classroom 299 • Gendered Inequalities in the Workplace 301 • Gendered Inequalities in Families: Division of Household Labor 310 • Gender Inequality in Politics 312

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS: WHY DO GENDEr INEQUaLItIES PErSISt? 313

The Gender Pay Gap: Why Do Women Earn Less Than Men? 313 • How Does Gender Inequality Affect Men? 316 • Why Are Women So Often the Targets of Violence? 317

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Contents ix

raCE, EtHNICItY, aND raCISM 325

BaSIC CONCEPtS 328

Race 328 • Ethnicity 329

tHINKING aBOUt raCISM 330

Defining Racism 330 • Racism in the United States Today 331

raCE aND raCISM IN HIStOrICaL aND COMParatIVE PErSPECtIVE 336

The Rise of Racism 338 • Blacks in the United States 339 • Hispanics and Latinos in the United States 341 • Asian Americans 343 • Models of Ethnic Integration 344 • Global Migration 344

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 347

Do New Immigrants Help or Hinder the Nation’s Economy? 347 • Has Real Progress Been Made Since the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s? 349 • How Can Ethnic Conflict Be Reduced? 354

aGING 359

BaSIC CONCEPtS 362

The Graying of Society 362 • How Do People Age? 363

GrOWING OLD: tHEOrIES OF aGING 367

The First Generation of Theories: Functionalism 367 • The Second Generation of Theories: Social Conflict 369 • The Third Generation of Theories: Life Course 369

rESEarCH ON aGING IN tHE UNItED StatES tODaY 370

Who Are America’s Older Adults? 370 • Poverty 372 • Social Isolation 374 • Prejudice 376 • Elder Abuse 377 • Health Problems 378 • Lifelong Learning 379

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS: tHE POLItICaL aND ECONOMIC IMPaCt OF POPULatION aGING 380

Do Older Americans Get an Unfair Amount of Government Support? 381 • Can Medicare and Social Security Survive the “Graying” of America? 382 • How Will Nations of the World Cope with Global Aging? 383

GOVErNMENt, POLItICaL POWEr, aND SOCIaL MOVEMENtS 389

BaSIC CONCEPtS 391

Democracy 391 • The Concept of the State 393

WHO rULES? tHEOrIES OF DEMOCraCY 396

Democratic Elitism 397 • Pluralist Theories 398 • The Power Elite 398

rECENt rESEarCH ON U.S. POLItICS aND SOCIaL MOVEMENtS 401

Democracy in the United States 401 • The Political Participation of Women 407 • Political Participation in the United States 409 • Political and Social Change through Social Movements 411 • The Nation-State, National Identity, and Globalization 422

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 423

Why Is Voter Turnout So Low in the United States? 423 • Did the Internet Shape the Outcome of the 2016 Presidential Election? 425 • Is Democracy in Trouble? 427

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x Contents

Part IV: SOCIaL INStItUtIONS 433

WOrK aND ECONOMIC LIFE 435

BaSIC CONCEPtS 438

tHEOrIES OF WOrK aND ECONOMIC LIFE 441

Types of Capitalism 441 • Fordism and Scientific Management (Taylorism) 443 • Post-Fordism 445 • The Informal Economy 449

CUrrENt rESEarCH ON WOrK aND ECONOMIC LIFE 451

Corporations and Corporate Power 451 • Workers and Their Challenges 457

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 467

Will Automation Make Things Better or Worse for Workers? 468 • What Will the Economy of the Future Look Like? 469 • How Permanent Is Your Job Likely to Be? 470

FaMILIES aND INtIMatE rELatIONSHIPS 475

BaSIC CONCEPtS 478

tHEOrEtICaL aND HIStOrICaL PErSPECtIVES ON FaMILIES 480

Sociological Theories of Families 480 • Historical Perspectives on Families 485

rESEarCH ON FaMILIES tODaY 488

Changes in Family Patterns Worldwide 488 • Marriage and Families in the United States 489 • The Dark Side of Families 507

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 509

Is Cohabitation a Substitute for Marriage? 509 • Does Living Together Help Reduce the Chances for Divorce? 511 • Do Children Raised by Same-Sex Parents Fare Differently Than Children Raised by Opposite-Sex Parents? 513 • Are Single People Less Happy Than Married People? 514

EDUCatION 519

BaSIC CONCEPtS 522

Achievement Gap: Components, Patterns, and Explanations 522 • Cognitive and Noncognitive Resources 523

SOCIOLOGICaL tHEOrIES OF EDUCatION 524

Assimilation 524 • Credentialism 525 • Hidden Curriculum 525 • Pierre Bourdieu and Cultural Capital 526

rESEarCH ON EDUCatION tODaY 528

Macrosocial Influences on Student Outcomes: Do Schools and Neighborhoods Matter? 528 • Cultural and Social-Psychological Influences on Student Outcomes 532 • Public-Policy Influences on Student Outcomes 535 • Global Perspectives: Education and Literacy in the Developing World 538 • The Impact of the Media and Educational Technology on Everyday Life 539

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 542

Is Intelligence Shaped by Genes or Environment? 542 • Is Homeschooling a Substitute for Traditional Schooling? 544 • Who Benefits from “International Education”? 545

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Contents xi

rELIGION IN MODErN SOCIEtY 551

BaSIC CONCEPtS 555

How Sociologists Think about Religion 556 • What Do Sociologists of Religion Study? 557 • Types of Religious Organizations 557

SOCIOLOGICaL tHEOrIES OF rELIGION 560

The Classical View 560 • Contemporary Approaches: Religious Economy 564 • Secularization: The Sociological Debate 565

tHE SOCIOLOGY OF rELIGION: CUrrENt rESEarCH 566

World Religions 567 • Religion in the United States 571 • New Religious Movements 575 • Religious Affiliation and Socioeconomic Status 579 • Gender and Religion 580 • The Global Rise of Religious Nationalism 583

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 587

Is America Experiencing Secularization or Religious Revival? 587 • How Resurgent Is Evangelicalism? 588 • Is Religious Violence on the Rise? 589

Part V: SOCIaL CHaNGE IN tHE MODErN WOrLD 595

tHE SOCIOLOGY OF tHE BODY: HEaLtH, ILLNESS, aND SEXUaLItY 597

BaSIC CONCEPtS 602

Changing Conceptions of Health, Illness, and Medicine 602 • Diverse Conceptions of Human Sexuality 603

tHEOrIES aND HIStOrICaL aPPrOaCHES tO UNDErStaNDING HEaLtH, ILLNESS, aND SEXUaLItY 606

Colonialism and the Spread of Disease 606 • Sociological Theories of Health and Illness 607 • History of Sexuality in Western Culture 612

rESEarCH ON HEaLtH, ILLNESS, aND SEXUaLItY tODaY 613

Social Patterning of Health and Illness in the United States 614 • Global Health Inequalities 621 • Contemporary Research on Sexual Behavior over the Life Course 624 • Reproduction in the Twenty-First Century: Pushing the Limits of Technology 629

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 631

Does Income Inequality Threaten Health? 631 • Is Alternative Medicine as Effective as “Mainstream” Medicine? 632 • Are Eating Disorders Primarily a “Women’s” Problem? 634 • Is Sexual Orientation Inborn or Learned? 636

POPULatION, UrBaNIZatION, aND tHE ENVIrONMENt 641

BaSIC CONCEPtS 643

Population Analysis: Demography 643 • Dynamics of Population Change 646

UrBaN SOCIOLOGY: SOME INFLUENtIaL tHEOrIES 649

The Chicago School 649 • Jane Jacobs: “Eyes and Ears upon the Street” 653 • Urbanism and the Created Environment 654 • Saskia Sassen: Global Cities 656

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rECENt rESEarCH ON POPULatION, UrBaNIZatION, aND tHE ENVIrONMENt 658

Premodern Cities 659 • The Rise of the Megalopolis 660 • Urbanization in the Global South 662 • Rural, Suburban, and Urban Life in the United States 665 • Population Growth, Urbanization, and Environmental Challenges 674

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 681

Is There a New Ecological Paradigm? 681 • Will Global Population Growth Outstrip Resources? 683

GLOBaLIZatION IN a CHaNGING WOrLD 689

BaSIC CONCEPtS 691

Social Change 692

CUrrENt tHEOrIES: IS GLOBaLIZatION tODaY SOMEtHING NEW—Or HaVE WE SEEN It aLL BEFOrE? 697

The Skeptics 697 • The Hyperglobalizers 699 • The Transformationalists 699 • Whose View Is Most Nearly Correct? 700

rECENt rESEarCH ON GLOBaLIZatION aND SOCIaL CHaNGE 701

Factors Contributing to Globalization 701 • The Effect of Globalization on Our Lives 705 • Globalization and Risk 708 • Globalization and Inequality 711

UNaNSWErED QUEStIONS 716

What Comes after Modern Industrial Society? 716 • Is There a Need for Global Governance? 717

GLOSSARY A1

BIBLIOGRAPHY A14

CREDITS A84

INDEX A86

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Preface xiii

Preface

W e wrote this book with the belief that sociology plays a key role in mod-ern intellectual culture and occupies a central place within the social sciences. We have aimed to write a book that combines classic theo- ries of sociology with empirically grounded studies and examples from real life that reveal the basic issues of interest to sociologists today. The book does not bring in overly sophisticated notions; nevertheless, ideas and findings drawn from the cut- ting edge of the discipline are incorporated throughout. We hope it is a fair and nonpartisan treatment; we endeavored to cover the major perspectives in sociol- ogy and the major findings of contemporary American research in an evenhanded, although not indiscriminate, way.

maJor tHEmES

The book is constructed around eight basic themes, each of which helps give the work a distinctive character. One of the central themes is the micro and macro link. At many points in the book, we show that interaction in micro-level contexts affects larger, or macro-level, social processes, and that these macro-level pro- cesses influence our day-to-day lives. We emphasize that one can better under- stand a social situation by analyzing it at both the micro and macro levels.

A second theme is that of the world in change. Sociology was born out of the transformations that wrenched the industrializing social order of the West away from the ways of life that characterized earlier societies. The world created by these changes is the primary object of sociological analysis. The pace of social change has continued to accelerate, and it is possible that we stand on the threshold of transitions as significant as those that occurred in the late eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries. Sociology has prime responsibility for charting the transforma- tions of the past and grasping the major lines of development taking place today.

Another fundamental theme is the globalization of social life. For far too long, sociology has been dominated by the view that societies can be studied as independent and distinctive entities. But even in the past, societies never really existed in isolation. In current times, we can see a clear acceleration in processes of global integration. This is obvious, for example, in the expansion of international trade across the world, or the use of social media, which played a key role in recent popular uprisings against repressive governments throughout the Middle East. The emphasis on globalization also connects closely with the weight given to the interdependence of the industrialized and developing worlds today.

The book also focuses on the importance of comparative study. Sociology cannot be taught solely by understanding the institutions of any one particular

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society. Although we have focused our discussion primarily on the United States, we have balanced it with a rich variety of materials drawn from other cultures. These include research carried out in other Western countries and in Russia and eastern European societies, which are currently undergoing substantial changes. The book also includes much more material on developing countries than has been usual in introductory texts. In addition, we strongly emphasize the relationship between sociology and anthropology, whose concerns often overlap. Given the close connections that now mesh societies across the world and the virtual disappear- ance of traditional social systems, sociology and anthropology have increasingly become indistinguishable.

A fifth theme is the necessity of taking a historical approach to sociology. This involves more than just filling in the historical context within which events occur. One of the most important developments in sociology over the past few years has been an increasing emphasis on historical analysis. This should be understood not solely as applying a sociological outlook to the past but as a way of contributing to our understanding of institutions in the present. Recent work in historical soci- ology is discussed throughout the text and provides a framework for the interpreta- tions offered in the chapters.

Throughout the text, particular attention is given to a sixth theme—issues of social class, gender, and race. The study of social differentiation is ordinarily regarded as a series of specific fields within sociology as a whole—and this volume contains chapters that specifically explore thinking and research on each sub- ject (Chapters 8, 10, and 11, respectively). However, questions about gender, race, and class relations are so fundamental to sociological analysis that they cannot simply be considered a subdivision. Thus many chapters contain sections con- cerned with the ways that multiple sources of social stratification shape the human experience.

A seventh theme is that a strong grasp of sociological research methods is crucial for understanding the world around us. A strong understanding of how social science research is conducted is crucial for interpreting and making sense of the many social “facts” that the media trumpet.

The final major theme is the relation between the social and the personal. Sociological thinking is a vital help to self-understanding, which in turn can be focused back on an improved understanding of the social world. Studying sociology should be a liberating experience: The field enlarges our sympathies and imagina- tion, opens up new perspectives on the sources of our own behavior, and creates an awareness of cultural settings different from our own. Insofar as sociological ideas challenge dogma, teach appreciation of cultural variety, and allow us insight into the working of social institutions, the practice of sociology enhances the possibili- ties of human freedom.

orGanIZatIon

Every chapter in the Eleventh Edition follows the same structure, making it easier for students to study. Each chapter opens with an attention-grabbing question that challenges students’ misconceptions about the topic.

Each chapter is broken down into four sections: