Learning theories an educational perspective 6th edition pdf

Psychological Constructivism

Learning Theories An Educational Perspective

Sixth Edition

Dale H. Schunk The University of North Carolina at Greensboro

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Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Schunk, Dale H. Learning theories : an educational perspective / Dale H. Schunk.—6th ed.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-707195-1 ISBN-10: 0-13-707195-7 1. Learning. 2. Cognition. 3. Learning, Psychology of. I. Title. LB1060.S37 2012 370.15'23—dc22

2010048468

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-13-707195-7

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-707195-1

Dedication

To Barry Zimmerman, mentor, colleague, and friend

Brief Contents

1 Introduction to the Study of Learning 1

2 Neuroscience of Learning 29

3 Behaviorism 71

4 Social Cognitive Theory 117

5 Information Processing Theory 163

6 Constructivism 228

7 Cognitive Learning Processes 278

8 Motivation 345

9 Self-Regulation 399

10 Development 444

Glossary 489

References 501

Author Index 539

Subject Index 550

iv

Contents

v

1 Introduction to the Study of Learning 1

Learning Defined 3

Precursors of Modern Learning Theories 4

Learning Theory and Philosophy 5 Beginnings of the Psychological Study of

Learning 7 Structuralism and Functionalism 8

Learning Theory and Research 10

Functions of Theory 10 Conducting Research 11

Assessment of Learning 14 Direct Observations 14 Written Responses 15 Oral Responses 16 Ratings by Others 16 Self-reports 18

Relation of Learning and Instruction 18

Historical Perspective 18 Instructional Commonalities 19 Integration of Theory and Practice 20

Critical Issues for Learning Theories 21

How Does Learning Occur? 22 What is the Role of Memory? 23 What is the Role of Motivation? 23 How Does Transfer Occur? 24 Which Processes are Involved in

Self-regulation? 24 What are the Implications for

Instruction? 25

Three Learning Scenarios 25 Kathy Stone’s Third-grade Class 25 Jim Marshall’s U.S. History Class 26 Gina Brown’s Educational Psychology

Class 26

Summary 27

Further Reading 28

2 Neuroscience of Learning 29

Organization and Structures 31 Neural Organization 32 Brain Structures 33 Localization and Interconnections 37 Brain Research Methods 39

Neurophysiology of Learning 43 Information Processing System 43 Memory Networks 46 Language Learning 49

Brain Development 50 Influential Factors 50 Phases of Development 51 Critical Periods 52 Language Development 55

Motivation and Emotions 58 Motivation 58 Emotions 60

Instructional Applications 62 Relevance of Brain Research 62 Educational Issues 63 Brain-based Educational Practices 64

Summary 67

Further Reading 70

3 Behaviorism 71 Connectionism 73

Trial-and-error Learning 73 Laws of Exercise and Effect 74 Other Principles 75 Revisions to Thorndike’s Theory 75 Thorndike and Education 76

Classical Conditioning 78 Basic Processes 79 Informational Variables 81 Biological Influences 81 Conditioned Emotional Reactions 82

Contiguous Conditioning 84 Acts and Movements 84 Associative Strength 84 Rewards and Punishments 85 Habit Formation and Change 85

Operant Conditioning 88 Conceptual Framework 89 Basic Processes 89 Behavioral Change 98 Behavior Modification 100 Self-regulation 102

Instructional Applications 102 Behavioral Objectives 103 Learning Time 105 Mastery Learning 107 Programmed Instruction 109 Contingency Contracts 112

Summary 114

Further Reading 116

4 Social Cognitive Theory 117 Conceptual Framework for Learning 119

Reciprocal Interactions 119 Enactive and Vicarious Learning 119 Learning and Performance 122 Self-regulation 122

Modeling Processes 123 Theories of Imitation 123 Functions of Modeling 125 Cognitive Skill Learning 129 Motor Skill Learning 131

Influences on Learning and Performance 133

Developmental Status of Learners 133 Model Prestige and Competence 134 Vicarious Consequences to

Models 135

Motivational Processes 138 Goals 138 Outcome Expectations 143 Values 145

Self-Efficacy 146 Conceptual Overview 146 Self-efficacy in Achievement

Situations 147 Models and Self-efficacy 149 Motor Skills 152 Instructional Self-efficacy 153 Health and Therapeutic Activities 154

Instructional Applications 156 Models 157 Self-efficacy 157 Worked Examples 158 Tutoring and Mentoring 158

Summary 159

Further Reading 162

5 Information Processing Theory 163

Information Processing System 165 Assumptions 165 Two-store (dual) Memory Model 165 Alternatives to the Two-store Model 168

Attention 171 Theories of Attention 171 Attention and Learning 172 Attention and Reading 174

vi Contents

Perception 175 Gestalt Theory 175 Sensory Registers 178 LTM Comparisons 179

Two-Store Memory Model 180 Verbal Learning 181 Short-term (working) Memory 183 Long-term Memory 184 Influences on Encoding 187

Long-Term Memory: Storage 191 Propositions 191 Storage of Knowledge 191 Production Systems and Connectionist

Models 196

Long-Term Memory: Retrieval and Forgetting 200

Retrieval 200 Language Comprehension 204 Forgetting 209

Mental Imagery 213 Representation of Spatial Information 213 Imagery in LTM 216 Individual Differences 217

Instructional Applications 217 Advance Organizers 218 Conditions of Learning 219 Cognitive Load 223

Summary 224

Further Reading 227

6 Constructivism 228 Constructivism: Assumptions and Perspectives 230

Overview 230 Perspectives 232 Situated Cognition 233 Contributions and Applications 234

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 236

Developmental Processes 236 Implications for Instruction 239

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 240 Background 241 Basic Principles 242 Zone of Proximal Development 243 Applications 245 Critique 247

Private Speech and Socially Mediated Learning 248

Private Speech 248 Verbalization and Achievement 249 Socially Mediated Learning 251 Self-regulation 252

Motivation 254 Contextual Factors 254 Implicit Theories 256 Teachers’ Expectations 258

Constructivist Learning Environments 261

Key Features 261 APA Learner-Centered Principles 263

Instructional Applications 265 Discovery Learning 266 Inquiry Teaching 268 Peer-assisted Learning 269 Discussions and Debates 271 Reflective Teaching 271

Summary 274

Further Reading 276

7 Cognitive Learning Processes 278

Skill Acquisition 280 General and Specific Skills 280 Novice-to-expert Research

Methodology 281 Expert-novice Differences in

Science 283

Conditional Knowledge and Metacognition 284

Conditional Knowledge 285 Metacognition and Learning 286

Contents vii

viii Contents

Variables Influencing Metacognition 288

Metacognition and Behavior 289 Metacognition and Reading 290

Concept Learning 292 The Nature of Concepts 292 Concept Attainment 294 Teaching of Concepts 295 Motivational Processes 298

Problem Solving 299 Historical Influences 299 Heuristics 302 Problem-Solving Strategies 304 Problem Solving and Learning 309 Experts and Novices 310 Reasoning 311 Implications for Instruction 315

Transfer 317 Historical Views 317 Activation of Knowledge in

Memory 318 Types of Transfer 319 Strategy Transfer 321 Teaching for Transfer 322

Technology and Instruction 324 Computer-based Learning

Environments 325 Distance Learning 328 Future Directions 330

Instructional Applications 332 Worked Examples 332 Writing 334 Mathematics 337

Summary 342

Further Reading 344

8 Motivation 345 Historical Perspectives 347

Drive Theory 347 Conditioning Theory 348

Cognitive Consistency Theory 349 Humanistic Theory 351

Model of Motivated Learning 356 Pretask 357 During Task 357 Posttask 358

Achievement Motivation 358 Expectancy-value Theory 359 Familial Influences 361 Contemporary Model of Achievement

Motivation 362 Self-worth Theory 364 Task and Ego Involvement 366

Attribution Theory 366 Locus of Control 367 Naïve Analysis of Action 367 Attribution Theory of

Achievement 368

Social Cognitive Theory 371 Goals and Expectations 372 Social Comparison 372

Goal Theory 374 Goal Orientations 376 Conceptions of Ability 379

Perceived Control 380 Control Beliefs 380 Learned Helplessness 381 Students with Learning Problems 382

Self-Concept 383 Dimensions and Development 383 Self-concept and Learning 385

Intrinsic motivation 386 Theoretical Perspectives 386 Overjustification and Reward 389

Instructional Applications 392 Achievement Motivation Training 392 Attribution Change Programs 393 Goal Orientations 395

Summary 397

Further Reading 398

9 Self-Regulation 399 Behavioral Theory 401

Self-monitoring 401 Self-instruction 404 Self-reinforcement 405

Social Cognitive Theory 405 Conceptual Framework 405 Social Cognitive Processes 407 Cyclical Nature of Self-regulation 411 Social and Self Influences 414

Information Processing Theory 415 Model of Self-regulation 415 Learning Strategies 417

Constructivist Theory 427 Sociocultural Influences 428 Implicit Theories 430

Motivation and Self-Regulation 431 Volition 432 Values 434 Self-schemas 434 Help Seeking 435

Instructional Applications 436 Academic Studying 436 Writing 436 Mathematics 439

Summary 441

Further Reading 443

10 Development 444 Beginnings of the Scientific Study of Development 446

Historical Foundations 446 Philosophical Foundations 446 The Child Study Movement 447

Perspectives on Development 449 Issues Relevant to Learning 450 Types of Developmental Theories 452 Structural Theories 455

Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Growth 457

Knowledge Representation 457 Spiral Curriculum 458

Contemporary Developmental Themes 460

Developmental Changes 460 Developmentally Appropriate

Instruction 461 Transitions in Schooling 463

Family Influences 465 Socioeconomic Status 465 Home Environment 468 Parental Involvement 469 Electronic Media 472

Motivation and Development 474 Developmental Changes 475 Implications 476

Instructional Applications 477 Learning Styles 478 Case’s Instructional Model 482 Teacher-student Interactions 483

Summary 486

Further Reading 487

Glossary 489

References 501

Author Index 539

Subject Index 550

Contents ix

Preface The study of human learning continues to develop and expand. As researchers from var- ious theoretical traditions test their ideas and hypotheses in basic and applied settings, their research findings give rise to improvements in teaching and learning by students of all ages. Especially noteworthy is how topics once seen as not intimately connected with learning—such as motivation, technology, and self-regulation—are increasingly being addressed by researchers and practitioners.

Although the field of learning is ever changing, the primary objectives of this sixth edition remain the same as those of the previous editions: (a) to inform students of learn- ing theoretical principles, concepts, and research findings, especially as they relate to education and (b) to provide applications of principles and concepts in settings where teaching and learning occur. The text continues to focus on cognition, although behav- iorism also is discussed. This cognitive focus is consistent with the contemporary con- structivist emphasis on active learners who seek, form, and modify their knowledge, skills, strategies, and beliefs.

STRUCTURE OF THIS TEXT The text’s 10 chapters are organized as follows. The introductory chapter discusses learn- ing theory, research, and issues, as well as historical foundations of the study of learning and the relation of learning to instruction. At the end of this chapter are three scenarios involving elementary, secondary, and university settings. Throughout the text, these three settings are used to demonstrate applications of principles of learning, motivation, and self-regulation. Chapter 2 discusses the neuroscience of learning. Presenting this material early in the text is beneficial so that readers better understand subsequent links made be- tween brain functions and cognitive and constructivist learning principles. Behaviorism, which dominated the field of learning for many years, is addressed in Chapter 3. Current cognitive and constructivist views of learning are covered in the next four chapters: social cognitive theory; information processing theory; constructivism; and cognitive learning processes. The final three chapters cover topics relevant to and closely integrated with learning theories: motivation; self-regulation; and development.

NEW TO THIS EDITION Readers familiar with prior editions will notice many content and organizational changes in this edition, which reflect evolving theoretical and research emphases. Self-regulation, which in recent editions was covered in other chapters, now is a chapter on its own. This chapter highlights the importance of self-regulation in learning and reflects the increasing

x

emphasis on self-regulation by researchers and practitioners. Given the prevalence of tech- nology in schools and homes, the text includes new sections on learning from electronic media and in computer-based learning environments. In prior editions, content-area learn- ing and instructional models were covered in separate chapters. In this sixth edition, this material is integrated into other chapters at appropriate places, which provides better co- herence and connection between learning and content instruction. Some chapters have been reordered in the text, and some topics have been shifted within chapters to provide a better flow. The continued growth of research relevant to academic learning led to new terms incorporated into the glossary and to more than 140 new references.

This edition continues to provide many examples of learning concepts and principles applied to settings where learning occurs. Each chapter after the introductory chapter contains a new section on instructional applications. Chapters open with vignettes that il- lustrate some of the principles discussed in the chapters and also contain many informal examples and detailed applications. Many of the latter are set in the scenarios described in Chapter 1. Most of the applications in the chapters pertain to K-12 learners, but appli- cations also address younger and older students and learning in out-of-school settings.

The text is intended for use by graduate students in education or related disciplines, as well as by upper-level undergraduates interested in education. It is assumed that most students have taken a prior course in education or psychology and currently work in an educational capacity or anticipate pursuing an educational career. In addition to courses on learning, the text is appropriate for any course that covers learning in some depth, such as courses on motivation, educational psychology, human development, and in- structional design.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I gratefully acknowledge several individuals for their assistance with this project. Throughout my career, many colleagues have enriched my thinking about learning processes and applications, including Albert Bandura, Curt Bonk, James Chapman, Herb Clark, Lyn Corno, Peg Ertmer, Doreen Ferko, the late Nate Gage, Marilyn Haring, Carolyn Jagacinski, Mark Lepper, Dave Lohman, Judith Meece, Sam Miller, Carol Mullen, the late John Nicholls, the late Frank Pajares, the late Paul Pintrich, Don Rice, Ellen Usher, Claire Ellen Weinstein, Allan Wigfield, Phil Winne, and Barry Zimmerman. I continue to benefit from activities with members of professional organizations, especially the Motivation in Education Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association, and Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of the American Psychological Association. My learning has been broadened by many outstanding students, teachers, counselors, ad- ministrators, and superintendents with whom I have worked. Sincere thanks go to gradu- ate and undergraduate student collaborators for their assistance on research projects.

For many years, my editor at Pearson Education was Kevin Davis. I am so thankful for all the guidance and support provided by Kevin, which has served to strengthen and improve this text. With this edition, Paul Smith assumed the editorial responsibilities, and he has done a fantastic job. It has been a pleasure working with Paul. Special thanks also are due to Matt Buchholz and Cynthia Parsons at Pearson for their editorial assistance. I

Preface xi

wish to thank the following reviewers of the fifth edition: Ronald A. Beghetto, University of Oregon; Denise Ward Hood, Northern Arizona University; and Sherri Horner, Bowling Green State University. At the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, I appreciate the assistance with administrative tasks provided by Tomi Register, Liz Meeks, and Melissa Edmonds-Kruep.

I am ever grateful for the love and encouragement from my parents, the late Mil and Al Schunk, and for the ways that friends Bill Gattis, Rob Eyman, Doug Curyea, and the late Jim Tozer have helped me keep life’s priorities straight. I express deep gratitude to Caryl and Laura Schunk for their understanding, support, encouragement, and love since the first edition of this text appeared in 1991. Caryl assisted with many of the examples and applications based on her experiences in K-12 education. Laura, who was a baby when the first edition was published and today is poised to graduate from college, is an intelligent, motivated, and sociable young woman. The impact of learning in her life con- tinually brings this text close to home.

xii Preface

1 Introduction to the Study of Learning

Russ Nyland teaches an education course for graduate students on cognitive instruction and learning. It is toward the end of the semester, and, as class finishes one day, three students approach him: Jeri Kendall, Matt Bowers, and Trisha Pascella.

Russ: What’s up? Wasn’t I clear today?

Jeri: Dr. Nyland, can we talk with you? We’ve been talking, and it’s late in the course and we’re still confused.

Russ: About what?

Jeri: Well, we’ve been studying all these theorists. It seems like they’re saying different things, but maybe not. Bandura, Bruner, Anderson, Vygotsky, and the others. They make different points, but then some of what they say seems to overlap what others say.

Matt: Yeah, I’m so confused. I read these theorists and think like, yeah, I agree with that. But then it seems like I agree with everything. I thought you were supposed to have one theory, to believe one way and not others. But it seems like there’s a lot of overlap between theories.

Russ: You’re right Matt, there is. Most of what we’ve studied in this course are cognitive theories, and they are alike because they say that learning involves changes in cognitions—knowledge, skills, beliefs. Most theorists also say that learners construct their knowledge and beliefs; they don’t automatically adopt what somebody tells them. So yes, there is much overlap.

Trisha: So then what are we to do? Am I supposed to be something like an information processing theorist, a social cognitive theorist, a constructivist? That’s what I’m confused about.

Russ: No, you don’t have to be one or the other. There may be one theory that you like better than the others, but maybe that theory doesn’t address everything you want it to. So then you can borrow from other theories. For example, when I was in grad school I worked with a professor whose specialty was cognitive learning. There was another professor who did

Chapter

1

2 Chapter 1

developmental research. I really liked her research, probably because I had been a teacher and was interested in development, especially the changes in kids from elementary to middle school. So I was a learning theorist who borrowed from the developmental literature and still do. It’s ok to do that!

Jeri: Well that makes me feel better. But it’s late in the course, and I guess I want to know what I should be doing next.

Russ: Tell you what—next class I’ll spend some time on this. A good place to start is not to decide which type of theorist you are, but rather determine what you believe about learning and what types of learning you’re interested in. Then you can see which theory matches up well to your beliefs and assumptions and maybe do as I did—borrow from others.

Matt: Isn’t that what you call being eclectic?

Russ: Perhaps, but you may still have one preferred theory that you then adapt as needed. That’s okay to do. In fact, that’s how theories are improved—by incorporating ideas that weren’t in them originally.

Trisha: Thanks Dr. Nyland. This is really helpful.

Learning involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. People learn cognitive, linguis- tic, motor, and social skills, and these can take many forms. At a simple level, children learn to solve 2 � 2 � ?, to recognize y in the word daddy, to tie their shoes, and to play with other children. At a more complex level, stu- dents learn to solve long-division problems, write term papers, ride a bicycle, and work co- operatively on a group project.

This book is about how human learning occurs, which factors influence it, and how learning principles apply in various educational contexts. Animal learning is de-emphasized, which is not intended to downgrade its impor- tance because we have gained much knowl- edge about learning from animal research. But human learning is fundamentally different from animal learning because human learning is more complex, elaborate, rapid, and typically involves language.

This chapter provides an overview of the study of learning. Initially, learning is defined and examined in settings where it occurs. An

overview is given of some important philo- sophical and psychological precursors of con- temporary theories that helped to establish the groundwork for the application of learn- ing theories to education. The roles of learn- ing theory and research are discussed, and methods commonly used to assess learning are described. The links between learning theories and instruction are explained, after which critical issues in the study of learning are presented.

At the end of this chapter are three scenar- ios that involve learning with elementary, sec- ondary, and college students. Background in- formation is given about the learners, teachers, instruction, content, setting, and other features. In subsequent chapters, these scenarios will be used to exemplify the operation of learning principles. Readers will benefit from seeing how different learning principles are applied in an integrated fashion in the same settings.

The opening scenario describes a situation that happens to many students when they take a course in learning, instruction, or motivation and are exposed to different theories. Students

Introduction to the Study of Learning 3

often think that they are supposed to believe in one theory and adopt the views of those theorists. They often are confused by the per- ceived overlap between theories.

As Russ says, that is normal. Although the- ories differ in many ways, including their gen- eral assumptions and guiding principles, many rest on a common foundation. This text focuses on cognitive views of learning, which contend that learning involves changes in learners’ cognitions—their thoughts, beliefs, skills, and the like. These theories differ in how they predict that learning occurs—in the processes of learning—and in what aspects of learning they stress. Thus, some theories are oriented more toward basic learning and others toward applied learning (and, within that, in different content areas); some stress the role of development, others are strongly linked with instruction; and some emphasize motivation.

Russ advises his students to examine their beliefs and assumptions about learning rather than decide which type of theorist they are. This is good advice. Once it is clear in our minds where we stand on learning in general, then the theoretical perspective or perspectives that are most relevant will emerge. As you study this text, it will help if you reflect on your beliefs and assumptions about learning and decide how these align with the theories.

This chapter should help to prepare you for an in-depth study of learning by providing a framework for understanding learning and some background material against which to view contemporary theories. When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

■ Define learning and identify instances of learned and unlearned phenomena.

■ Distinguish between rationalism and em- piricism and explain the major tenets of each.

■ Discuss how the work of Wundt, Ebbinghaus, the Structuralists, and the Functionalists helped to establish psychol- ogy as a science.

■ Describe the major features of different research paradigms.

■ Discuss the central features of different methods of assessing learning.

■ State some instructional principles com- mon to many learning theories.

■ Explicate the ways that learning theory and educational practice complement and refine one another.

■ Explain differences between behavioral and cognitive theories with respect to var- ious issues in the study of learning.

LEARNING DEFINED People agree that learning is important, but they hold different views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning. There is no one definition of learning that is universally accepted by theorists, researchers, and practitioners (Shuell, 1986). Although people disagree about the precise nature of learning, the following is a general definition of learning that is consistent with this book’s cognitive focus and that captures the crite- ria most educational professionals consider central to learning.

Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience.

4 Chapter 1

Let us examine this definition in depth to identify three criteria for learning (Table 1.1). One criterion is that learning involves change—in behavior or in the capacity for be-

havior. People learn when they become capable of doing something differently. At the same time, we must remember that learning is inferential. We do not observe learning di- rectly but rather its products or outcomes. Learning is assessed based on what people say, write, and do. But we also add that learning involves a changed capacity to behave in a given fashion because it is not uncommon for people to learn skills, knowledge, beliefs, or behaviors without demonstrating them at the time learning occurs (Chapter 4).

A second criterion is that learning endures over time. This excludes temporary behav- ioral changes (e.g., slurred speech) brought about by such factors as drugs, alcohol, and fatigue. Such changes are temporary because when the cause is removed, the behavior re- turns to its original state. But learning may not last forever because forgetting occurs. It is debatable how long changes must last to be classified as learned, but most people agree that changes of brief duration (e.g., a few seconds) do not qualify as learning.

A third criterion is that learning occurs through experience (e.g., practice, observation of others). This criterion excludes behavioral changes that are primarily determined by heredity, such as maturational changes in children (e.g., crawling, standing). Nonetheless, the distinction between maturation and learning often is not clear-cut. People may be ge- netically predisposed to act in given ways, but the actual development of the particular behaviors depends on the environment. Language offers a good example. As the human vocal apparatus matures, it becomes able to produce language; but the actual words pro- duced are learned from interactions with others. Although genetics are critical for chil- dren’s language acquisition, teaching and social interactions with parents, teachers, and peers exert a strong influence on children’s language achievements (Mashburn, Justice, Downer, & Pianta, 2009). In similar fashion, with normal development children crawl and stand, but the environment must be responsive and allow these behaviors to occur. Children whose movements are forcibly restrained do not develop normally.

PRECURSORS OF MODERN LEARNING THEORIES The roots of contemporary theories of learning extend far into the past. Many of the is- sues addressed and questions asked by modern researchers are not new but rather reflect a desire for people to understand themselves, others, and the world about them.