Louis vuitton in japan case study

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LOUIS VUITTON IN JAPAN1

Justin Paul and Charlotte Feroul wrote this case solely to provide material for class discussion. The authors do not intend to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of a managerial situation. The authors may have disguised certain names and other identifying information to protect confidentiality.

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Copyright © 2010, Richard Ivey School of Business Foundation Version: 2017-02-21

In Japan, whether you are in Tokyo, Osaka or Nagoya, just turn your head and Louis Vuitton is everywhere. The celebration of the 30th anniversary of the presence of the illustrious, glittering French multinational in Japan took place in Aoyama, one of Tokyo’s fashionable districts. A unique vision of luxury took shape when Louis Vuitton opened yet another new store inside Comme des Garçons on September 4, 2008, in the heart of Japan’s capital. The pop-up store situated on the prestigious Omotesando Street was an illustration of Louis Vuitton’s attachment to the Japanese luxury market.

Yves Carcelle, chairman and CEO of Louis Vuitton, said, “This project not only brings a new meaning to luxury, but also speaks volumes about how the know-how and heritage of Louis Vuitton have always been perceived in Japan, including by its foremost designers. We are very proud to have been able to help Rei Kawakubo2 relive her memories in such an original and creative way.”3 The Omotesando guerrilla marketing event reflected Louis Vuitton’s success in Japan. Louis Vuitton had been following an aggressive marketing strategy in the country, opening extravagant stores such as those in Ginza or Roppongi. Take a walk on Ginza’s main street, Chuo Dori, the centre of a paradise for shoppers, with long- established department stores, such as Mitsukoshi, Takashimaya and Matsuzakaya. Continue through the high-end fashion street Namiki-dori. Stop. There it is. You have reached the massive flagship Louis Vuitton store.

When Louis Vuitton, the world’s biggest luxury-goods firm, inaugurated its huge shop in 2002 in the district of Omotesando, Tokyo, hundreds of people were queued outside. During the first few days, sales exceeded the initial estimations by ¥1 million.4 In the last decade, Japan had been Louis Vuitton’s most profitable market, representing almost half of its profits, but it seemed that with the 2008-2009 economic crisis, there might be the start of a decline in sales.

1 This case has been written on the basis of published sources only. Consequently, the interpretation and perspectives presented in this case are not necessarily those of Louis Vuitton or any of its employees. 2 Rei Kawakubowas a famous Japanese fashion designer. She founded the fashion house Comme des Garçons Co. Ltd in 1973. The designer, known for her anti-fashion, austere and conceptual universe, was the guest designer of Louis Vuitton for one of its collections in 2008. 3 Lesley Scott, “Louis Vuitton at Comme des Garcons in Tokyo,” http://fashiontribes.typepad.com.Accessed July 11, 2008. 4 “Japan’s luxury-goods market — Losing its shine,” The Economist, September 18, 2008, www.economist.com. US$1 was equivalent to approximately ¥150 (yen) in 2002.

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Facing a weak economy and a shift in consumer preferences, Louis Vuitton started adapting its strategy in the Japanese market. The days of charging a high price for products with a proprietary logo seemed to be gone in Japan. The company had to launch relatively low-priced collections to boost sales. The firm had also been taking steps to open stores in other mid-size cities where the LV brand was not well-known. Louis Vuitton might be French, but Japan had become the land of Louis Vuitton lovers. Over the years, Japanese consumers had demonstrated fascination and passion for the iconic brand. What would be the key to Louis Vuitton’s continuing success in the Japanese market? LOUIS VUITTON —THE HISTORY The Foundation Louis Vuitton Malletier, often referred to as Louis Vuitton, was an international, well-established brand mostly famous for its craftwork leather bags and trunks. The firm was established in France in 1854 by Louis Vuitton and became known as one of the oldest French luxury fashion houses. Louis Vuitton, the company’s founder, was born in 1821 in Anchay, Jura, France. He became a Layetier in Paris and earned a reputation while working for the Empress Eugénie de Montijo, wife of Napoleon III. Learning from his work for the French aristocracy, he acquired personal “savoir-faire”5about leather luggage. In 1854, he founded the firm,” Louis Vuitton: Malletier à Paris.”6 The flat-bottom trunks of Louis Vuitton with trianon canvases represented a real revolution for travelling in those days as they combined lightness and storage capacity. In 1885, the firm opened its first overseas store in London, England, on Oxford Street. In 1888, Louis Vuitton developed the Canvas Damier Pattern in order to make the Louis Vuitton experience unique and recognizable by anybody. The logo “marque Louis Vuitton deposée,” meaning “mark Louis Vuitton deposited,” was also created. Following the death of Louis Vuitton in 1892, his son, Georges Vuitton, took over the leadership of the firm. He was ambitious about taking Louis Vuitton to the next step — building a global brand and setting up a multinational corporation.7 He participated in the Chicago World Fair in 1893, presenting the company’s product, and travelled all around the United States to promote the brand. In 1896, Georges Vuitton created the Monogram Canvas and attained worldwide trademarks on it to limit counterfeiting. The LV monogram was inspired by the Japanese and Oriental designs of the Victorian age. By 1914, the company opened the Louis Vuitton Building of the Champs-Elysées, now a symbol of the success and prestige of the company. Though World War I had begun, the firm initiated its global expansion strategy by opening stores in New York, Bombay, Washington, London, Alexandria and Buenos Aires. In 1936, Gaston-Louis Vuitton took over the direction of the company when his father, Georges Vuitton, passed away. The Modern Age of Louis Vuitton Gaston-Louis Vuitton guided the brand into its modern age. The company expanded its product line by applying the craftwork and design of its leather to small leather goods, such as purses and wallets, and to its whole luggage line. As a consequence, the Monogram Canvas was redesigned in 1959 to fit the new

5 “Know-how.” 6 “Louis Vuitton: Luggage maker in Paris.” 7 Official Louis Vuitton MySpace, www.myspace.com/louisvuittonmyspace, accessed June 25, 2010.

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range of products. The brand started its first advertising strategy by handing bags to Hollywood celebrity actresses. Audrey Hepburn carried a Louis Vuitton bag in 1963 in the film Charade, directed by Stanley Donan. In the mid 1970s, Louis Vuitton had become the world’s biggest luxury brand in terms of market share. The Vuitton-Racamier family,8 owner of the brand, had focused mainly on building a Japanese clientele. By 1977, the company owned two stores in Japan with annual profits of US$10 million. It further tapped into the Asian market in 1983, in Taipei, Taiwan and, in 1984, in Seoul, South Korea. The creation of Louis Vuitton Moët-Hennessy (LVMH) in 1987 established the largest luxury-goods conglomerate in the world. Moët et Chandon and Hennessy were the leading manufacturers of champagne and brandy. The merger resulted in an increase in profits for Louis Vuitton of 49 per cent in 1988 compared to 1987. By 1989, Louis Vuitton had entered into 130 countries across the world.9 In 1990, Yves Carcelles was nominated for president of Louis Vuitton. He carried on with an international expansion strategy, inaugurating the first Chinese store in the Palace Hotel in Beijing. The Monogram Canvas centennial was celebrated in 1996. Seven cities across the world held extravagant parties at stores and Louis Vuitton asked seven prestigious designers to imagine new products featuring the LV monogram. Azzedine Alaia, Manolo Blahnik, Romeo Gigli, Helmut Lang, Isaac Mizrahi, Syvilla and Vivienne Westwood created seven original and functional objects in a limited edition series.10 Louis Vuitton in the 21st Century In 1998, the American designer Marc Jacobs was appointed as Louis Vuitton’s art director. Jacobs was already a highly successful international designer, who became distinguished as the youngest fashion designer ever to be awarded the industry’s highest tribute, the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) award for New Fashion Talent. The challenge was huge, as Jacobs had to guide Vuitton’s first shoes and ready-to-wear collections. With this nomination, Louis Vuitton aimed at establishing the brand as a consistent trendsetter in high fashion. Since the late 1990s, creating limited-edition collections had become Louis Vuitton’s marketing strategy to capture consumers’ attention and reinvigorate the brand’s identity while boosting the bottom line. In 2001, Stephen Sprouse and Jacobs collaborated to design a limited edition series of Louis Vuitton bags. Sprouse was already a highly popular artist, as he had collaborated with the extravagant Andy Warhol and with contemporary artists and musicians, such as Debbie Harry and Duran Duran. In line with what The New York Times called Sprouse’s mix of “uptown sophistication in clothing with a downtown punk and pop sensibility,” the collaboration with Jacobs resulted in a limited edition that featured green and white graffiti written over the monogram pattern. All bags were made for Louis Vuitton’s VIP list and were meant to be collector’s items. In 2001, following the success of the Louis Vuitton limited edition, Jacobs designed Louis Vuitton’s first jewelry piece. In 2002, the Tambour watch collection was introduced. Pursuing its globalization strategy in the 21st century, Louis Vuitton opened one of its most famous stores on Fifth Avenue in New York City, then opened more stores in Sao Paulo, Brazil, Johannesburg, South Africa, and Shanghai, China. The brand reopened its store on the Champs-Elysées, which became the largest Louis Vuitton store in the world. Louis Vuitton celebrated world wide its 150th anniversary in

8 Henri Racamier married a descendant of Louis Vuitton. He was asked at the age of 65 by the family of his wife, Odile Vuitton, the great-granddaughter of Louis Vuitton, to run the family’s leather goods business. 9 Official Louis Vuitton MySpace, www.myspace.com/louisvuittonmyspace, accessed June 25, 2010. 10 Diana Prince, “Louis Vuitton: The history behind the purse,”www.associatedcontent.com, accessed July 26, 2008.

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2004. It had taken more than a century, starting with a family house, to build a timeless image of class, luxury and elegance. The industry-leading luxury conglomerate, LVMH, had been a major player in Louis Vuitton’s success; it had been setting the tone and practices of the brand. The LVMH group had divided itself into five business divisions: fashion and leather goods, selective retailing, wines and spirits, perfumes and cosmetics, and watches and jewelry. There were 50-plus luxury brands belonging to the group, which captured business in many countries. Louis Vuitton had been returning the favour to its parent company, as it represented the group’s best-performing brand due to continuous double-digit growth during the past years. Although LVMH did not disclose sales for Louis Vuitton alone, analysts reckoned that in 2003, sales had grown at least 16 per cent worldwide and had repeated that growth in 2004. Thanks to Louis Vuitton’s rapid growth, LVMH’s Paris-traded shares had almost doubled in price in 2004 to more than $75. Exhibits 1 to 4 show LVMH’s financial results for 2008, LVMH’s Fashion & Leather Goods Division’s 2008 financial statements and the division’s key figures.11 The LVMH group’s upward trend was said to be poised to continue as chairman Bernard Arnault’s expectations for the future were very optimistic. At that time, Louis Vuitton had already quintupled sales and increased margins six-fold since Bernard Arnault had bought the company in 1989, and the brand was said to have the greatest potential for growth of all luxury brands (see Exhibit 5). The Vuitton Machine: Inside the World’s Biggest Luxury Brand Thinking of Louis Vuitton, what would come to mind? It would certainly be top model celebrity ads in trendy fashion magazines, or fashionistas in new Louis Vuitton retail temples from the Champs Elysées to Tokyo’s high-end Omotesando shopping district. Behind the glamorous image of Louis Vuitton, one could see what made it unique, and what made it the most profitable luxury brand worldwide (see Exhibit 6). As Louis Vuitton had been progressing smoothly for the past years, Yves Carcelle, the charismatic textile executive who had been widely credited with masterminding Louis Vuitton’s ever-rising growth, had commented about the brand’s growth that “the sky’s the limit.” With $3.8 billion in annual sales, Louis Vuitton represented in 2004 about twice the size of its two main competitors, Prada and Gucci Group’s Gucci division. This fact was even more striking when LVMH announced a 30 per cent increase in Louis Vuitton’s earnings in 2003 due to a record operating margin at 45 per cent. The standard average margin in the luxury accessories business was 25 per cent.12 Efficient management practices Through the years, Louis Vuitton had established a strictly controlled distribution network thanks to an efficient structuring of the company that relied on continuously increasing productivity in design and manufacturing. Louis Vuitton owed much to its executives. Emmanuel Mathieu, who had headed Louis Vuitton’s industrial operations since 2000, had contributed to the boost in manufacturing productivity by five per cent a year, with more productivity, efficiency and teamwork. In 1999, the firm took 12 months to launch a new product; in 2004, the time was reduced to about six months. This continuous improvement had been the theme of Louis Vuitton’s industrial operations and was facilitated by manufacturing methods from auto makers and other industries that had been adopted to boost productivity. 11 The Louis Vuitton Company was part of the Fashion & Leathers Goods Division of LVMH. 12 Carol Matlack, “The Vuitton Money Machine,” Business Week, www.businessweek.com, accessed March 22, 2004.

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Managers such as Emmanuel Mathieu had helped transform the brand from a family business to a 21st century business.13 The manufacturing of Louis Vuitton products was still a labour-intensive process. Each team of 24 workers was responsible for producing about 120 handbags a day. Over a period of time, the brand seemed to have achieved perfect equilibrium between machines and labour. Quality products Louis Vuitton focused on constant improvement of quality and offered lifetime repair guarantees for its customers. The brand had been striving to increase both fidelity and endless desire in its consumers. Louis Vuitton based its strategy on the loyalty of its consumers and strove to attract more consumers to buy bags ranging from classic tan-and-brown monogrammed bags to newer lines, such as the Murakami line, which was priced at $1,000, and Suhali, a line of goatskin bags priced at more than $2,000. As they bought Louis Vuitton items, loyal shoppers stepped into the dream of the brand. The more the prices were raised, the more they would come back. When Jacobs joined Louis Vuitton, the New York designer had a challenge — attracting young buyers. However, Jacobs happened to be the perfect match, as the two product lines that he had launched (ready- to-wear and shoe lines) tapped into a market of younger consumers, even if those lines accounted for less than 15 per cent of the brand’s sales. The younger buyers were attracted by brand image and older clients by quality and lifetime free repairs. Production and quality control The efficiency of the manufacturing facilities and employees helped Louis Vuitton compensate for its decision to keep most manufacturing plants in France, one of the most expensive labour markets in the world. Eleven out of 13 factories that made Louis Vuitton bags were in France. The brand had never planned to manufacture its products in a location where labour was less expensive as the quality control standards in France were very high and customers expected “un savoir-faire à la Française,” meaning the famous refined French know-how. Quality control was conducted in the brand’s test laboratories. The leather raw material came from the hides of Northern European cattle. They were known for relatively few blemishes from insect bites. Despite high-quality leather, the quality of the bags was tested with mechanical arm hoists. The bags, loaded with weights, were lifted and dropped, again and again, as part of quality checking. Then, ultraviolet rays were projected on the handbags in order to determine their resistance to fading. Eventually, zippers were opened and shut 5,000 times. For other pieces, such as jewelry and bracelets, mechanized mannequin hands were strongly shaken to make sure none of the charms would fall off. In all Louis Vuitton factories, employees worked in teams of 20 to 30. Each team was responsible for one product at a time and were encouraged to suggest improvements in manufacturing. They were also briefed about the products, such as their price and how they were selling. The aim was to have autonomous and multi-skilled employees.

13 Ibid.

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The Boulogne Multicolor shoulder bag provided an example of how the whole production process worked. With the success of the Murakami line in 2003,14 the marketing executives thought that this line could be a source of further revenue. They questioned store managers and found out that customers wanted a Murakami shoulder bag. A prototype of this new Boulogne Multicolor bag went directly from the marketing department to top executives. Straight away, they approved it. The prototype went to the factory in Ducey on the Normandy coast of France. The teamwork efficiency of Louis Vuitton’s factory paid off. When some workers were asked to test it, they discovered that decorative studs were causing the zipper to bunch up. Following this discovery, managers were informed right away and technicians managed to place the studs a few millimetres away from the zipper in less than one or two days. The problem was solved.15 Advertising As Louis Vuitton had been going global, it had been able to develop a successful advertising strategy in line with its global expansion strategy. The advertising strategy of the company remained based on the idea that productivity would not sustain growth. Rather than cutting its ad budget like most luxury groups, the company increased ad spending by 20 per cent in 2003. This figure might have seemed very high, but in fact, it only represented five per cent of revenues, half the industry average.16 The company meticulously cultivated a celebrity culture and employed famous models and actresses, such as Jennifer Lopez and, more recently, Madonna, in its advertisement campaigns. However, in 2007, the firm implemented a change in its strategy and announced that former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev would be featured in an advertisement campaign with sports stars Steffi Graf, Andre Agassi and Catherine Deneuve.17 The firm wanted a shift from hiring traditional top models. Louis Vuitton frequently used print ads in magazines and billboards in large cosmopolitan cities. The campaigns often involved famous stars like Gisele Bündchen, Eva Herzigova, Sean Connery, and Francis and Sofia Ford Coppola. Lots of customers were attracted to the mind-boggling 90-second commercial advertisement on television with the catchy question, “Where will life take you?” Translated into 13 different languages, it helped LV to build its brand. The media (communication) department was strategic in choosing the newspapers and magazines to reach out to the higher income group. Future challenges The most serious issue that would remain for years to come was the question of whether Louis Vuitton had reached its growth potential or not. One of its challenges would consist of reducing its risky dependence on the Japanese market. In 2004, 55 per cent of revenues came from Japanese consumers. To reduce dependence on this market, the brand aspired to continue building its sales in the United States, as well as tapping new emerging markets, mainly China and India. The second challenge would be to fight against worldwide counterfeiting. This was important because Louis Vuitton had been itself synonymous with status, convincing customers that they belonged to a privileged club.

14 In 2003, Takashi Murakami, in collaboration with Marc Jacobs, created the Monogram Multicolor canvas range of handbags and accessories. First designed for the Japanese market, the line was a worldwide success. 15 Carol Matlack, “The Vuitton Money Machine,” Business Week, www.businessweek.com, accessed March 22, 2004. 16 Carol Matlack, “The Vuitton Money Machine,” Business Week, www.businessweek.com, accessed March 22, 2004. 17 Official Louis Vuitton MySpace, www.myspace.com/louisvuittonmyspace, accessed June 25, 2010.

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In the future, Louis Vuitton would have to face a shift that all fashion houses feared, the possible departure of Jacobs. Yet, Jacobs had signed a contract as Louis Vuitton’s artistic director until 2018 and Marc Jacobs’s label18was one of the rising stars in LVMH’s portfolio. However, the biggest challenge was in keeping control of the multinational business. As brands went global, the temptation for many was to immediately find new outlets and new channels of distribution and to decide on the price in different countries. However, Louis Vuitton was highly disciplined and focused on quality. JAPAN —A KEY MARKET Overview of the Japanese Luxury Market Over the past few years, Japan had become the capital of luxury and a mass-market paradise for luxury brands. According to an estimate by HSBC in February 2009, it was the final destination of 45 per cent of luxury goods sold worldwide.19 According to some luxury analysts, the statistics were exaggerated. Indeed, Japan was considered the world’s largest market for luxury brands, but statistics said that Japan represented between 12 and 40 per cent of worldwide sales. The rate would vary according to the definition of the market. Claudia D’Arpizio upheld that, “Japan is the world’s largest market, and has the highest per capita spending for luxury goods.” She added, “Much of that volume is from Japanese purchases while on trips to Hawaii, the U.S. or Asia.”20 Competition Japan was the world’s most concentrated source of revenue for luxury brands. It represented the mass market and, consequently, the first source of profit for many international luxury brands. Exhibit 7 shows the percentages of several companies’ overall revenues generated in Japan. The CEO of Bulgari, Francesco Trapani, revealed, “Accounting for 26 per cent of total revenues, Japan is for Bulgari the first and most important market.” In 2006, Japan represented the biggest market for other luxury brands, such as Baccarat, Burberry, the Gucci Group, Louis Vuitton and Salvatore Ferragamo. In addition, Japan was the second biggest market for Coach and Tiffany & Co.21 Comparing Japan’s geography to the U.S. geography, the former was equivalent in size to the region of Montana. Within its tiny territory, Japan was sprinkled with 34 Bulgari stores, 37 Chanel stores, 115 Coach stores, 49 Gucci stores, 64 Salvatore Ferragamo boutiques, 50 Tiffany & Co. boutiques and 252 stores of the LVMH group, including leading brands such as Louis Vuitton, Donna Karan, Marc Jacobs, Berluti, Moet & Chandon, TAG Heuer and De Beers LV.22 18 Marc Jacob created his own label, Marc Jacobs Co. Ltd, in 1994. The company was part of LVMH. 19 Glenn Smith, “Luxury sector loses its recession-proof status,” Media, February 12, 2009,p. 19. 20 Ibid. 21 “Japan is the world’s most concentrated source of revenue for luxury brands,” Japan External Trade Organization, www.jetro.org, accessed May 8, 2006. 22 Louis Vuitton had settled an agreement for a joint venture with the diamond company De Beers for the Japanese market. “Japan is the world’s most concentrated source of revenue for luxury brands,” Japan External Trade Organization, www.jetro.org, accessed May 2006.

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Quality had always been a key factor for successful brands in the Japanese market, especially for smaller brands or niche brands that did not enjoy the same success as larger brands, such as Louis Vuitton. But new, foreign brands were trying to shake up the market share of existing luxury companies in Japan by offering high quality at competitive prices. The popular worldwide Swedish brand H&M tapped into the Japanese market in 2008 with its fast fashion concept. The entry of H&M into the market completely revolutionized it. As a consequence, the effectiveness of the business models of brands like Zara, H&M or Uniqlo enabled them to compete with quality brands amazingly quickly. Affordability was a new concept that was radically changing the mindset of Japanese customers, who were always eager to resemble top fashion models from famous catwalk shows. Consumer Behaviour in Japan Japan had been known for a group-oriented culture in which there was a real pressure to possess luxury status-driven brands. Successful brands, such as Prada, Hermès or Louis Vuitton, had made the Japanese luxury market the mass market. The Japanese way of consumption was different from the Western one. In Japan, young women were more beauty-conscious. The proportion of the urban population in Japan that possessed a famous, expensive luxury brand item was immense, reflecting a tendency not as deeply ingrained in other developed cities, such as New York, Sydney or even Paris, the high-end capital of luxury fashion. The Japanese way of consuming cosmetics and luxury brands seemed more like a compulsory form of social expression. According to Davide Sesia, the president of Prada Japan, Japanese women, to a much greater extent than Europeans, had a “psychological need to own something considered to be beautiful.”23 In Western societies, luxury shopaholics were not very well-perceived among society. However, the cultural and social homogeneity among Japanese society helped explain its attachment to luxury items. The existence of a large middle class and a high population density affected Japanese habits. Japanese people were used to spending more time out of their homes than people in any other culture. Japanese society could be described as an “impersonal” society in which looks were very important, and people were supposed to dress in a way that corresponded to their social position. Yet, times had changed and Japanese consumers were becoming less inclined to tolerate high prices that had formerly created desirability. Although young Japanese women would still be eager to save money for the “it” brands, they had become more aware of the value of money. The lower-priced accessories and small leather items, such as wallets, travellers or clutches, had reported a huge increase in sales in the recent past. Since 2000, luxury goods had held a different position in the consumer mindset. As the market had evolved towards more sophistication, luxury brands were no longer purchased as badges of membership in the new urban class. The norms of mature brand behaviour and consumer habits seen in the Western world were about to be reflected in the Japanese luxury market. Davide Sesia had advocated that, “The increased attitude of Japanese women in their 20s and 30s understanding themselves much better than in the past was a key phenomenon.”24 As a consequence, in the luxury market, the ready-to-wear segment had most incontestably been affected by the new trends in Japanese women’s choices.

23 “The State of Luxury in Japan,” Carter Associates, http://carterassociates.net/aboutJapan/view_04_Luxury.html, accessed February 12, 2008. 24 “The State of Luxury in Japan,” Carter Associates, http://carterassociates.net/aboutJapan/view_04_Luxury.html, accessed February 12, 2008.

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New Perspectives In response to the sluggish economy and appreciation of the Japanese yen, foreign luxury brands were lowering their prices. Louis Vuitton and Christian Dior had lowered their prices the week before Christmas in 2008. Louis Vuitton had made a seven per cent price reduction on leather goods, accessories, ready-to- wear, shoes, watches and jewelry. The decrease in prices was justified by “a policy of offering its products at appropriate prices.”25 This policy relied on the exchange rate fluctuation, manufacturing costs and quality considerations as the yen had strengthened against the euro in 2008.26 Although sales of luxury products had notably decreased due to the global financial crisis, which originated in the United States and spread all over the world during 2008-2009, a new, curious phenomenon had taken over — the rental of bags. Nonetheless, many luxury brands were aiming for the return of better days, like the luxury Belgian chocolatier Godiva, which was carrying on with plans to open two new cafés in Tokyo, or the luxury mobile phone company Vertu, which planned to open a shop in Ginza. Characteristics of the evolution of the ageing Japanese population, such as wealthier families and older women with increased purchasing power, represented new perspectives for the future of the Japanese luxury market. Though there was sustained slowdown in the demand for luxury goods in 2008 and 2009 due to the adverse consequences of the global recession, the Japanese luxury market would remain a healthy and growing industry. There had never been an annual sales decline and the growth for the next few years was still expected to be around six per cent.27 The Japanese market was defined as cyclical in the sense that there were periods of huge spending often followed by periods of slow growth and moderation. In order to compete, brands would have to rethink their decisions and strategies in a more complex way than in past years. Milton Pedraza, the chief executive officer of the Luxury Institute of New York, upheld that, “Luxury has to reinvent itself every few years, and I believe it will return to the traditional meaning of something unique and exclusive.”28 In the near future, prices of goods and lines of products would oscillate, but the average price would be considered the crucial issue in the luxury market. LOUIS VUITTON IN THE JAPANESE MARKET The year 1977 saw the opening of the first stores of Louis Vuitton in Japan in Tokyo and Osaka. In the 1980s, with the economic boom in Japan, there was “Vuittonmania” in Japan. Around 20 million Japanese women (out of a population of 127 million people in Japan) owned a bag of the brand and each year, Louis Vuitton sold more than five million units of “Keepal” and “Speedy,” the classic leather monogram bags.29 The famous Malletier made more than a third of its profit in Japan. What had been the key to its successful strategy?