La espiga jefferson oregon menu

Acculturation

Assignment: This assignment is based on the information you gathered from your Cultural Interview assignment or from another culture of your choice. It includes both a book on acculturation you will create for children and Acculturation Summary paper with an introduction, table, and reflection/conclusion. Instructions for each are detailed below.

Components of Acculturation Summary paper:

Write an introduction paragraph identifying the culture of your interviewee from the Cultural Interview assignment and briefly describe immigration patterns, current demographics, and socioeconomic status of this culture in the United States. (~1 paragraph, or ½ page double-spaced)
Compare and contrast this culture as viewed in the native homeland and how the people in this culture typically change after migrating to the United States by completing the table below. You MUST the table provided in these instructions to receive full credit. Use the textbook to address the culture in their native homeland versus their culture after US migration.
For example, if you wish to examine the Japanese culture, for the first point in the table (Religion), you will write about religious beliefs of Japanese people living in Japan then identify how those religious beliefs change after migrating to the United States.
Cite the sources of your information within the table using the APA format. Include the full reference in the “Reference” section of your paper.
Write a Reflection section (~1-paragraph, or ½ to 1 page double spaced) based on what you have learned about the acculturation of your chosen culture to the US. Include answers to the following questions:
What “Key Points” from the table seem to change the most and the least?
Do they tend to mostly adopt the US lifestyle or keep more of their own cultural practices?
Additional Details:

This paper should be 1 to 2 pages (not including the table) and formatted as outlined in the syllabus.
DO NOT double space the information in the table, but the introduction and conclusion paragraphs should be double spaced.
NOTE: Reference Pages is not counted towards the minimum requirement for page length.
Spelling and grammar should be correct. Note: Do not use your subject's actual name in the paper. Instead use initials.
You MUST submit your assignment using the Assignment Tool (TurnItIn). Do NOT e-mail your assignment as it will not be accepted.
The grading rubric has been provided so you know exactly what is expected of you. Please make sure you cover ALL the components that have been requested of you. Points will be deducted if you omit any areas, even if the paper is beautifully written.

5 REASONS to buy your textbooks

and course materials at

SAVINGS: Prices up to 75% off, daily coupons, and free shipping on orders over $25

CHOICE: Multiple format options including textbook, eBook and eChapter rentals

CONVENIENCE: Anytime, anywhere access of eBooks or eChapters via mobile devices

SERVICE: Free eBook access while your text ships, and instant access to online homework products

STUDY TOOLS: Study tools* for your text, plus writing, research, career and job search resources *availability varies

1

2

3

4

5

Find your course materials and start saving at: www.cengagebrain.com

Engaged with you. www.cengage.com

Source Code: 14M-AA0107

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

Food and

Culture

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

7e

Food and Culture

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

Pamela Goyan Kittler, MS Food, Culture, and Nutrition Consultant

Kathryn P. Sucher, ScD, RDN Department of Nutrition and Food Science San Jose State University

Marcia Nahikian-Nelms, PhD, RDN, LD, CNSC Medical Dietetics, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed

content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For

valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN, author, title, or keyword for

materials in your areas of interest.

Important notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version.

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

© 2017, 2012 Cengage Learning

WCN: 01-100-101

Food and Culture, Seventh Edition Pamela Goyan Kittler, Kathryn P. Sucher, Marcia Nahikian-Nelms

Product Director: Dawn Giovanniello

Product Manager: Krista Mastroianni

Content Developer: Kellie Pettruzelli

Product Assistant: Victor Luu

Senior Content Project Manager: Tanya Nigh

Art Director and Cover Designer: Michael Cook

IP Analyst: Christine Myaskovsky

IP Project Manager: Farah Fard

Manufacturing Planner: Karen Hunt

Production Service and Compositor: SPi Global

Photo and Text Researcher: Lumina Datamatics Ltd.

Text Designer: Lisa Buckley

Cover Image: Shutterstock/phototy; Istock/AlfaOlga

Interior Design Images: 269965676 Shutterstock; Getty 186839262; Getty Images 183878381

For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.

For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.

Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com.

Cengage Learning 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representa- tive at www.cengage.com.

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015947527

ISBN-13: 978-1-305-62805-2

Printed in Canada Print Number: 02 Print Year: 2016

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

v

What Is Health? 39 Cultural Definitions of Health 39 Health Maintenance 40

Disease, Illness, and Sickness 42 Cultural Definitions of Disease, Illness, and Sickness 42 Healing Practices 46

Pluralistic Health Care Systems 50 Medical Pluralism 50 Biomedical Healing 50

3 Intercultural Communication 56 The Intercultural Challenge 56

Intercultural Communication Concepts 57

Verbal Communication 58 Nonverbal Communication 62

Role of Communication in Health Care 64

Interaction between Provider and Client 64 Responsibilities of the Health Care Provider 66

Successful Intercultural Communication 66

Intercultural Communication Skills 66 Intercultural Counseling 69 Intercultural Nutrition Assessment 71

Intercultural Nutrition Education 73 Culturally Relevant Program Preparation 74 Implementation Strategies 76

Contents

Preface ix

1 Food and Culture 1 What Is Food? 1

The Omnivore’s Paradox 2 Self-Identity 2 Symbolic Use of Food 3 Cultural Identity 4

What Is Culture? 6 The Acculturation Process 6 Acculturation of Food Habits 6

Cultural Food Habits 7 Core and Complementary Foods Model 7 Flavor Principles 8 Meal Patterns and Meal Cycles 10 Developmental Perspective of Food Culture 11

Individual Food Habits 12 Food Availability 12 Edible or Inedible? 13 Consumer Food Choice Model 13

Nutrition and Food Habits 18 The Need for Cultural Competency 18 Intercultural Nutrition Care 22

The American Paradox 23

2 Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices 34 Worldview 34

Cultural Outlook 34 Biomedical Worldview 37

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

vi C O N T E N T S

4 Food and Religion 82 Western Religions 83

Judaism 83 Christianity 89 Islam 94

Eastern Religions 98 Hinduism 98 Buddhism 103

5 Native Americans 107 Cultural Perspective 107

History of Native Americans 107 Worldview 110

Traditional Food Habits 112

Ingredients and Common Foods 112 Meal Composition and Cycle 120

Daily Patterns 120 Role of Food in Native American Culture and Etiquette 121 Therapeutic Uses of Food 122

Contemporary Food Habits 123 Adaptation of Food Habits 123 Nutritional Status 126

6 Northern and Southern Europeans 139 Northern Europeans 139

Cultural Perspective 140 Traditional Food Habits 144 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 153

Southern Europeans 157 Cultural Perspective 157 Traditional Food Habits 160 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 169

7 Central Europeans, People of the Former Soviet Union, and Scandinavians 174 Central Europeans and the People of the FSU 174

Cultural Perspective 175 Traditional Food Habits 183 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 192

Scandinavians 196 Cultural Perspective 196 Traditional Food Habits 199 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 203

8 Africans 208 Cultural Perspective 208

History of Africans in the United States 210

Worldview 212 Religion 212

Traditional Food Habits 214

Ingredients and Common Foods 214

Historical Influences 214

Meal Composition and Cycle 221 Daily Patterns 221 Role of Food in African American Society and Etiquette 223 Therapeutic Uses of Food 223

Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 224

Adaptations of Food Habits 224

Ingredients and Common Foods 224 Nutritional Status 225

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

CO N T E N T S vii

9 Mexicans and Central Americans 237 Mexicans 237

Cultural Perspective 238 Traditional Food Habits 242 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 252

Central Americans 261 Cultural Perspective 261 Traditional Food Habits 264 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 268

10 Caribbean Islanders and South Americans 278 Caribbean Islanders 278

Cultural Perspective 278 Traditional Food Habits 285 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 295

South Americans 301 Cultural Perspective 301 Traditional Food Habits 304 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 312

11 East Asians 319 Chinese 319

Cultural Perspective 320 Traditional Food Habits 325 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 335

Japanese 340 Cultural Perspective 340 Traditional Food Habits 343 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 348

Koreans 351 Cultural Perspective 352 Traditional Food Habits 354 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 359

12 Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders 370 Southeast Asians 370

Cultural Perspective 370 Traditional Food Habits 380 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 393

Native Hawaiians and Pacific Islanders 399

Cultural Perspective 399 Traditional Food Habits 402 Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 406

13 People of the Balkans and the Middle East 416 Cultural Perspective 416

History of People of the Balkans and Middle East in the United States 416 Current Demographics and Socioeconomic Status 419 Worldview 420

Traditional Food Habits 425 Ingredients and Common Foods 426 Meal Composition and Cycle 434

Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 441

Adaptations of Food Habits 441 Nutritional Status 442

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

14 South Asians 450 Cultural Perspective 450

History of Asian Indians and Pakistanis in the United States 450 Worldview 453

Traditional Food Habits 456 Ingredients and Common Foods 457 Meal Composition and Cycle 464 Role of Food in Indian Society and Etiquette 467 Therapeutic Uses of Food 468

Contemporary Food Habits in the United States 470

Adaptations of Food Habits 470 Nutritional Status 472

15 Regional Americans 483 American Regional Food Habits 483

What Is Regional Fare? 483 Regional Divisions 485

The Northeast 485 Regional Profile 485

Traditional Fare 487 Health Concerns 494

The Midwest 495 Regional Profile 495 Traditional Fare 496 Health Concerns 503

The South 503 Regional Profile 503 Traditional Fare 505 Health Concerns 517

The West 517 Regional Profile 517 Traditional Fare 518 Health Concerns 530

Glossary of Ethnic Ingredients 533

Resources 545

Index 549

viii C O N T E N T S

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

ix

and nutrition-related health problems of various ethnic and racial groups.

4. Possess specific knowledge of cultural values, health beliefs, and nutrition practices of particular groups served, including culturally different clients.

This book offers information fundamental to these competencies.

How the Book Is Organized The first four chapters form an introduction to the study of food and culture. Chapter 1 discusses methods for understanding food habits within the context of culture, chang- ing demographics, and the ways in which ethnicity may affect nutrition and health sta- tus. Chapter 2 focuses on the role of diet in traditional health beliefs. Some intercultural communication strategies are suggested in Chapter 3, and Chapter 4 outlines the major Eastern and Western religions and reviews their dietary practices in detail.

Chapters 5 through 14 profile North American ethnic groups and their cuisines. We have chosen breadth over depth, discuss- ing groups with significant populations in the United States, as well as smaller, more recent immigrant groups who have had an impact on the health care system. Other groups with low numbers of immigrants but notable influences on American cooking are briefly mentioned.

Groups are considered in the approximate order of their arrival in North America. Each chapter begins with a history of the group in the United States and current demographics. Worldview (outlook on life) is then examined, including religion, family structure, and tra- ditional health practices. This background information illuminates the cultural context

Preface

The population of the United States is The population of the United States is Tincreasingly heterogeneous, moving Tincreasingly heterogeneous, moving Ttoward a plurality of ethnic, religious, Ttoward a plurality of ethnic, religious, T and regional groups. Each of these groups has traditional food habits that differ—slightly or significantly—from the so-called typical American majority diet. Effective nutri- tion counseling, education, and food service require that these variations be acknowl- edged and understood within the context of culture. It is our goal to provide dietitians, nutritionists, and food service profession- als with the broad overview needed to avoid ethnocentric assumptions and the nutrition specifics helpful in working with each group discussed. We have attempted to combine the conceptual with the technical in a way that is useful to other health professionals as well.

We would like to draw attention specifi- cally to the area of nutrition counseling: “In nutrition counseling, where many thera- peutic interventions are on a personal level, sensitivity to the strong influence of culture on an individual’s food intake, attitudes, and behaviors is especially imperative. . . . Multi- cultural competence is not a luxury or a spe- cialty but a requirement for every registered dietitian” (Curry, 2000, pp. 1, 142). A model (Harris-Davis & Haughton, 2000) recom- mended for multicultural nutrition compe- tencies specifically lists the following:

1. Understand food selection, preparation, and storage with a cultural context.

2. Have knowledge of cultural eating pat- terns and family traditions such as core foods, traditional celebrations, and fasting.

3. Familiarize self with relevant research and latest findings regarding food practices

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

from which ethnic foods and food habits emerge and evolve. The next section of each chapter outlines the traditional diet, includ- ing ingredients, some common dishes, meal patterns, special occasions, the role of food in the society, and therapeutic uses of food. The final section explains the contemporary diet of the group, such as adaptations made by the group after arrival in the United States and influences of the group on the American diet. Reported nutritional status is reviewed, and general counseling guidelines are provided.

One or more cultural food group tables are found in each of the ethnic group chapters. The emphasis is on ingredients common to the populations of the region. Important variations within regions and unique food habits are listed in the “Comments” column of the table. Known adaptations in the United States are also noted. The tables are intended as references for the reader; they do not replace either the chapter content or an in-depth interview with a client.

Chapter 15 considers the regional Ameri- can fare of the Northeast, the Midwest, the South, and the West. Each section includes an examination of the foods common in the region and general nutritional status. Cana- dian regional fare is also briefly considered. This chapter brings the study of cultural nutrition full circle, discussing the significant influences of different ethnic and religious groups on North American fare.

Chapter-Specific Changes

• Chapter 1. Food and Culture—Updated population data.

• Chapter 2. Traditional Health Beliefs and Practices—Updated data on the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).

• Chapter 3. Intercultural Communications—No changes.

• Chapter 4. Food and Religion—Updated demographics data on religious affiliation in the United States.

• Chapter 5. Native Americans—Updated U.S. Census data on Native American population and other demographics. Updated information on current diets,

nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 6. Northern and Southern Europeans—Updated U.S. Census popula- tion and other demographics on European groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical dis- orders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 7. Central Europeans, People of the Former Soviet Union, and Scandinavians—Updated U.S. Census population and other demographics on central and eastern European groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 8. Africans—Updated U.S. Census population and other demographics on African Americans and more recent immigrant groups from Africa. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 9. Mexicans and Central Americans—Updated U.S. Census population and other demographics on Mexicans and Central American groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 10. Caribbean Islanders and South Americans—Updated U.S. Census population and other demographics on Caribbean and South American groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 11. East Asians—Updated U.S. Census population and other demo- graphics on East Asian groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 12. Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders—Updated U.S. Census popula- tion and other demographics on East Asian groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medi- cal disorders related to diet and nutrition.

x P R E FA C E

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

• Chapter 13. People of the Balkans and the Middle East—Updated U.S. Census popu- lation and other demographics on Balkan and Middle Eastern groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 14. South Asians—Updated U.S. Census population and other demograph- ics on South Asian groups. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

• Chapter 15. Regional Americans— Updated U.S. Census regional popula- tion and other demographics. Updated information on current diets, nutritional status, and medical disorders related to diet and nutrition.

Before You Begin Food is so essential to ethnic, religious, and regional identity that dietary descriptions must be as objective as possible to prevent inadvertent criticism of the underlying culture. Yet as members of two Western ethnic and religious groups, we recognize that our own cultural assumptions are unavoidable and, in fact, serve as a starting point for our work. One would be lost without such a cultural footing. Any instances of bias are unintentional.

Any definition of a group’s food habits implies homogeneity in the described group. In daily life, however, each member of a group has a distinctive diet, combining traditional prac- tices with new influences. We do not want to stereotype the fare of any cultural group. Rather, we strive to generalize common U.S. food and culture trends as a basis for understanding the personal preferences of individual clients.

We have tried to be sensitive to the desig- nations used by each cultural group, though sometimes there is no consensus among members regarding the preferred name for the group. Also, there may be some confusion about dates in the book. Nearly all religious traditions adhere to their own calendar of events based on solar or lunar months. These calendars frequently differ from the Grego- rian calendar used throughout most of the

world in business and government. Religious ceremonies often move around according to Gregorian dates, yet usually they are cal- culated to occur in the correct season each year. Historical events in the text are listed according to the Gregorian calendar, using the abbreviations for before common era (BCE) and common era (CE).

We believe this book will do more than introduce the concepts of food and culture. It should also encourage self-examination and individual cultural identification by the reader. We hope that it will help dietitians, nutrition- ists, other health care providers, and food service professionals work effectively with members of different ethnic, religious, and regional groups. If it sparks a gustatory interest in the foods of the world, we will be personally pleased. De gustibus non est disputatum!

Acknowledgments We are forever indebted to the many research- ers, especially from the fields of anthropology and sociology, who did the seminal work on food habits that provided the groundwork for this book, and to the many nutrition profes- sionals who have shared their expertise with us over the years. We especially want to thank the many colleagues who have graciously given support and advice in the development of the numerous editions: Carmen Boyd, MS, LPC, RD, Missouri State University; Bonny Burns-Whitmore, DrPH, RD, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona; Arlene Grant- Holcomb, RD, MAE, California State Poly- technic University, San Luis Obispo; Carolyn Hollingshead, PhD, RD, University of Utah; Tawni Holmes, PhD, RD, University of Cen- tral Oklahoma; Claire G. Kratz, MS, RD, LDN, Montgomery County Community College; Yvonne Moody, EdD, Chadron State College; Sudha Raj, PhD, Syracuse University; Stacey A. Roush, MS, Montgomery County Community College; Dana Wassmer, MS, RD, Cosumnes River College; and Donna M. Winham, DrPH, Arizona State University. We are grateful for the expertise of Gerald Nelms, PhD, as his develop- ment of the discussion starters during the 6th edition revision was an important contribution to the pedagogy for this text.

P R E FA C E xi

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

1

What Is Food? Food, as defined in the dictionary, is any sub- stance that provides the nutrients necessary to maintain life and growth when ingested. When most animals feed, they repeatedly consume those foods necessary for their well-being, and they do so in a similar manner at each feeding. Humans, however, do not feed. They eat.

Eating is distinguished from feeding by the ways humans use food. Humans not only gather or hunt food, but they also cultivate plants and raise livestock. Agriculture means that some foods are regularly available, alle- viating hand-to-mouth sustenance. This permits the development of specific customs associated with foods that are the foundation of the diet, such as wheat or rice. Humans also cook, softening tough foods, including raw grains and meats, and combine foods to create new textures and taste sensations. This greatly expands the number and variety of edible substances available. What follows are rules regarding what can be eaten with what and creates the meal. Humans use utensils to eat meals and institute complex rules, com- monly called manners, about how meals are consumed. And, significantly, humans share food. Standards for who may dine with whom in each eating situation are well defined.

The term f ood h abits (also called food cul- ture or foodways) refers to the ways in which humans use food, including everything from how it is selected, obtained, and distributed to who prepares it, serves it, and eats it. The significance of this process is unique to

Food and Culture

What do Americans eat? Meat and potatoes, according to popular myth. There’s no denying that per person in the United States, an average of over half a pound of beef, pork, lamb, or veal is eaten daily, and more than one hun- dred pounds of potatoes (mostly as chips and fries) are consumed annually. Yet the Ameri- can diet is as diverse as its population, and we should no longer describe the U.S. population as white, Anglo-Saxon, and Protestant, or the diet as consisting of mostly meat and potatoes.

U.S. Census and other demographic data show that close to 40 percent of Americans are not white, 13 percent are foreign born, 11 per- cent have one parent who was foreign born, and one in five people in the United States are first or second generation. More than seventy- five different ancestry groups were reported in 2007.1,2 In that year the fastest and largest growing ethnic groups in America were from Latin America, but more recently Asians became the fastest growing race or ethnic group.3

Each American ethnic, religious, or regional group has its own culturally based food hab- its. Many of these customs have been modified through contact with American culture and, in turn, they have changed and shaped American food habits. Today, a fast-food restaurant or street stand is as likely to offer pizza, tacos, egg rolls, or falafel as it is hamburgers. It is the intricate interplay between food habits of the past and the present, the old and the new, and the traditional and the innovative that is the hallmark of the American diet.

As suggested by their names, not even ham-

burgers and French fries are American in origin. Chopped beef steaks

were introduced to the United States from the

German city of Hamburg in the late nineteenth century. The American term French-fried pota-

toes first appeared in the 1860s and was prob- ably coined to describe

the method used in France for deep-frying

potato pieces until crisp. Other foods considered typically American also have foreign origins, for

example, hot dogs, apple pie, and ice cream.

Data from the 2006 Canadian census indicate

more than 200 differ- ent ethnic origins were documented. The most common ethnic groups noted included English, French, Scottish, Irish,

German, Italian, Chinese, North American Indian, Ukrainian, and Dutch. Newer groups include individuals from Mont- serrat in the Carribean and African countries such as Chad, Gabon,

Gambia, and Zambia.90

1CHA P

T E

R

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

2 F O O D A N D C U LT U R E

humankind. Why don’t people simply feed on the diet of our primitive ancestors, surviving on foraged fruits, vegetables, grains, and the occasional insect or small mammal thrown in for protein? Why do people choose to spend their time, energy, money, and creativ- ity on eating? The answers to these questions, according to some researchers, can be found in the basic biological and psychological con- stitution of humans.

The Omnivore’s Paradox Humans are omnivorous, meaning that they can consume and digest a wide selection of plants and animals found in their surround- ings. The primary advantage to this is that they can live in various climates and terrains. Because no single food provides the nutrition necessary for survival, humans must be able to eat enough of a variety of items, yet cautious enough not to ingest foods that are harmful and, possibly, fatal. This dilemma, the need to experiment combined with the need for cau- tion, is known as the omnivore’s paradox.4,5 It results in two contradictory psychological impulses regarding eating—an attraction to new foods, but a preference for familiar foods. The food habits developed by a community provide the framework that reduces the anxi- ety produced by these opposing desires. Rules about which foods are edible, how they are procured and cooked, how they should taste,

It is thought that children are less likely than adults to try new foods, in part because they have not

yet learned cultural rules regarding what is safe

and edible. A child who is exposed repeatedly to new items loses the fear of new foods faster than one who experiences a

limited diet.11

▲ Humans create complex rules, commonly called manners, about how food is to be eaten.

To m

M cC

ar th

y/ Ph

ot oE

di t

and when they should be consumed provide guidelines for both testing new foods (based on previous experience with similar plants and animals or flavors and textures) and maintaining food traditions through ritual and repetition.

Self-Identity The choice of which foods to ingest is fur- ther complicated by another psychological concept regarding eating—the incorpora- tion of food. This means that consumption is not just the conversion of food into nutrients in the human body, but also includes gaining the food’s physical properties as well—hence the phrase “You are what you eat.” In most cases this refers to the physical properties of a food expressed through incorporation. For example, some Asian Indians eat walnuts, which look like miniature brains, to make them smarter, and weight lifters may dine on rare meat to build muscle. In other cases, the character of the food is incorporated. Some Native Americans believe that because milk is a food for infants, it will weaken adults. The French say a person who eats too many tur- nips becomes gutless, and some Vietnamese consume gelatinized tiger bones to improve their strength.

It is a small step from incorporating the traits associated with a specific food to mak- ing assumptions about a total diet. The cor- relation between what people eat, how others perceive them, and how they characterize themselves is striking. In one study research- ers listed five typical diets: vegetarian (kale quiche, brown rice, avocado, and bean sprout sandwich), gourmet (oysters, caviar, French roast coffee), health food (protein shake, wheat germ, yogurt), and fast food (ham- burger, fried chicken, pizza). It was found that each category was associated with a certain personality type. Vegetarians were consid- ered to be pacifists and likely to drive foreign cars. Gourmets were believed to be liberal and sophisticated. Health food fans were described as antinuclear activists and were also liberal. Fast-food eaters were believed to be religious, conservative, and fond of polyester cloth- ing. These stereotypes were confirmed by

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-209

C H A P T E R 1 3

self-description and personality tests com- pleted by people whose diets fell into the five categories.6

Another study asked college students to rate profiles of people based on their diets. Those who ate “good” foods were judged to be thinner, more fit, and more active than people with the identical physical character- istics and exercise habits who ate “bad” foods. Furthermore, the people who ate “good” foods were perceived by some students as being more attractive, likable, practical, methodi- cal, quiet, and analytical than people who ate “bad” foods. The researchers attribute the strong morality-food effect to several fac- tors, including the concept of incorporation and a prevailing Puritan ethic that espouses self-discipline.7