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Major personality attributes influencing ob

27/11/2021 Client: muhammad11 Deadline: 2 Day

Organizational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications

Eighth Canadian Edition

Chapter 2

Perception, Personality, and Emotions

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Chapter Outline (1 of 2)

Perception

Factors That Influence Perception

Perceptual Errors

Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?

Personality

What Is Personality?

Measuring Personality

Personality Determinants

Personality Traits

The Dark Triad

Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.

Chapter Outline (2 of 2)

Emotions

What Are Emotions and Moods?

Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour

Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Snapshot Summary” at the end of the chapter.

Learning Outcomes (1 of 2)

Define perception, and explain the factors that influence it.

Explain attribution theory, and list the three determinants of attribution.

Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it.

Describe the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality framework and its strengths and weaknesses.

Identify the key traits in the Big Five Personality Model.

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.

Learning Outcomes (2 of 2)

Demonstrate how the Big Five personality traits predict behaviour at work.

Differentiate between emotions and moods.

Show the impact of emotional labour on employees.

Contrast the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence.

Identify strategies for emotion regulation and their likely effects.

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the beginning of the chapter.

Perception

What is perception?

The process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions to give meaning to their environment.

Why is it important?

Because behaviour is based on perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviourally important.

2 - ‹#›

L01; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perception.”

Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. Understanding perception is important because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not reality itself.

Why We Study Perception

To better understand how people make attributions about events.

We don’t see reality. We interpret what we see and call it reality.

The attribution process guides our behaviour, regardless of the truth of the attribution.

2 - ‹#›

LO1; An extra slide to help motivate the lecture.

Factors Influencing Perception

The Perceiver

The Target

The Situation

2 - ‹#›

Lo1; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Factors That Influence Perception.”

A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception.

The Perceiver who is affected by personal characteristics such as attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.

The Target who is affected by “what we see,” attractive or unattractive individuals, novelty, motion, sounds, size, and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it

The Situation which is the context in which we see objects or events. The situation is important as elements in the surrounding environment influence our perceptions. The time at which we see an object or event can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors.

Factors That Influence Perception

2 - ‹#›

LO1; This is a visual representation of factors that influence perception. Use this as speaking notes to fill out the discussion of the three main factors of perception: the situation, the perceiver, and the target.

Perceptual Errors (1 of 3)

Attribution Theory

Selective Perception

Halo Effect

Contrast Effects

Projection

Stereotyping

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.” Go through this slide rather quickly, as the next slides provide speaking note details for each of the perceptual errors listed in this slide.

Attribution Theory (1 of 2)

When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.

Distinctiveness

Does the individual act the same way in other situations?

Consensus

Does the individual act the same as others in the same situation?

Consistency

Does the individual act the same way over time?

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Attribution Theory says we judge people differently depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour.

We attempt to determine whether the behaviour was internally or externally caused.

External causes of behaviour refer to the environment, while internal causes of behaviour are those events that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual.

For example, if a student is late for class, the instructor might attribute his lateness to partying into the wee hours of the morning and then oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. But if the instructor assumes a major automobile accident tied up traffic on the student’s regular route to school, that is making an external attribution.

Our determination of internally- or externally-caused behaviour depends on three factors:

Distinctiveness: Does the individual display different behaviour in different situations?

Consensus: If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behaviour shows consensus.

Consistency: Is the person’s actions consistent over time?

Attribution Theory (2 of 2)

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

How Attributions Get Distorted

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors when making judgments about others’ behaviour.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Percentage of Individuals Rating Themselves Above Average on Each Attribute

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Perceptual Errors (2 of 3)

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Halo Effect

Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, likeability, or appearance.

Contrast Effects

A person’s evaluation is affected by comparisons with other individuals recently encountered.

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Perceptual Errors (3 of 3)

Projection

Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.

Stereotyping

Judging someone on the basis of your perception of the group to which that person belongs.

Prejudice

An unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group.

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Perceptual Errors.”

Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? (1 of 2)

Most obvious applications of judgment shortcuts in the workplace:

Employment interviews

Performance expectations

Performance evaluations

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?”

Employment Interviews

It’s fair to say that few people are hired without undergoing an interview. But interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate and draw early impressions that quickly become entrenched. Research shows we form impressions of others within a tenth of a second, based on our first glance.

Performance Expectations

If a manager expects big things from her people, they are not likely to let her down. Similarly, if she expects only minimal performance, they will likely meet those low expectations. Expectations become reality.

Performance Evaluations

Performance evaluations very much depend on the perceptual process. An employee’s future is closely tied to the appraisal—promotion, pay raises, and continuation of employment are among the most obvious outcomes. Although the appraisal can be objective (for example, a salesperson is appraised on how many dollars of sales he generates in his territory), many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective evaluations, though often necessary, are problematic because all the errors we have discussed thus far—selective perception, contrast effects, halo effect, and so on—affect them. Ironically, sometimes performance ratings say as much about the evaluator as they do about the employee!

Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter? (2 of 2)

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A concept that proposes a person will behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others.

2 - ‹#›

LO2; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Do Perception and Judgment Matter?”

Self-fulfilling prophecy is under the subheading “Performance Expectations.”

Personality (1 of 4)

What is Personality?

The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts and interacts with others.

2 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality.”

Personality (2 of 4)

Measuring Personality

Research indicates that personality tests are useful in hiring decisions.

Scores on personality tests help managers forecast who is the best fit for a job.

2 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Measuring Personality.”

Personality (3 of 4)

Means of measuring personality

Self-report surveys

Individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors

Observer ratings

Provide an independent assessment of personality.

Tend to be more accurate predictors of success on the job.

2 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Measuring Personality.”

Personality (4 of 4)

Personality Determinants

Heredity

Environmental factors

Situational conditions

Personality Traits

Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Big Five Personality Model

2 - ‹#›

LO3; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Determinants.” Don’t go into too much detail on MBTI and the Big Five Model here, as the next slides discuss these in detail.

Personality Determinants

(1) Heredity: An approach that argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. The most persuasive research on this comes from studying monozygotic twins who were separated at birth and raised in very different environments. Different research studies with these kinds of twins have determined that genetics accounts for about half of the personality differences in people.

(2) Environment: The culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, and social groups, and other influences that we experience play a critical role in shaping our personalities.

(3) Situation: The situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. Personality can be subdued in some situations. A person will be different in a job interview as compared to being at dinner with friends. We cannot look at personality patterns in isolation.

Personality Traits

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality-assessment instrument in the world. It’s a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. On the basis of their answers, individuals are classified as extraverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P).

The Big Five Personality Model supports the notion that five basic personality dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality. The Big Five personality factors are: Extraversion; Agreeableness; Conscientiousness; Emotional stability; and Openness to experience.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

MBTI:

Personality test to determine how people usually act or feel in particular situations.

Classifications:

Extroverted (E) or Introverted (I)

Sensing (S) or Intuitive (N)

Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)

Perceiving (P) or Judging (J)

Combined to form 16 personality types:

Three examples:

INTJ

ESTJ

ENTP

2 - ‹#›

LO4; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Some examples of types:

INTJs are visionaries.

Usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes.

Characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and stubborn.

ESTJs are organizers.

Are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business or mechanics.

Like to organize and run activities.

ENTP types are conceptualizers.

Innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas.

Resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments.

There is no hard evidence that the MBTI is a valid measure of personality.

The Big Five Model

Five basic personality dimensions:

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Emotional stability

Openness to experience

2 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Extraversion: One’s comfort level with relationships. Extroverts (high in extraversion) tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships. Introverts tend to be reserved and to have fewer relationships, and they are more comfortable with solitude than most people are.

Agreeableness: An individual’s propensity to defer to others. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting of others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than on the needs of others.

Conscientiousness: The number of goals on which a person focuses. A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals, in a purposeful way, and tends to be responsible, persistent, dependable, and achievement-oriented. Those who score low tend to be more easily distracted, pursuing many goals, and more hedonistic.

Emotional stability: A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure.

Openness to experience: The final dimension addresses one’s range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovation. They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

Big Five Personality Traits

2 - ‹#›

LO5; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

How the Big Five Traits Influence OB

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

The Dark Triad

The Dark Triad – a group of negative personality traits

Machiavellianism

Narcissism

Psychopathy

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

While the Big Five personality traits are what we call socially desirable (glad to score high on those traits), the Dark Triad refers to three socially undesirable traits – Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy. Further slides discuss these.

Machiavellianism

Degree to which an individual is:

pragmatic

maintains emotional distance

believes that the ends can justify the means

High Machs vs. Low Machs

manipulate more

win more

are persuaded less

persuade others more

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Machiavellianism (Mach) — The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. This personality attribute is named after Niccolò Machiavelli, the sixteenth century author of The Prince. A self-assessment for Machiavellianism is found at the end of the chapter.

Narcissism

The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.

Narcissists tend to think that they are better leaders than their colleagues; but their supervisors tend to rate them as worse.

2 - ‹#›

LO6: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Psychopathy

The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when one’s actions cause harm.

Related to the use of hard influence tactics (threats, manipulation) and bullying work behaviour (physical or verbal threatening).

They may be cunning, which helps them gain power in an organization, but they do not use that power toward healthy ends for themselves or their organization.

2 - ‹#›

LO6: Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Other Personality Attributes That Influence OB

Additional Personality Attributes relevant to OB:

Core Self-Evaluation

Self-Monitoring

Proactive Personality

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Personality Traits.”

Core Self-Evaluation

People differ in the degree to which they:

Like or dislike themselves

See themselves as effective, capable, and in control of their environment

People with positive core self-evaluations perform better because they:

Set more ambitious goals

Are more committed to their goals

Persist longer at attempting to reach those goals

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”

Self-Monitoring

An individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors.

High self-monitors tend to:

Pay closer attention to the behaviour of others

Be more capable of conforming than low self-monitors

Be more mobile in their careers

Receive more promotions

Be more likely to occupy central positions in an organization

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”

Self-monitoring: A personality trait that measures an individual's ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external situational factors. A self-assessment for self-monitoring is found at the end of the chapter.

Proactive Personality

A person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs.

People with a proactive personality will have:

Higher levels of job performance

Career success

Actions may be positive or negative depending on the organization and situation.

2 - ‹#›

LO6; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Other Personality Attributes Influencing OB.”

Ask students if they’ve ever noticed that some people actively take the initiative to improve their current circumstances or create new ones while others sit by, passively reacting to situations. This can help them think about proactive personality and why some people are proactive and others are not.

What Are Emotions and Moods?

Affect

Generic term that covers a broad range of feelings people experience, including emotions and moods.

Emotions

Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.

Moods

Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.

2 - ‹#›

LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Emotions.”

Employees bring an emotional component with them to work every day, and no study of OB could be comprehensive without considering the role of emotions in workplace behaviour.

Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Emotions are reactions to an object, not a trait. They’re object-specific. Research has identified six universal emotions: anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise.

Affect, Emotions, and Moods

2 - ‹#›

LO7; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “What are Emotions and Moods?”

Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour

Emotional labour: When an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.

Emotional dissonance

Felt emotions

Displayed emotions

Surface acting

Deep acting

2 - ‹#›

LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour.”

Emotional dissonance: inconsistencies between felt and displayed emotions.

Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.

In contrast, displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given situation. For instance, most of us know that we’re expected to act sad at funerals, regardless of whether we consider the person’s death to be a loss; and to pretend to be happy at weddings, even if we don’t feel like celebrating. The key point here is that felt and displayed emotions are often different.

Examples of emotional labour:

Effective managers have learned to be serious when giving an employee a negative performance evaluation and to cover up their anger when they’ve been passed over for promotion.

The salesperson who hasn’t learned to smile and appear friendly, but instead reveals his or her true feelings at the moment, isn’t typically going to last long in most sales jobs.

Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?

Emotions provide important information about how we understand the world around us.

People who know their own emotions and are good at reading others’ emotions may be more effective in their jobs.

2 - ‹#›

LO8; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Emotional Intelligence (1 of 2)

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

refers to an individual’s ability to:

Perceive emotions in self and others

Understand the meaning of these emotions

Regulate one’s emotions accordingly in a cascading model

2 - ‹#›

LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

The next slide, Exhibit 2-9 is the cascading model discussed here.

A Cascading Model of Emotional Intelligence

2 - ‹#›

LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Emotional Intelligence (2 of 2)

The Case for EI

Intuitive appeal

EI predicts criteria that matter

EI is biologically based

The Case Against EI

EI researchers do not agree on definitions

EI cannot be measured

The validity of EI is suspect

2 - ‹#›

LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Negative Workplace Emotions

Negative emotions can lead to negative workplace behaviours called employee deviance:

Production (leaving early, intentionally working slowly)

Property (stealing, sabotage)

Political (gossiping, blaming co-workers)

Personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse)

2 - ‹#›

LO9; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviours. Anyone who has spent much time in an organization realizes that people often engage in voluntary actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization, its members, or both.

These actions are called employee deviance: voluntary actions that violate established norms and that threaten the organization, its members, or both.

Emotion Regulation (1 of 2)

To identify and modify the emotions you feel

Emotion management ability is a strong predictor of task performance and organizational citizenship behaviours

2 - ‹#›

LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Emotion Regulation (2 of 2)

Common strategies employed to change emotions include:

Surface acting

Deep acting

Acknowledging rather than suppressing emotional responses

Venting

2 - ‹#›

LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace?”

Global Implications (1 of 2)

Potential global differences in the four areas from the chapter:

Perception

Studies suggest that perceptual differences in culture affect what we focus on and what we remember.

Attribution

Most studies suggest that there are differences across cultures in the attributions people make.

2 - ‹#›

LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”

Global Implications (2 of 2)

Personality

The five personality factors identified in the Big Five model appear in almost all cross-cultural studies.

Emotions

Studies suggest some cultures value and experience certain emotions more than others. Intensity also varies to some degree.

2 - ‹#›

LO10; Material pertinent to this discussion is found under “Global Implications.”

Summary

People act on the basis of their perception of reality.

Personality attributes provide a framework for predicting behaviour.

People who are good at reading the emotions of others are generally more effective in the workplace.

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

OB at Work: For Review (1 of 2)

What is perception? What factors influence our perception?

What is attribution theory? What are the three determinants of attribution? What are the implications of attribution theory for explaining organizational behaviour?

What is personality? How do we typically measure it? What factors determine personality?

What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator? What are its strengths and weaknesses?

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

OB at Work: For Review (2 of 2)

What are traits are in the Big Five Personality model?

How do the Big Five personality traits predict behaviour at work?

What is the difference between emotions and moods?

What impact does emotional labour have on employees?

What is the evidence for and against the existence of emotional intelligence?

What are some strategies for emotion regulation and their likely effects?

2 - ‹#›

Material pertinent to this discussion is found at the end of the chapter.

OB at Work: For Managers (1 of 2)

Consider screening job candidates for high conscientiousness—as well as the other Big Five personality traits, depending on the criteria your organization finds most important. Other traits, such as core self-evaluation or narcissism, may be relevant in certain situations.

Although the MBTI has been widely criticized, it may have a place in organizations. You may consider the results helpful for training and development; the results can also help employees better understand themselves, help team members better understand one another, open up communication in work groups, and possibly reduce conflicts.

To foster effective decision making, creativity, and motivation in employees, model positive emotions and moods as much as is authentically possible.

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