Is the makapansgat pebble considered art

An Introduction to Understanding Art & Understanding Terminology and Principles Used By Artists

Discuss artwork from various time periods, movements, styles, and artists throughout history.

Compare and contrast artwork from different cultures and artists.

Formulate and defend an aesthetic sensibility for beauty as it relates to the appreciation of what is defined as art.

Identify important artists and architects throughout history and explain the underlying meaning in the artwork of these artists.

Show a basic understanding of the uses and purposes of the visual arts, the principals of design, the materials involved in making art, and the applied language and terminology of art.

Think critically about a work of art to understand the way the artist conveys intellectual, emotional, and/or aesthetic concepts.

Demonstrate an understanding of the visual elements and principals of design that relate to works of art.

Analyze works of art by various artists throughout history.

ObjectivesIntroduction

n appreciation of art is impossible without an understanding of art.

Most people think that art is something creative that someone

makes. Does this mean that everything that someone makes by hand

is art? What indeed should be classified as art? Is it even possible to

give art a precise definition? A difficult question may be this: What is

not art? An even more difficult question might involve beauty. Aesthet-

ics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the study of beauty. This

relates to art because one often thinks of art as beautiful. How does

one truly define beauty? Is all art beautiful? These questions will be

addressed throughout this course in art appreciation. An apprecia-

tion of art will be achieved through the study of what artists make,

the methods that are used to make art, and a study of art history that

begins 30,000 B.C. in the caves of France and Spain. This survey of

art history will continue to the present day where artists use many non

traditional media and do things that many people might find difficult

to understand. When seen in sequence of world history, it is appar-

ent that the age old fact remains true that art in some way reflects the

culture of the people who make it.

A

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Gaining knowledge of the way art is described, the terminology used by artists, and the methods that artists use in creating works of art will be imperative to the understanding of the remaining lessons. Many of the terms used to describe art are easily understood while others require more study. Looking at ordinary manufactured objects can help one to understand many of these principles. They are not only used in fine art but in the everyday world as well.

Introduction to Art

It is believed that life first began in Africa millions of years ago. This is much earlier than the earliest known work of art which Carbon-14 dates to around 30,000 B.C. (Also known as radiocarbon dating, Carbon-14 dating refers to the rate that carbon 14 degenerates in organic matter (Gardner 23.)

The first work is of a water-worn ironstone pebble referred to by art historians as the Makapansgat Pebble. This pebble was found very close to the remains of an early human known as Australophithecus who lived about three million years ago in South Africa. The pebble, which was found in 1925, is believed to have been something that this early human found in a large source about 20 miles from the cave where it was discovered. This small pebble closely resembles a face. It is possible that Australophithecus kept the pebble until death because it bears an unusual resemblance to a face. (Gardner 15)

With these thoughts in mind, should the Makapansgat Pebble be considered art? It does not have any human intervention as does the sculpture referred to by art historians as the Venus of Willendorf. While the name Venus may be misleading, it refers to the Greek and Roman goddess of beauty and love.

Venus, in Greek and Roman times, was typically depicted in the nude and therefore the archaeologists who discovered these Paleolithic sculptures of women referred to them as Venuses. The name Willendorf comes from the place in Austria where it was found. The Venus of Willendorf which Carbon-14 dates to around 28,000 B.C. is made of limestone and is only 4 1/4” tall. It was probably worn around the neck as a good luck amulet to ensure a woman’s fertility. Historians believe that these Paleolithic images of women, Venuses, served as fertility images based on the qualities that have been accentuated: the parts of a woman’s body which are associated with childbirth - the pubic triangle, the large breasts, and the large stomach. The arms which are folded across her breasts, the legs, and the facial features are less dominant. This early work was made using a chisel and a burin and finished by applying red ochre. (Gardner 17-18)

makapansgat pebble

Venus of Willendorf (photo by MatthiasKabel)

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The Venus of Willendorf is one of the earliest works of art from a time period known as the Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age. It is considered art because it was altered by human intervention. The Makapansgat Pebble is simply an object that an early human recognized as something worth keeping and it does not have human intervention involved in its making. Therefore it is not considered art even though it may show that early humans possessed creativity. A similar instance might be like looking at the clouds and finding images of things that are recognizable. This is not considered art but it is creative because there are many different things that might be seen in the same bunch of clouds. The sculptural work titled Fountain was produced in 1917 by Marcel Duchamp. It clearly can be identified as a urinal which is signed “R.Mutt 1917.” Duchamp defended the work with the following statement: “Whether Mr. Mutt with his own hands made the fountain or not has no importance. He chose it. He took an ordinary article of life, placed it so that its useful significance disappeared under the new title and point of view – created a new thought for that object.” (Schwartz, The Complete Works of Marcel Duchamp, London: Thames & Hudson, 1965, 466) This work was part of a series of works known as “ready-made” sculptures. They consisted of found objects that were selected by the artist and presented to the viewer as art. Duchamp was primarily a painter before becoming part of a movement known as Dadaism. The Dadaists believed that the society they were living in was aesthetically bankrupt and reacted to this culture by presenting what they felt was anti-art. Nonetheless Duchamp with his ready – mades freed future artists to use ordinary found objects as valid sculptural materials. Today most artists do not simply take an object such as a urinal, turn it on its side, and call it a fountain as Duchamp did. Some sculptors do however use things such as machine parts, car bumpers, and other manufactured objects as components in their work.

The three sculptures that were just explored must be seen in context of the chronology of art history. While art is a difficult term to define, the advancements of each period in art history will shed light on the consideration of what is art versus what is not art. Art began with the earliest human intervention with sculptures of such as the Venus of Willendorf and has progressed to include works such as Fountain by Marcel Duchamp. The Makapansgat Pebble however can not be given the same consideration as Duchamp’s ready – made sculptures. The revolutionary ideas of the past century cannot be used to identify objects from the remote past. Therefore art begins with humankind’s most basic needs and progresses with

Fountain by Marcel Duchamp

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the advancement of time. Food, shelter and the survival of the species were no doubt the concerns of the nomadic humans in Paleolithic times. Here it is evident that the art that was made such as the Venus of Willendorf reflects the most basic need of reproduction and survival.

Understanding the meaning of good as it relates to art

Paleolithic cave paintings have been found mostly in Southern France, Northern Spain, and Northern Africa. One of the most famous caves is the Lascaux cave in France which is known for the “Hall of the Bulls.” By first looking at these works, should they be considered good works of art? Why or why not? Early humans made these paintings deep within the caves, which show no signs of domestic habitation. It is believed that the images on the walls served a purpose, which was connected to the basic need for food and thus survival. The images such as those in the Hall of the Bulls were made over a series of generations and probably used for ceremonies to ensure a successful hunt. This is still debated however after the discovery of the paintings in the Chauvet Cave in France in 1995. There were many types of animals painted that were not part the Paleolithic diet such as lions and bears. Many things are unknown about art from Paleolithic times, but one can use these works to understand the culture of these early nomads who no doubt focused on survival.

The next image may be universally agreed upon as good art. This is the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. The painting itself is relatively small, 30” x 21,” but it is probably the most famous portrait in the world. The technique that da Vinci used in 1503 called sfumato, was a very sophisticated technique compared to the simple red and ochre pigments used by

Paleolithic artists. Da Vinci’s famous technique, known for its effect of misty haziness, was created by layering many transparent glazes of oil paint on top of one another. Each of these thin layers was allowed to dry before another could be added. While many people debate the identity of the sitter of this portrait, it is believed to be a wealthy woman from Florence, Italy whose first name was Lisa. The name Mona is a contraction of the Italian term ma donna which means my lady. (Gardner 617-8) Nevertheless, does all of the fame and skill that is associated with the Mona Lisa qualify it to be considered a better work than the paintings of Lascaux? Which of these is the most beautiful? Is it even possible to make judgments such as these?

The next image that will be considered in

Mona Lisa Leonardo Da Vinci

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the quest for determining what is good art is an abstract expressionist action painting by Jackson Pollock. Without understanding the chronology and the progression of art history it can be very difficult to appreciate a work such as this one. Many people may say that it looks like something any five year old could do. Yet in order for Pollock to be able to create a work such as this there had to be a journey that he undertook. He studied with the realist painter Thomas Hart Benton and his early work is similar in style to that of his teacher. Eventually he broke away from this style of figurative painting and began painting abstractly. The work that Pollock is best known for, however, are those he painted onto canvases laying directly on the floor while he stood in the paintings themselves. He would use ordinary house paint and drip the painting with a brush or a stick. In 1950 when photographs of Pollock were published in Time magazine, which called him Jack the Dripper, the art world was shocked to see a painter working in such a way. Pollock would listen to jazz music while he painted and use the rhythm of the music to create non-representational patterns on canvas. Should a work such as this be considered good art? Pollock’s work can be seen in many famous museums throughout the world and his paintings would even sell by the yard during his lifetime. In order to understand the breaking away from the traditional methods that Pollock experienced, the artist Pablo Picasso will now be examined.

The name Picasso is a household name to most people in the Western world, but many people know only of his fame as an abstract artist. Pablo Picasso was a Spanish artist who lived most of his life in France. Paris was then the art capital of the world. Picasso’s father was an art teacher and by the time Picasso was a teenager he had already surpassed what it had taken his father an entire lifetime to learn. Young Picasso could paint and draw as well as the Renaissance masters at a very early age. Despite his enormous skill in capturing realism, Picasso decided to take a more creative approach to art making and become part of the evolution of twentieth century art history. His work pushed many boundaries just like the later work of Jackson Pollock. Picasso completely departed from the realist work of his teenage years to create the works for which he is most remembered. One of these works is Guernica. It is difficult to imagine the impact of this work without actually viewing it in person. Its size is 11’5 1/2” x 25’ 5 3/4.” Picasso chose to use black, white and grey to create a newspaper effect to represent the grave tragedy. The painting reflects aspects of Cubism, a style invented by Picasso, in the geometric shapes that look like they were cut out of a newspaper. The event depicted is the bombing of the innocent capital of the Basque speaking region of Spain. During World War II, Spanish rebel

Lavendar Mist by Jackson Pollock

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general Francisco Franco granted Hitler permission to test air bombs on the area. Many of the 7,000 citizens were killed or wounded and the area was totally devastated. Picasso was compelled to create this work for a commission he had for the Paris International Exposition of 1937, and used his artwork to make a political and social statement about the horrors of war that could be readily seen by the public.

Picasso, just like Jackson Pollock, underwent a progression in his work. In order to be able to paint abstractly it was imperative that both of these artists understood all of the visual principals of art and had mastered the ability to create academic (or realist) works. They both broke away from the traditional mold and did things with their art that influenced other art movements in the twentieth century. With a greater understanding of the visual principals of art will come a greater appreciation and a broader sense of what should be considered a good work of art.

Developing a personal definition for beauty

Aesthetics, an important part of art that branches into the realm of philosophy, deals with the beautiful and the study of what is beauty in art. The ancient Greeks believed very strongly in ideal beauty. They believed that beauty could be found in mathematical repetitions and sequences such as the Golden Mean. Their architecture and sculpture strictly followed these mathematical proportions and harmonies in order to demonstrate the ideal beauty found in mathematics. When the word beauty is mentioned, many people today may think of their favorite actor or actress in Hollywood or a model that they wished they looked

Guernica Pablo Picasso

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like. Often, figures such as these are seen by ordinary people as having perfect bodies and exciting lives. The idea of idealizing people that we admire is nothing new. Sculptures of gods and goddesses in ancient Greece, which constitute the majority of the Greek art that survives, were always represented flawlessly. The ancient Greeks even were interested in the lives of their deities, which were recounted in mythology. Nonetheless, do figures such as these define the word beauty because they might be seen as being perfect?

Is it possible that the catchy phrase, “Beauty is only skin deep,” might be false? By examining a Japanese tea bowl that upon first impression appears to be a simple old pot without any sort of sophistication, the ideals of another culture may shed light on the definition of beauty. This meager bowl is very important to the Japanese religion known as Zen Buddhism. It is clear that the tea bowl has the qualities of naturalness, simplicity, understatement, and impermanence as well as loneliness, old age, and tranquility. These are the most central qualities of the two most important concepts in this religion. Therefore something that may be overlooked in comparison to a fancy crystal bowl in Western culture is something that by its simplicity represents many facets of Zen Buddhism. Through contemplating the characteristics of this tea bowl, Japanese can find a form of beauty that comes from the understanding of the importance of the qualities that the tea bowl portrays to the lives of Zen Buddhists. After learning about other cultures, traditions, and even the way that art evolves, one can come to have a deep appreciation of these things as a result of understanding them.

By examining Chronos (Saturn) Devouring One of His Children by Francisco de Goya, it may be said that this is a gruesome and nightmarish image. De Goya was a Romantic painter in the early 19th century who painted many pleasing works for patrons such as King Charles IV of France. He chose to create works such as this one at his farmhouse outside Madrid for the sole purpose of his own personal viewing. They reflect his inner outlook on human kind which is clearly pessimistic. This could be a result of his poor health at the time as well as the many injustices that were around him throughout his life. The painting represents the Greek god Chronos whose name is associated with time. From this association the painting expresses the despair over the passing of time as Chronos devours his son. Sadness over the passing of time is something that all humans will probably experience at some point in their lives. Through the

Chronos (Saturn) Devouring One of His

Children by Francisco de Goya

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understanding of the personal meaning behind the work is it possible to find meaning and therefore beauty in such a gruesome image?

Another work that might arouse discussion of the term beauty is the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington D.C. designed by Maya Lin in 1982. The memorial is made of black granite and has the names of about 58,000 Americans engraved in it. The war that it represents is an unforgettable event in which many people lost their lives. Maya Lin designed the memorial when she was only twenty-two years old and an architecture student at Yale University. Her intent for the memorial was to cut into the earth like a wound that would later heal. She wrote about the work, “I had a simple impulse to

cut into the earth, opening it up, an initial violence and pain that in time would heal. The grass would grow back, but the initial cut would remain a pure flat surface in the earth with a polished, mirrored surface, much like the surface on a geode when you cut it and polish the edge.” Engraved with the names of the dead, the surface “would be an interface, between our world and the quieter, darker, more peaceful world beyond…I never looked at the memorial as a wall, an object, but as an edge to the earth, an opened side.”

Despite the deadly war that the memorial depicts, is it possible to find beauty in the Vietnam Veterans Memorial based on what it represents? Beauty is something that is constantly debated and discussed and can represent different things for different people. Through knowledge and understanding of things such as different cultures, art, history, people, world events, and many other aspects of life, it is possible to find beauty in these things. When one learns to find beauty it is evident that one has gained an understanding and therefore an appreciation for these things. In order to understand and appreciate a broad variety of different kinds of art other than the things one might like prior to its study, it is important to learn about the media that are involved in art making, the processes that artists undergo to make their art, the history and development of art since Paleolithic times, and the cultural influences that have affected the art.

What Purpose Does Art Serve?

The works that have been studied so far each have a distinct purpose for the artists who made them as well as for those who are meant to view them. For instance the Venus of Willendorf was a fertility goddess and the cave paintings of Lascaux were probably made to ensure a successful hunt. These were important parts of the culture and the daily life of the people who made them. Another work that serves both a meditative and functional role in daily life is the Japanese tea bowl discussed in section 1.3. This small bowl also serves a role in the tea ceremony, an important part of the Buddhist religion.

Vietnam Veterans Memorial Maya Lin

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Religious or sacred art has been a subject of art for thousands of years. As mentioned earlier, the ancient Greeks believed in many gods and goddesses which were typically the subjects of their sculptures. The image of Venus de Milo is one of the most famous Greek sculptures. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is seen as better than life and is idealized to depict the perfect image of female beauty. She was the first female in Greek art to be depicted nude, a controversial event for the time, as she modestly grasps her robe at her waist. Greek art continued to portray gods and goddesses until the reign of Constantine the Great, who established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire.

Since it is written in the Ten Commandments that thou shalt not worship graven images, the idea of sculpture was no longer popular and was at one point even banned during early Christian times. With the rise of Christianity there was a decline in sculpture but an increase in architecture. Since Christians typically worship in a congregational format the need for architectural structures to house their worship ceremonies arose. Extravagant cathedrals were built during the periods known as Romanesque and Gothic which today house many great paintings from the Renaissance and time periods that follow. One of the most spectacular cathedrals in the so called Rayonnant style of French High Gothic architecture is Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.

As with many works of architecture, that of Sainte- Chapelle is meant to transform the experience of the worshippers into a holy one through the beauty found in the structure as well as the beauty of the light passing through its more than 6,450 square feet of stained glass. On the walls of many cathedrals are paintings that illustrate stories from the Bible. This leads into another purpose for art, which is to tell stories and recount historical events. One such example is the Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci which is located at the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. This fresco portrays Christ with his twelve disciples at the first ceremony of the Eucharist in which Christ and the disciples eat together and share the bread and wine, which is symbolic for the body and blood of Christ. Da Vinci depicts the moment after Christ said, “One of you is about to betray me.” The disciples demonstrate the intensity of this statement and ask Christ, “Is it I?”

The theme of the Last Supper was not only explored by da Vinci, but it has been painted by various artists throughout history, and many of these paintings can still be seen on church walls today.

Venus de Milo

Saint-Chapelle

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The next purposes of art will be explored by studying the Egyptian pyramids of Giza made during the Old Kingdom. Politics, social status, and daily life are predominant themes of Egyptian art as well as themes found in many other cultures and artists’ work. While almost all Egyptian art was made for the purpose of the afterlife, the pyramids were what housed this art as

well as the body of the dead pharaoh and all of the things he would need for the afterlife. The pharaoh was very important to the Egyptians. Besides being the earthly ruler of the Egyptian kingdom, the pharaoh was considered a junior god while alive. After the pharaoh’s death, he rejoined the other Egyptian gods and was worshipped as fully divine. The riches that have been found buried with pharaohs attest to the great position that the pharaoh held in society. While many of the Egyptian pyramids were robbed very soon after the pharaoh was buried, a few were not. One of these is the grave of King Tutankhamen. King Tut, as many know him,

The Last Supper Leonardo da Vinci

Egyptian Pyramids

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was not a major ruler in Egyptian history much to the surprise of most people. He is probably the best known pharaoh simply because his tomb was never robbed. Some of the sculptures found demonstrate the Egyptian belief that the afterlife was just like life on Earth except that it had no end; therefore many Egyptian works show simple scenes from daily life. The subjects of art do not always need to have complex symbolism and deep meaning. Many artists throughout history have depicted what was happening in the daily lives of ordinary people.

Besides using daily life for a subject for art, many artists choose to depict the beauty of nature and their surroundings in their work. College art students often experience plein air drawing, French for open air drawing. This means the artists sit outside and draw or paint what they see around them. The impressionists, one of the most popular groups of artists, did this in the 19th century. With the invention of tubes of paint they no longer were required to spend hours grinding pigments and mixing paint. Taking the tubes of paint outdoors became very easy. The popularity of plein air painting continues today.

While the everyday things that an artist observes are often the subjects for art, artists also use their imagination to invent worlds that are purely fantasy. One artist who does this is Sandy Skoglund. While her work is primarily seen through large scale photographs, she uses many other skills to create the sets for these photographs. As in Radioactive Cats, she sculpts and paints

Radioactive Cats Sandy Skoglund

(Photo by Sandy Skoglund)

Example of Plein Air Painting

Claude Monet Painting by the Edge

of the Wood John Singer Sargent

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the cats and arranges the entire scene before ever picking up her camera. The world of glowing radioactive cats is one that the world hopes to never see, yet it is also one that Skoglund has imagined with the danger of nuclear weapons in mind.

Here it is evident that the realities of a culture such as the one of the world today are reflected in the work of artists. By learning to appreciate art, one can gain a deeper understanding of the world that one lives in and the variety of people who inhabit it.

Finally, art is not always created for one of the purposes previously mentioned. It is often created simply to advance the idea of “what is art?” When art from the twentieth century is explored in depth it will be clearer why artists choose this as a theme. In the Western world, artists have been making advancements since the Renaissance. By the time the twentieth century arrived artists began to push the limits of what art really was. Cubism, installation art, and many other art forms are a result of artists such as Picasso creating new approaches to what they had been taught.

Basic Terminology Used to Describe Art

A discussion about art is difficult without knowing the meaning of the terms used to describe art. The following section will explain some of the important terminology used to describe artworks and give an example of an artwork that uses each term.

Representational is a term used to describe art that presents the visible world in a recognizable way. What the artist presents is very similar to something that one might encounter in real life. An example of a representational painting is by Alice Neel, a 20th century figurative painter.

Naturalistic is a term that is similar to representational. It refers to a narrower range of subjects. These subjects record many details of real life that create a likeness that is similar to a photographic image. Naturalistic subjects are always representational but representational subjects are not necessary naturalistic. An example of a naturalistic (and representational) painting is First Communion by Pablo Picasso.

Pere Borrell del Caso, Escaping Criticism, 1874 Trompe l’oeil, a French term that means fool the eye, takes naturalistic work one step further so that the work almost convinces

My Mother Alice Neel

(Photo by Alice Neel)

Escaping Criticism Pere Borrell del Caso

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the eye that it is real. This type of representational work attempts to actually fool the eye into believing that it is real.

Pablo Picasso. (Spanish, 1881-1973). Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. Paris, June-July 1907 Abstract is a term that refers to a subject that an artist took from the natural world and changed or recreated in a new way so that it is less recognizable than a representational work. Some abstract works are more recognizable than others. While the artist Pablo Picasso explored a variety of styles, a good example of his abstract work can be seen in work from the cubist period. As long as the artist used real life subject matter for the starting point of a work, it is considered abstract.

Non representational subjects, also referred to as nonobjective, in art do not derive from the visible world. When an artist creates a work without thinking about a real life subject for a starting point and uses solely the imagination to create an original work, then it may be considered non representational (nonobjective). One of the first artists to delve into non representation was Vasily Kandinsky who sought to illustrate through paint the way that music and poetry sounded to the ear. Classical music, the sound of poetry, and non representational art are all intangible.

Style is a common word used to describe all works of art. It refers to the common characteristics of a group of works that are similar or it may also refer to the common traits of a particular artist or group of artists. Some things that may contribute to a style include similar brushstrokes, materials, subjects, techniques, and color combinations. One example of a style is cubism, the abstract style that was invented

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

Pablo Picasso

The Starry Night Vincent Van Gogh

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by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Another example of style can be seen in paintings by Vincent Van Gogh. Most of his later paintings have the common characteristic of thick paint, choppy brushstrokes, and distorted flame like areas.

Form and content are opposite terms. Form refers to the way that a work looks physically such as the size, shape, materials, color, and composition. The content refers to what the work of art is about, for example, the story or feeling that the artist wishes to convey to the viewer. The way the work of art has been organized or laid out is its form.

Iconography refers to the study and interpretation of images in art. usually religious. The Arnolfi Double Portrait by the Northern Renaissance artist Jan van Eyck contains many icons. It is believed that the painting depicts a marriage ceremony. Upon close examination of the mirror in the background, one can see that the painting actually contains four figures. The dog, an animal often associated with companionship, represents marital fidelity.

Installation Art Installation is a term that refers to a relatively new form of art. An installation is something that an artist created in a particular space in order to convey an idea, feeling, or to make a statement about something to the viewer. The experience of the space the artist creates is meant to leave the viewers with a new way of seeing or experiencing something. It can be installed in different spaces but often times the way a space looks dictates the way the installation is organized.

The Visual Elements of Design

The remainder of this lesson will focus on additional vocabulary terms relating to art. These are the same terms that all artists understand and study in their foundations classes in college. Many of these terms are implemented by designers and can be seen in places such as billboards, packages in the supermarket, web pages, newspapers, and many more. By understanding

the ingredients that go into making a work of art, one can be closer to an appreciation of an entire work of art on a new level.

Line is the most basic element in art. It is most often associated with drawing, but it is in actuality an important component to all works of art. A good line will captivate its audience and draw their eyes around it from beginning to end. An example of a sculptor whose work uses line is Judy Pfaff. Line is most frequently used in two dimensional media. The works of the 20th century artist Henri Matisse have a strong focus on line.

Learning to create art usually begins with the study of drawing. All other areas are dependent on this initial step. The two most

The Red Studio Henri Matisse

The Arnolfi Double Portrait Jan van Eyck

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basic types of line drawing are contour and gesture. A contour line is similar to the outline in a coloring book but it is also very different. While coloring books have thick, solid, and even boundaries, contour lines show line variety. This is one of the most beautiful yet difficult parts of drawing. Lines can be thick, thin, light or dark. Contour lines typically follow the outer boundaries of forms and do not cross into the interior of forms. Gesture lines are the types of lines that cross onto the inside of forms. A gestural line is a looser line such as the ones seen in drawings by Rembrandt. The lines give a first impression or feeling of the subject combined with the artist’s immediate reaction to the subject. They are usually spontaneous, expressive and lively.

Many times a work of art will create a particular mood, which is in part a result of the types of lines that are used in the work. For example, if the majority of the shapes in the composition are going from left to right or horizontally, the mood might be much different than a work in which most of the shapes are placed from top to bottom or vertically. The simple rule is that horizontal lines are the most stable and calming lines in nature. Vertical lines create a bit more instability but not nearly as much as diagonal lines. Diagonals are the most unstable lines and are often used in works that portray action and movement. Knowing these simple rules can help an artist create a particular effect in their work.

When an artist creates an artwork, the way the viewer’s attention is captured is important. The artist seeks to catch the viewer’s eye and draw it around the work from one point to the other. One way that this can be achieved is through implied lines. An example of an implied line is when somebody points at something. A dotted line could be another example. The imaginary line that the eye follows is called an implied line. This device is often used to draw a viewer’s eye from one part of a work to another.

The terms shape and mass are often used to describe works of art. Both of these terms can be described as either organic or geometric. Organic refers things that have characteristics of living things from the living world such as plants, humans, etcetera. Geometric refers to the regular shapes of geometry such as the circle, triangle, square, cube, pyramid, and sphere. Mass typically refers to the physical volume of space that a work such as a sculpture occupies. A shape refers to something that is on a two dimensional surface that is delineated with lines or edges. It can be either a positive or a negative shape. A positive shape refers to the area that the figure occupies. This is what one immediately looks at in the work. The negative shapes, however, are just as important for the artist to see and understand. Negative shapes are those that are found between the arms and legs, for instance, and are the opposite of the positive shapes around them. It is important for an artist to visualize the way that the negative shapes look and not focus solely on the arms, legs, et cetera. Understanding that negative shapes have as much importance to the composition of a piece as positive shapes have will lead to successful works of art.

Light is an important component in all visual arts. The way that light is

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perceived in a work of art can vary greatly and create much interest. When the subject appears three dimensional in a work that is two dimensional due to the strong light source the technique can be referred to as chiaroscuro, a term which refers to a modeling light which involves a strong light that is contrasted by a dark shadow. The light source is very clearly on one side and the shadows clearly fall on the opposite. Chiaroscuro is often used to give the effect of three dimensionality to a two dimensional work of art. Both the light and the cast shadow model the subject, a technique that was often used in Renaissance and Baroque art. A Baroque painter who is noted for using this technique is the Italian painter Caravaggio. It was also frequently used in the Renaissance by Leonardo da Vinci.

Photographers pay particularly close attention to light as well as to something called value. Value is very important to all areas of art. It creates interest and complexity to a work to set a certain mood. Value is organized according to a nine step value scale of increasing light and dark that begins with white and darkens to black. While many photographers seek to capture all nine values in their

work, others may wish to use a limited value to create a mystical mood. The landscape photographer Ansel Adams developed the zone system, a technique in which all nine values can be achieved in a black and white photograph.

While there is a definite difference in two dimensional and three dimensional art, both can have many of the same visual elements. One of these is texture. There are two types of texture: visual texture and actual texture. Visual texture is something that the eye perceives on a two dimensional work such as the cross hatching or directional hatching. This technique involves closely spaced parallel lines (hatching) which can overlap (cross hatching). Another form of visual texture is stippling or pointillism, patterns of many closely spaced dots. Pointillism was used in the paintings by the Impressionist artist Georges Seurat. Other forms of visual texture may be invented by artists but all have one thing in common, they are perceived by the eye and do not have texture that can be perceived by touching. One artist who used both visual texture and actual texture is Vincent van Gogh. Not only do his paintings have a repetitious component of visual texture that our eye perceives, but they also have a thick surface that has been created by using very thick paint, or impasto. While it is completely unacceptable to touch a Van Gogh painting (or any other work of art) in a museum, it is clear upon observing a real work by Van Gogh that he used both types of texture. Actual texture, or the type of texture that can be felt, is typically a technique that sculptors and architects use. Whether the texture is rough or smooth on the surface of a sculpture, this actual mass itself has some sort of texture inherent in its three dimensional form.

Death of the Virgin Michelangelo Caravaggio

La Parade Georges Seurat

Head of the Virgin Leonardo Da Vinci

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The final area of study in this section deals with the illusion of depth. Artists who work two dimensionally seek to create the illusion of a three dimensional space on a two dimensional surface. When depth is discussed in art, the basic techniques of showing depth in a work of art are through value, overlapping shapes, sizes that diminish as they get further away from the viewer, and perspective. The three types of perspective that will be discussed are linear perspective, isometric perspective and atmospheric perspective.

Linear perspective is typically what is used in Western art. To create a convincing illusion of depth through linear perspective, first the artist must observe the fact that as objects get further away they appear smaller. Looking down a railroad track or a long hallway is a good example of linear (often called one-point) perspective. The rails of the railroad track appear to come together at some point in the distance. This is

called the vanishing point. In order to create this illusion on paper, the artist must establish a vanishing point for the railroad track and draw the lines so that they gradually come closer together until they converge. Next the artist must draw the parallel rungs of the track so that they also get closer together as they approach the vanishing point. Linear perspective is often used by artists to lead the eye of the viewer deep into a work. When the artist is depicting objects, humans or animals versus landscapes and buildings, the concept of things further away from the viewer diminishing in size is referred to as foreshortening. Therefore in order to create a convincing illusion of depth, the artist must intentionally enlarge certain elements that are to appear closer.

Isometric perspective, a technique often used in Chinese art, is much different than linear perspective yet it is similar in that it is a method of showing depth. While in Western cultures parallel lines in nature converge at the vanishing point, in isometric perspective parallel lines in nature remain exactly parallel in the two dimensional work of art. The illusion is not convincing as is the illusion that linear perspective achieves, yet it is readily recognized as a method of showing things that are closer and further away in a work of art. Often the subjects located toward the bottom of a work are perceived as closer to the viewer even though they may be the same relative size to subjects closer to the top of the work.

The final type of perspective being discussed is atmospheric

The Dead Christ Andrea Mantegna

Isometric Perspective (Photo by senocular)

The Dead Christ Andrea Mantegna

Art Appreciation

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perspective (or aerial perspective). It can often be observed in mountain ranges and hills. When looking out across many mountains, they appear to become paler, bluer, and less distinct as the distance from the viewer increases. (Getlein 133) This is because the dust particles and moisture in the atmosphere scatter light. In actuality what one sees when looking at mountains that are very distant is atmosphere as well as mountains. Artists use this device to show depth in a work of art. Leonardo da Vinci was the first European artist to use atmospheric perspective.

The Visual Elements of Color

Color is another important component to works of art. An artist often chooses certain colors in order to capture a particular mood or to give the viewer a certain feeling when looking at the work. Without understanding the way colors relate to each other, it may be difficult to understand how and why an artist chooses particular colors in their work.

Colors are arranged according to the way that a ray of sunlight breaks down when passed through a prism. The ray is refracted into different colors which are arranged in the order of the colors of the rainbow. Sir Isaac Newton designed the color wheel, a system of organizing colors in a strategic way.

These colors relate to each other in a variety of ways and are referred to according to the following terminology. Red, yellow, and blue are the primary colors or the three basic colors that cannot be made by mixing any of the other colors. The secondary colors, green, violet, and orange, are located between two primary colors on the wheel and are made by mixing two primary colors together. Thus, the mixture of a primary and an adjacent secondary color yields a tertiary color such as yellow-green or red-violet.

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The official name for the colors on the color wheel is hue. A tint is a color that is made up of a hue plus white. A shade is a color that is made up of a hue plus black. When a hue is combined with black or white, the value of the hue will change to become darker or lighter. Colors are used in certain combinations known as color schemes to create a variety of effects. A warm color scheme uses predominantly warm colors or colors that are between red and yellow. Likewise, a cool color scheme uses colors that are on the opposite side of the color wheel in the blue and green family. A monochromatic color scheme uses one color such as red plus black and white (shades and tints of the red hue.) A complementary color scheme uses primarily complementary colors. Complementary colors are colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. Red and green, blue and orange, and yellow and violet are all complementary colors. When placed side by side, complementary colors create an effect known as simultaneous contrast in which each color appears more intense as a result of being next to it’s opposite. Another type of color scheme is known as an analogous color scheme. Here, colors that are adjacent to one another on the color wheel are used. All of these color schemes involve the use of a restricted palette, a term referring to the selective use of certain colors. The term open palette, however, refers to the use of a wide variety of colors that do not seem to follow any particular color scheme.

The way that color is perceived by the viewer may be different depending on their location to a work of art. The work of the Impressionists and Post Impressionists in the 19th century is a good example of a concept known as optical color mixing. For example, when standing in the Art Institute of Chicago ten feet away from the Post- Impressionist Georges Seurat’s painting A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, one does not notice that the painting is executed in a technique known as pointillism. When one approaches the painting at a closer distance it becomes clear that it is made of thousands of tiny dots that are precisely spaced. While most artists mix blue and yellow together on their palette to make green, Seurat would place a dot of blue next to a dot of yellow and so forth. This technique enables the eye to visually mix the colors together when standing at a distance and to separate them when standing closer. Part of the beauty of the painting is found in the magic of this technique.

Design Principles

This section on artistic terminology concludes with the study of the way designs are composed. The term design refers to all of the elements that contribute to the way that a work of art is organized. The term composition may be used in the same way as design when referring to two dimensional works of art. The following visual elements are used constantly by artists, designers, architects, and many others who work in a creative environment.