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Mali to memphis an african american odyssey

05/12/2021 Client: muhammad11 Deadline: 2 Day

THE AFRICAN-

AMERICAN ODYSSEY

COMBINED VOLUME

DARLENE CLARK HINE WILLIAM C. HINE STANLEY HARROLDDARLENE CLARK HINE WILLIAM C. HINE STANLEY HARROLDARLENE CLARK HINE WILLIAM C. HINE STANLEY HARROL

SEVENTH EDITION

9 7 8 0 1 3 4 4 9 0 9 0 8

ISBN-13: ISBN-10:

978-0-13-449090-8 0-13-449090-8

9 0 0 0 0

www.pearsonhighered.com

ABOUT THE COVER

The National Museum of African American History and Culture opened in September 2016 and contains over 37,000 artifacts related to the African-American experience in the United States.

SEVENTH EDITION

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About the Cover The National Museum of African American History and Culture opened in September 2016 and contains over 37,000 artifacts related to the African-American experience in the United States.

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The African-American Odyssey

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COmbined VOlume Seventh Edition

The African- American Odyssey

Darlene Clark Hine Northwestern University

William C. Hine Formerly of South Carolina State University

Stanley Harrold South Carolina State University

330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Portfolio Manager: Ed Parsons Content Developers: Maggie Barbieri and John Reisbord Content Developer Manager: Beth Jacobson Portfolio Manager Assistant: Amandria Guadalupe Content Producer: Rob DeGeorge Field Marketer: Wendy Albert Product Marketer: Nicholas Bolt Content Producer Manager: Melissa Feimer Digital Studio Course Producers: Heather Pagano and Rich Barnes

Cover Credit: Jim West/Alamy Cover Design: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Cartographer: International Mapping Full Service Project Manager: Karen Berry/SPi Global Compositor: SPi Global Printer/Binder: LSC Kendallville Cover Printer: Lehigh Phoenix

Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.

Acknowledgments of third party content appear on pages C1–C4, which constitute an extension of this copyright page.

PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, and REvEL are exclusive trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates.

Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hine, Darlene Clark, author. | Hine, William C., author | Harrold, Stanley, author. Title: The African-American Odyssey / Darlene Clark Hine (Northwestern University), William C. Hine (formerly of South Carolina State University), Stanley Harrold (South Carolina State University). Description: Seventh edition. | Boston : Pearson, 2016. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016013318| ISBN 9780134483955 (combined volume) | ISBN 0134483952 (combined volume) Subjects: LCSH: African Americans. | African Americans—History. Classification: LCC E185 .H533 2016 | DDC 973/.0496073—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016013318

1 16

Combined volume: ISBN 10: 0-13-449090-8 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-449090-8

Instructor’s Review Copy, Combined volume: ISBN 10: 0-13-448541-6 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-448541-6

volume 1: ISBN 10: 0-13-448951-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-448951-3

Instructor’s Review Copy, volume 1: ISBN 10: 0-13-449095-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-449095-3

volume 2: ISBN 10: 0-13-449096-7 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-449096-0

Instructor’s Review Copy, volume 2: ISBN 10: 0-13-449100-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-449100-4

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http://lccn.loc.gov/2016013318
http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/
dedicated to Charlyce Jones Owen

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Part I Becoming African American 2 1 Africa, ca. 6000 bce–ca. 1600 ce 4 2 Middle Passage, ca. 1450–1809 28 3 Black People in Colonial North

America, 1526–1763 55

4 Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for Independence, 1763–1783 89

5 African Americans in the New Nation, 1783–1820 113

Part II Slavery, Abolition, and the Quest for Freedom: The Coming of the Civil War, 1793–1861 144

6 Life in the Cotton Kingdom, 1793–1861 146

7 Free Black People in Antebellum America, 1820–1861 173

8 Opposition to Slavery, 1730–1833 202 9 Let Your Motto Be Resistance,

1833–1850 222

10 “And Black People Were at the Heart of It”: The United States Disunites Over Slavery, 1846–1861 245

Part III The Civil War, Emancipation, and Black Reconstruction: The Second American Revolution 276

11 Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War, 1861–1865 278

12 The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction, 1865–1868 313

13 The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction, 1868–1877 342

Part IV Searching for Safe Spaces 368 14 White Supremacy Triumphant:

African Americans in the Late Nineteenth Century, 1877–1895 370

15 African Americans Challenge White Supremacy, 1877–1918 401

16 Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the Early Twentieth Century, 1895–1925 438

17 African Americans and the 1920s, 1918–1929 481

Part V The Great Depression and World War II 514

18 Black Protest, Great Depression, and the New Deals, 1929–1940 516

19 Meanings of Freedom: Black Culture and Society, 1930–1950 550

20 The World War II Era and the Seeds of a Revolution, 1940–1950 583

brief Contents

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xii Brief Contents

Part VI The Black Revolution 618 21 The Long Freedom Movement,

1950–1970 620

22 Black Nationalism, Black Power, and Black Arts, 1965–1980 662

23 Black Politics and President Barack Obama, 1980–2016 704

24 African Americans End the Twentieth Century and Enter into the Twenty-First Century, 1980–2016 749

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Maps xxvii Figures xxix Tables xxxi Preface xxxiii About The African-American Odyssey, 7e xxxv Chapter Revision Highlights xxxvii Revel™ xxxix Documents Available in Revel™ xli Acknowledgments xlv About the Authors xlvii

Part I Becoming African American 2

1 Africa, ca. 6000 bce–ca. 1600 ce 4 1.1 A Huge and Diverse Land 5 1.2 The Birthplace of Humanity 6 1.3 Ancient Civilizations and Old Arguments 7 1.3.1 Egyptian Civilization 8

1.3.2 Nubia, Kush, Meroë, and Axum 9

1.4 West Africa 10 1.4.1 Ancient Ghana 11

VoiCes Al BAkri DesCriBes kumBi sAleh AnD GhAnA’s royAl Court 12

1.4.2 The Empire of Mali, 1230–1468 13

1.4.3 The Empire of Songhai, 1464–1591 14

1.4.4 The West African Forest Region 15 VoiCes A DesCriPtion oF Benin City 18

ProFile nzinGA mBemBA (AFonso i) oF konGo 19

1.5 Kongo and Angola 20 1.6 West African Society and Culture 20 1.6.1 Families and villages 20

1.6.2 Women 21

1.6.3 Class and Slavery 21

1.6.4 Religion 22

1.6.5 Art and Music 22

1.6.6 Literature: Oral Histories, Poetry, and Tales 23

1.6.7 Technology 23 Conclusion 24

Chapter timeline 24

review Questions 26

retracing the odyssey 26

recommended reading 781

Additional Bibliography 782 ■ ConneCtinG the PAst the siGniFiCAnCe

oF BlACk Culture 784

Epilogue 786 The Declaration of Independence A-1 The Constitution of the United States of America A-3 The Emancipation Proclamation A-13 Key Provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 A-14 Key Provisions of the voting Rights Act of 1965 A-19 Glossary Key Terms and Concepts G-1 Presidents and vice Presidents of the United States P-1 Historically Black Four-Year Colleges and Universities U-1 Photo and Text Credits C-1 Index I-1

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1–1 Africa: Climatic Regions and Early Sites 6 1–2 Ancient Egypt and Nubia 8 1–3 The Empires of Ghana and Mali 11 1–4 West and Central Africa, c. 1500 14 1–5 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes 17 2–1 The Atlantic and Islamic Slave Trades 32 2–2 Slave Colonies of the Seventeenth and

Eighteenth Centuries 33

2–3 Atlantic Trade Among the Americas, Great Britain, and West Africa During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 35

3–1 Regions of Colonial North America, 1683–1763 67 4–1 European Claims in North America,

1750 (Left) and 1763 (Right) 91

4–2 Major Battles of the American War for Independence, Indicating Those in Which Black Troops Participated 101

4–3 The Resettlement of Black Loyalists After the American War for Independence 106

4–4 North America, 1783 109

5–1 Emancipation and Slavery in the Early Republic 116

5–2 The War of 1812 136 5–3 The Missouri Compromise of 1820 138 6–1 Cotton Production in the South, 1820–1860 148 6–2 Slave Population, 1820–1860 150 6–3 Agriculture, Industry, and Slavery in the

Old South, 1850 152

6–4 Population Percentages in the Southern States, 1850 157

7–1 The Slave, Free Black, and White People of the United States in 1830 175

7–2 Transportation Revolution 178

8–1 Major Slave Conspiracies and Uprisings, 1800–1831 205

8–2 The Founding of Liberia 210 9–1 Antiabolitionist and Antiblack Riots during

the Antebellum Period 225

9–2 The Underground Railroad 236 10–1 The Compromise of 1850 250 10–2 The Kansas-Nebraska Act 260 10–3 The Election of 1860 268 11–1 Effects of the Emancipation Proclamation 286 11–2 The Course of the Civil War 290 12–1 The Effect of Sharecropping on the

Southern Plantation: The Barrow Plantation, Oglethorpe County, Georgia 321

12–2 Congressional Reconstruction 335 13–1 Dates of Readmission of Southern States

to the Union and Reestablishment of Democratic Party Control 358

13–2 The Election of 1876 361 14–1 African-American Population of Western

Territories and States, 1880–1900 388

15–1 Military Posts Where Black Troops Served, 1866–1917 414

16–1 Major Race Riots, 1900–1923 462 16–2 The Great Migration and the Distribution

of the African-American Population in 1920 470

16–3 The Expansion of Black Harlem, 1911–1930 474 21–1 The Effect of the voting Rights Act of 1965 654 23–1 Election of 2008 732 23–2 Election of 2012 737 24–1 Black Unemployment by State:

2011 Annual Averages 757

maps

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Figures

2–1 Estimated Annual Exports of Slaves from Western Africa to the Americas, 1500–1700 31

3–1 Africans Brought as Slaves to British North America, 1701–1775 65

3–2 Africans as a Percentage of the Total Population of the British American Colonies, 1650–1770 76

4–1 The Free Black Population of the British North American Colonies in 1750 and of the United States in 1790 and 1800 105

5–1 Distribution of the Southern Slave Population, 1800–1860 125

6–1 Cotton Exports as a Percentage of All U.S. Exports, 1800–1860 153

7–1 The Free Black, Slave, and White Populations of the United States in 1820 and 1860 176

7–2 The Free Black, Slave, and White Populations by Region, 1860 177

9–1 Mob violence in the United States, 1812–1849 224 14–1 African-American Representation in Congress,

1867–1900 373

14–2 Lynching in the United States, 1889–1932 384 15–1 Black and White Illiteracy in the United

States and the Southern States, 1880–1900 404

15–2 Church Affiliation among Southern Black People, 1890 409

17–1 Black Workers by Major Industrial Group, 1920 494

17–2 Black and White Workers by Skill Level, 1920 495 18–1 Unemployment, 1925–1945 518 24–1 Median Income of Black, Ethnic, and White

Households, 1967–2011 755

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5–1 Slave Populations in the Mid-Atlantic States, 1790–1860 117

6–1 U.S. Slave Population, 1820 and 1860 149 7–1 Black Population in the States of the

Old Northwest, 1800–1840 180

7–2 Free Black Population of Selected Cities, 1800–1850 183

13–1 African-American Population and Officeholding During Reconstruction in the States Subject to Congressional Reconstruction 344

14–1 Black Members of the U.S. Congress, 1860–1901 374

15–1 South Carolina’s Black and White Public Schools, 1908–1909 404

16–1 Black Population Growth in Selected Northern Cities, 1910–1920 468

16–2 African-American Migration from the South 468

18–1 Demographic Shifts: The Second Great Migration, 1930–1950 519

18–2 Median Income of Black Families Compared to the Median Income of White Families for Selected Cities, 1935–1936 520

22–1 Black Power Politics: The Election of Black Mayors, 1967–1990 693

23–1 2012 Election Results: voting Demographics 738 23–2 African-American Participants in U.S.

Presidential Inaugurations 738

24–1 Black Children under Age 18 and Their Living Arrangements, 1960–2015 (Numbers in Thousands) 756

24–2 Rates of Black Incarceration 758 24–3 Unadjusted Numbers of Diagnosed Cases

of Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIv)/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), per 100,000 in the United States, by Race and Year 759

Tables

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Preface

One ever feels his two-ness,—an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled striv-ings; two warring ideals in one dark body.” So wrote W. E. B. Du Bois in 1897. African-American his- tory, Du Bois maintained, was the history of this double- consciousness. Black people have always been part of the American nation that they helped to build. But they have also been a nation unto themselves, with their own expe- riences, culture, and aspirations. African-American his- tory cannot be understood except in the broader context of American history. Likewise, American history cannot be understood without African- American history.

Since Du Bois’s time, our understanding of both African-American and American history has been compli- cated and enriched by a growing appreciation of the role of class and gender in shaping human societies. We are also increasingly aware of the complexity of racial expe- riences in American history. Even in times of great racial polarity, some white people have empathized with black people and some black people have identified with white interests.

It is in light of these insights that The African-American Odyssey tells the story of African Americans. That story begins in Africa, where the people who were to become African Americans began their long, turbulent, and dif- ficult journey, a journey marked by sustained suffering as well as perseverance, bravery, and achievement. It includes the rich culture—at once splendidly distinctive and tightly intertwined with a broader American culture— that African Americans have nurtured throughout their history. And it includes the many-faceted quest for free- dom in which African Americans have sought to counter white oppression and racism with the egalitarian spirit of the Declaration of Independence that American society professes to embody.

Nurtured by black historian Carter G. Woodson dur- ing the early decades of the twentieth century, African- American history has, since the 1950s, blossomed as a field of study. Books and articles have been written on almost every facet of black life. Yet The African-American Odyssey is the first comprehensive college textbook of the African- American experience. It draws on recent research to present black history in a clear and direct manner, within a broad social, cultural, and political framework. It also provides thorough coverage of African-American women as active shapers of that history.

The African-American Odyssey balances accounts of the actions of African- American leaders with investigations

of the lives of ordinary men and women in black com- munities. This community focus makes this a history of a people rather than an account of a few extraordinary indi- viduals. Yet the book does not neglect important political and religious leaders, entrepreneurs, and entertainers. It gives extensive coverage to African-American art, literature, and music.

Because African-American history starts in Africa, this book begins with an account of life on that continent to the sixteenth century when the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas began. The following two chap- ters present the struggle of black people to maintain their humanity during the slave trade and as slaves in North America during the long colonial period.

The coming of the American Revolution during the 1770s initiated a pattern of black struggle for racial justice in which periods of optimism alternated with times of repres- sion. Several chapters analyze the building of black com- munity institutions, the antislavery movement, the efforts of black people to make the Civil War a war for emancipa- tion, their struggle for equal rights as citizens during Recon- struction, and the strong opposition to these efforts. There is also substantial coverage of African-American military service, from the War for Independence through American wars of the nineteenth, twentieth, and into the twenty-first centuries.

During the late nineteenth century and much of the twentieth century, racial segregation and racially motivated violence that relegated African Americans to second-class citizenship provoked despair, but also inspired resistance and commitment to change. Chapters on the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries cover the Great Migration from the cotton fields of the South to the North and West, Black Nation- alism, and the Harlem Renaissance. Chapters on the 1930s and 1940s—the beginning of a period of revolutionary change for African Americans—tell of the economic devastation and political turmoil caused by the Great Depression, the growing influence of black culture in America, the emergence of black internationalism, and the racial tensions caused by black par- ticipation in World War II.

The final chapters tell the story of African Americans in the closing decades of the twentieth century and the first decades of the twenty-first century. They portray the free- dom struggles and legislative successes of the civil rights movement at its peak during the 1950s and 1960s and the electoral political victories of the Black Power movement during the more conservative 1970s and 1980s. Finally, there are discussions of black life during the past 15 years,

“

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with focus on the election, reelection, and achievements of Barack Obama, the first African-American president of the United States. The last chapter focuses on the national and international impact of contemporary black culture pro- duced by the hip-hop generation as it wrestles with issues of social justice, economic opportunity, and human rights.

In all, The African-American Odyssey tells a compel- ling story of survival, struggle, and triumph over adversity. It will leave readers with an appreciation of the central place of black people and black culture in this country and a better understanding of both African-American and American history.

xxxiv Preface

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xxxv

About The African-American Odyssey, 7e

The many special features and pedagogical tools integrated within The African-American Odyssey are designed to make the text accessible to students. They include a variety of tools to reinforce the narrative and help students grasp key issues.

Part-opening timelines thematically organize events in African-American history and provide a reference to the many noteworthy individuals discussed in the chapters.

Chronologies are included throughout the chapters to provide students with a snapshot of the temporal relation- ship among significant events.

Voices boxes provide students with first-person perspectives on key events in African-American history. Brief introductions and study questions help students analyze these primary source documents and relate them to the text.

Profile boxes provide biographical sketches that high- light the contributions and personalities of both prominent individuals and ordinary people, illuminating common experiences among African Americans at various times and places.

Connecting the Past essays examine important mile- stones of the African- American experience over time: evolution of the black church, the emergence of black auto- biography, black migration, desegregation of the military, and black culture.

Marginal glossary terms throughout the chapter guide the student to key terms for review.

Key Supplements and Customer Support Supplements for Instructors Instructor’s Resource Center. www.pearsonhighered.com/irc. This website provides instructors with additional text- specific resources that can be downloaded for classroom

use. Resources include the Instructor’s Manual, Power- Point presentations, and the Test Bank. Register online for access to the resources for The African-American Odyssey.

Instructor’s Manual. Available at the Instructor’s Resource Center for download, www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, the Instructor’s Manual contains detailed chapter overviews, including Revel interactive content in each chapter, activi- ties, resources, and discussion questions.

Test Bank. Available at the Instructor’s Resource Center for download, www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, the Test Bank contains more than 2,000 multiple choice, true-false, and essay test questions.

PowerPoint Presentations. Strong PowerPoint presenta- tions make lectures more engaging for students. Available at the Instructor’s Resource Center for download, www. pearsonhighered.com/irc, the PowerPoints contain chapter outlines and full-color images of maps and art.

MyTest Test Bank. Available at www.pearsonmytest.com, MyTest is a powerful assessment generation program that helps instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and tests can be authored online, allowing instructors ultimate flexibility and the ability to efficiently manage assessments anytime, anywhere! Instructors can easily access existing questions and edit, create, and store using simple drag-and-drop and Word-like controls.

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http://www.pearsonmytest.com
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Chapter Revision Highlights

What’s New in the Seventh Edition Each chapter in the seventh edition of The African- American Odyssey has been revised and improved with updated scholarship.

Chapter 1 Several points in the “Birthplace of Humanity” and “West Africa” sections have been clarified. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 2 The “Slave Trade in Africa” and the “Origins of the Atlantic Slave Trade” sections have been combined. “The Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade” section has been revised and expanded. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 3 The “Race and the Origins of Black Slavery” and “Bacon’s Rebellion and American Slavery” sections have been revised to provide greater clarity. The Anthony Johnson profile has been revised and expanded. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 4 “The Impact of the Enlightenment” section has been revised to provide greater clarity. The Bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 5 The “First Black Schools,” “Slave Uprisings,” and “Missouri Compromise” sections have been revised to provide greater clarity. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 6 “The Character of Slavery and Slaves” section has been revised to provide greater clarity. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 7 The introductory section, which deals with demographics, has been expanded. The “Free African Americans in the Upper South” section has been revised to provide greater clarity. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 8 The “From Gabriel to Denmark vesey “and “Slavery and Politics” sections have been revised to provide greater clarity. The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 9 The bibliography has been updated.

Chapter 10 The section on the African American response to the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law has been revised. There is a new section on slaves who ran away and settled in communities and rural areas in Canada.

Chapter 11 A new section on the Louisiana Native Guards and their black and white officers has been added.

Chapter 12 There is additional information on class and status among African Americans after the Civil War. The section on the Black Codes has been revised and enhanced. There is a new “voices” that features Jourdan Anderson’s 1865 letter to his former master.

Chapter 13 The essay on voting rights and politics in the Connecting the Past section that follows the chapter has new a commentary on the importance of voting and President Barack Obama’s 2015 statements on the voting Rights Act.

Chapter 14 The section on convict leasing has been enhanced and new information on black women in the convict lease system has been included.

Chapter 15 There is a new section on the emergence of gospel music. There is also a new discussion on African American men and their role in the development and growth of horse racing.

Chapter 16 There is added information on W. E. B. Du Bois and The Souls of Black Folk.

Chapter 17 The discussion of scientific racism has been revised and expanded. There is a new section on Amy Jacques Garvey, the wife of Marcus Garvey, and a new section on Harlem radical and intellectual Hubert Harrison.

xxxvii

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xxxviii

Chapter 18 The discussion of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment was revised. New books have been added to the bibliography. The timelines have been revised.

Chapter 19 The discussion of black culture and cultural leaders was expanded and updated. A profile of Duke Ellington was added, as was an expanded discussion of Paul Robeson. The chapter includes revised and updated timelines, with the insertion of more individuals. An updated discussion of Jesse Owens is also included.

Chapter 20 A new discussion of President Truman’s Executive Order 9981 has been added. The discussion of Black women in the military during World War II was expanded. A longer discussion of the post–World War II violence that returning black servicemen encountered, especially in the South, has been added.

Part VI The chapter includes a significantly updated timeline that covers The Black Revolution to the present.

Chapter 21 A new profile of Oklahoma activist Clara Luper has been added along with more discussion of the civil rights movement in Oklahoma. A discussion of twenty-first century efforts to reduce black voting has been added. The discussion of the Little Rock Nine has been expanded to include President Eisenhower’s support for the parents and children, as well as the subsequent careers of the graduates, including Ernest Green.

Chapter 22 Updated discussion of the Nation of Islam and Malcolm X and Black Nationalism and the Black Panther Party is included. Additional coverage of Lorraine Hansberry and an updated bibliography are also included in this chapter.

Chapter 23 The order and presentation of Chapters 23 and 24 have been switched in this edition to keep the chronological flow of information about African-American history. This chapter includes an added discussion of President Obama’s second- term election and several of the most consequential recent accomplishments of his presidency, including normalization of relations with Cuba and the Iran nuclear agreement on the international front. Details about the national epidemic of mass murders combined with the police shootings that inspired the formation of the Black Lives Matter Movement during the closing years of the Obama presidency have been provided. Additional analysis of recent USSC decision on education discrimination has been included. A new table on African American Participants in U.S. Presidential Inaugurations has been included.

Chapter 24 This chapter includes updated statistical charts relating to mass incarceration, black family composition, changes in the number of children living with single mothers, and health care statistics. Expanded discussion of cultural changes focuses on the lives and contribution of cultural activists from the civil rights movement era to the contemporary hip-hop era. Discussion of past and present women and men in the STEM professions has also been expanded. In addition, the chapter provides updated tables on HIv/AIDS health care crisis. A map on black unemployment rate is also now included.

xxxviii Chapter revision highlights

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Revel™

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Educational technology designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn

When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of Revel: an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and students nationwide, Revel is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected Pearson content.

Revel enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

Learn more about Revel http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/

The African-American Odyssey, 7e, features many of the dynamic interactive elements that make Revel unique. In addition to the rich narrative content, The African-American Odyssey includes the following:

• Key Term Definitions: Key Terms appear in bold and include pop-up definitions inline that allow students to see the meaning of a word or phrase while reading the text, providing context.

• Photos with “Hotspots”: Selected photos in the text include “hotspots” that students can click on to learn more about specific, important details related to the image.

• Interactive Maps: Interactive maps throughout the text include a pan/zoom feature and an additional feature that allows students to toggle on and off map details.

• Assessments: Multiple-choice end-of-module and end-of-chapter quizzes test student’s knowledge of the chapter content, including dates, concepts, and major events.

• Additional Resources: This section includes Retracing the Odyssey, Recommended Reading and an Addi- tional Bibliography, all of which are designed to assist students in further research of a particular topic cov- ered in the chapter.

• Chapter Review: The Chapter Review—which con- tains a timeline, Key Term flashcards, an image gallery, video gallery and review questions—is laid out using interactive features that allow students to click on specific topics to learn more or test their knowledge about concepts covered in the chapter.

• Source Collections: An end-of-chapter source col- lection includes three to five documents relevant to the chapter content. Each document includes header notes, questions, and audio. Students can highlight and make notes on the documents.

• Journal Prompts: Revel is rich in opportunities for writing about topics and concepts and the Journal Prompts included are one way in which students can explore themes presented in the chapter. The ungraded Journal Prompts are included inline with content and can be shared with instructors.

• Shared Writing Prompts: These prompts provide peer-to-peer feedback in a discussion board, devel- oping critical thinking skills and fostering collabora- tion among a specific class. These prompts appear between modules.

• Essay Prompts: These prompts appear in Pearson’s Writing Space and can be assigned and graded by instructors.

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xli

The following documents are available in the Revel version of The African-American Odyssey, Seventh Edition.

Chapter 1: Africa, ca. 6000 bce–ca. 1600 ce • Al-Umari Describes Mansa Musa of Mali (c. 1330) • An Egyptian Hymn to the Nile (ca. 1350–1100 bce) • Leo Africanus Describes Timbuktu (c. 1500)

Chapter 2: Middle Passage, ca. 1450–1809 • Willem Bosman, from A New and Accurate Description

of the Coast of Guinea Divided into the Gold, the Slave, and the Ivory Coasts (1705)

• Alexander Falconbridge, A Slave Ship Surgeon Writes About the Slave Trade (1788)

• Olaudah Equiano, The Middle Passage, 1788 • venture Smith, A Slave Tells of His Capture in Africa

in 1798 • Bryan Edwards Describes the “Maroon Negroes

of the Island of Jamaica” (1807) • A Defense of the Slave Trade

Chapter 3: Black People in Colonial North America, 1526–1763 • The Colony of virginia Defines Slavery (1661–1705) • Maryland Addresses the Status of Slaves, 1664 • William Berkeley, Declaration against the Proceed-

ings of Nathaniel Bacon, 1676 • Runaway Notices From the South Carolina Gazette

(1732 and 1737) • James Oglethorpe, The Stono Rebellion, 1739 • venture Smith, from A Narrative of the Life

and Adventures of Venture (1798) • An Architect Describes African American Music

and Instruments in 1818

Chapter 4: Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for Independence, 1763–1783 • John Woolman, An Early Abolitionist Speaks Out

Against Slavery, 1757 • Phillis Wheatley Publishes Her Poems, 1773 • Slaves Petition the Governor of Massachusetts

to End Slavery (1774) • Proclamation of Lord Dunmore (1775) • Jefferson’s “Original Rough Draft” of the Declara-

tion of Independence (1776) • Prince Hall, A Free African-American Petitions the

Government for Emancipation of All Slaves, 1777 • Benjamin Banneker, Letter to Thomas Jefferson (1791)

Chapter 5: African Americans in the New Nation, 1783–1820 • John Wesley, “Thoughts Upon Slavery” (1774) • Prince Hall, A Free African-American Petitions the

Government for Emancipation of All Slaves, 1777

• Two Slaves Call on Connecticut to End Slavery (1779) • Preamble of the Free African Society (1787) • Congress Prohibits the Importation of Slaves (1807) • Absalom Jones Delivers a Sermon on the Occasion

of the Abolition of the International Slave Trade, 1808 • Missouri Enabling Act (March 1820) • Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson Reacts

to the “Missouri Question,” 1820 • Richard Allen, “Address to the Free People

of Colour of these United States” (1830)

Chapter 6: Life in the Cotton Kingdom, 1793–1861 • Thomas R. Dew’s Defense of Slavery, 1832 • An Englishman Describes a Washington, D.C.,

Slave Pen (1835) • Farm Journal Reports on the Care and Feeding

of Slaves, (1836) • Charles C. Jones, The Religious Instruction

of the Negroes in the United States (1842) • Henry Watson, A Slave Tells of His Sale at Auction, 1848 • Reverend A. T. Holmes, The Duties of Christian

Masters (1851) • A Catechism for Slaves (1854) • Frederick Law Olmsted, from A Journey

in the Seaboard States (1856)

Chapter 7: Free Black People in Antebellum America, 1820–1861 • Sarah Mapps Douglass Describes Her Encounter

with Northern Racism (1837) • Journal of Charlotte Forten, Free Woman of Color

(Selections from 1854) • John Gloucester, The Founder of the First African

Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia (1857) • Harriet Wilson, From Our Nig; or, Sketches

from the Life of a Free Black (1859)

Chapter 8: Opposition to Slavery, 1730–1833 • Ben Woolfolk, A Virginia Slave Explains Gabriel’s

Conspiracy (1800) • An Account of the Late Intended Insurrection

Among a Portion of the Blacks of this City (1822) • David Walker, Walker’s Appeal (1829) • Nat Turner, The Confessions of Nat Turner, 1831 • William Lloyd Garrison Demands an Immediate

End to Slavery, 1831 • The American Anti-Slavery Society Declares

Its Sentiments, 1833 • Runaway Slave Advertisements, 1838–1839

Chapter 9: Let Your Motto Be Resistance, 1833–1850 • Levi Coffin’s Underground Railroad Station, 1826–1827 • An Abolitionist Lecturer’s Instructions (1834)

documents Available in Revel™

A01_HINE3955_07_SE_FM.indd 41 11/14/16 5:40 PM

xlii Documents Available in revel™

• Elizabeth Margaret Chandler Calls on Women to Become Abolitionists (1836)

• Garnet’s “Call to Rebellion” (1843) • Frederick Douglass, excerpt from Narrative of the Life,

(1845) • Two Escaped Slaves Tell Their Stories (1855)

Chapter 10: “And Black People Were at the Heart of It”: The United States Disunites Over Slavery, 1846–1861 • National Convention of Colored People, Report

on Abolition (1847) • Frederick Douglass: What of the Night? (1848);

A Letter to American Slaves (1850); Letter to James Redpath (1860)

• Clay and Calhoun, The Compromise of 1850 • The Fugitive Slave Act, 1850 • Sojourner Truth, Address to the Woman’s Rights

Convention, Akron, Ohio (1851) • Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 1852 • A Southern Scholar Critiques Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 1852 • Stephen Pembroke, Speech by a Slave (1854) • Anthony Burns Responds to His Excommunication

from the Baptist Church (1855) • Benjamin Drew, Narratives of Escaped Slaves (1855) • Massachusetts Defies the Fugitive Slave Act, 1855 • Dred Scott, A Slave Sues for Freedom, 1857 • Abraham Lincoln, Debate at Galesburg, Illinois,

1858 • An Abolitionist Is Given the Death Sentence (1859) • Abraham Lincoln Argues that the United States

Cannot Be a “House Divided,” 1859 • William Lloyd Garrison, On John Brown’s Raid, 1859

Chapter 11: Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War, 1861–1865 • Abraham Lincoln Defines His Position on Slavery

and the War, 1862 • A Confederate Soldier Denounces Exempting

Slaveholders from Military Service (1862) • Abraham Lincoln, The Emancipation Proclamation,

1863 • Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, 1863 • An African American Soldier Writes to President

Lincoln, 1863 • Clement vallandigham, On the War and Its Conduct

(January 14, 1863) • Lewis Douglass Describes the Battle of Fort Wagner,

1863 • Testimony of victims of the New York City Draft

Riots, 1863 • A Free Black volunteer Describes His Feelings About

Fighting for the Union, 1864 • A Civil War Nurse Writes of Conditions of Freed

Slaves (1864) • Soldier (20th U.S. Colored Infantry), Letter to the

Abraham Lincoln (1864)

• Elizabeth Keckley Describes Life in the White House During the Civil War (1866)

Chapter 12: The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction, 1865–1868 • Charlotte Forten Describes Life on the Sea Islands,

1864 • Address From the Colored Citizens of Norfolk,

virginia, to the People of the United States (1865) • Calvin Holly, Mississippi Black Soldier to the

Freedmen’s Bureau Commissioner (1865) • Carl Schurz Reports on Conditions in the Postwar

South, 1865 • Freed Slaves March in Charleston, South Carolina

(1865) • Jourdon Anderson to His Former Master, 1865 • State of Mississippi, Black Code, 1865 • Thaddeus Stevens, Reconstruction Speech (December

18, 1865) • The Colored People of South Carolina Protest

the “Black Codes,” 1865 • The Freedmen’s Bureau Bill (1865) • Marcus S. Hopkins, Freedmen’s Bureau Agent

at Brentsville, Virginia, to the Freedmen’s Bureau Superintendent of the 10th District of Virginia (1866)

• President Johnson vetoes the Civil Rights Act of 1866, 1866

Chapter 13: The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction, 1868–1877 • An Ex-Slave Describes a Ku Klux Klan Ride,

Late 1860s • The Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth

Amendments to the Constitution, 1865–1870 • Federal Officials Investigate the Memphis Riot,

1866 • Organization and Principles of the Ku Klux Klan,

1868 • Albion W. Tourgee, Letter on Ku Klux Klan

Activities, 1870 • A Southern Poet Celebrates the Confederacy’s “Lost

Cause” (1870s) • An African American Senator Decries Democratic

Political violence, 1876 • James W. Lee, Letter to Mississippi Governor Adelbert

Ames (Feb. 7, 1876)

Chapter 14: White Supremacy Triumphant: African Americans in the Late Nineteenth Century, 1877–1895 • James T. Rapier, Testimony before U.S. Senate Regard-

ing the Agricultural Labor Force in the South (1880) • A Sharecrop Contract, 1882 • Ida B. Wells-Barnett, False Accusations, from The Red

Record, 1895 • Plessy v. Ferguson Legalizes Segregation, 1896 • Mark Twain, The United States of Lyncherdom (1901)

A01_HINE3955_07_SE_FM.indd 42 11/14/16 5:40 PM

Documents Available in revel™ xliii

Chapter 15: African Americans Challenge White Supremacy, 1877–1918 • Booker T. Washington’s Atlanta Exposition Address,

1895 • Paul Laurence Dunbar, “The Colored Soldiers”

(1896) • Booker T. Washington, “Industrial Education

for the Negro” (1903) • W. E. B. Du Bois, The Talented Tenth, 1903

Chapter 16: Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the Early Twentieth Century, 1895–1925 • Anna Julia Cooper Describes the Status of Women

in America (1892) • W.E.B. Du Bois Challenges Booker T. Washington, 1903 • W. E. B. Du Bois, from “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington

and Others” (1903) • The Niagara Movement Articulates Its Principles, 1906 • Platform of the National Negro Committee (1909) • Letters from the Great Migration, 1917 • French Military Mission, Statement Concerning Black

American Troops (1918) • A. Philip Randolph Embraces Socialism (1919) • The Chicago Defender Describes a Race Riot (1919) • Reverend F. J. Grimke, Address to African-American

Soldiers Returning from War (1919) • “The Eruption of Tulsa”: An NAACP Official

Investigates the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921

Chapter 17: African Americans and the 1920s, 1918–1929 • Marcus Garvey Calls for Black Separatism, (1921) • Marcus Garvey, “If You Believe the Negro Has

a Soul,” Marcus Garvey (1921) • The “Creed of Klanswomen,” 1924 • Alain Locke Discusses the Emergence of the “New

Negro” (1925) • Hiram Evans, “Klan’s Fight for Americanism,” 1926

Chapter 18: Black Protest, Great Depression, and the New Deals, 1929–1940 • Luther C. Wandall Describes His Experience

in the Civilian Conservation Corps (1935) • National Labor Relations Act (1935) • Eyewitness Accounts of the Ku Klux Klan (1936) • Scott’s Run, West virginia. Johnson Family—Father

Unemployed (1937) • Mrs. Henry Weddington, Letter to President

Roosevelt, 1938

Chapter 19: Meanings of Freedom: Black Culture and Society, 1930–1950 • “BUT I AM NOT tragically colored” Zora Neale

Hurston’s Contrarian Self-Image at the Height of the Harlem Renaissance (1928)

• Ethel Waters Talks About Blacks in the Movies (1950)

• “Are you now a member of the Communist Party?” The HUAC Testimony of Paul Robeson (1956)

• Ella Fitzgerald, Complaint Against Pan American World Airlines (1957)

Chapter 20: The World War II Era and the Seeds of a Revolution, 1940–1950 • Thurgood Marshall, “The Legal Attack to Secure

Civil Rights” (1942) • The First Lady and the Airman: Correspondence

of Cecil Peterson and Eleanor Roosevelt (1942–1943) • President Truman Integrates the Armed Forces

(1948) • “The Dictates of Self-Respect” The Committee

against Jim Crow in Military Service and Training to President Truman (1948)

Chapter 21: The Long Freedom Movement, 1950–1970 • McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents Paves the Way

for Brown (1950) • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 1954 • Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, Montgomery Bus Boycott,

1955 • Southern Manifesto on Integration (1956) • President Eisenhower Uses the National Guard

to Desegregate Central High School, 1957 • Letter from Jackie Robinson to President Eisenhower

(1958) • Julian Bond, Sit-ins and the Origins of SNCC (1960) • Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

Statement of Purpose, 1960 • James Meredith, Letter to the Justice Department

(1961) • Martin Luther King, Jr., “Letter from a Birmingham

Jail,” 1963 • The Civil Rights Act of 1964 • voting Literacy Test (1965)

Chapter 22: Black Nationalism, Black Power, and Black Arts, 1965–1980 • From the FBI files of Malcolm X (1951–1953) • Lyndon B. Johnson, The War on Poverty, 1964 • Ione Malloy Describes the Conflict Over Busing

in Boston (1965) • The Supreme Court Rules on Busing, Swann

v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971) • “Our Nation Is Moving Toward Two Societies, One

Black, One White-Separate and Unequal”

Chapter 23: Black Politics and President Barack Obama, 1980–2016 • Richard viguerie, Why the New Right is Winning

(1981) • Nelson Mandela, Release from Prison (1990) • Barack H. Obama, A More Perfect Union (2008)

A01_HINE3955_07_SE_FM.indd 43 11/14/16 5:40 PM

• Darlene Clark Hine, Mystic Chords of Memory (2008) • Barack H. Obama, Inaugural Address (2009)

Chapter 24: African Americans End the Twentieth Century and Enter into the Twenty-First Century, 1980–2016 • Public Housing in Chicago: Martha Madison Writes

to Judge John Powers Crowley (1981) • Michael Jackson: Beyond the Pale (1992)

• American Forces Information Service Black History Month Poster (2000)

• The Path Forward: Revisiting The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (2013)

• Does Rachel Dolezal have “a right to be black”? (2015)

• President Barack Obama’s Remarks at the Dedication of the National Museum of African American History and Culture (2016)

xliv Documents Available in revel™

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xlv

In preparing The African-American Odyssey, we have benefited from the work of many scholars and the help of colleagues, librarians, friends, and family.

Special thanks are due to the following scholars for their substantial contributions to the development of this textbook: Hilary Mac Austin, Chicago, Illinois; Pero Dagbo- vie, Michigan State University; Brian W. Dippie, University of Victoria; Thomas Doughton, Holy Cross College; Jack Dodds, formerly of Harper College; W. Marvin Dulaney, University of Texas at Arlington ; Sherry DuPree, Rosewood Heritage Foun- dation; Peter Banner-Haley, Colgate University; Robert L. Harris, Jr., formerly of Cornell University; Wanda Hendricks, University of South Carolina; Rickey Hill, Jackson State Uni- versity; William B. Hixson, formerly Michigan State Univer- sity; Barbara Williams Jenkins, formerly of South Carolina State University; Earnestine Jenkins, University of Memphis; Hannibal Johnson, Tulsa, Oklahoma; Wilma King, Univer- sity of Missouri, Columbia; Karen Kossie- Chernyshev, Texas Southern University; Frank C. Martin, South Carolina State University; Jacqueline McLeod, Metropolitan State University of Denver; Freddie Parker, North Carolina Central Univer- sity; Christopher R. Reed, Roosevelt University; Linda Reed, University of Houston; Mark Stegmaier, Cameron University; Marshanda Smith, Northwestern University; Robert Stewart, Trinity School, New York; Larry Watson, South Carolina State University; ; Barbara Woods, formerly of South Carolina State University; Andrew Workman, Mills College; Deborah Wright, Avery Research Center, College of Charleston.

We are grateful to the reviewers through seven editions who devoted valuable time to reading and commenting on The African-American Odyssey. Their insightful suggestions greatly improved the quality of the text: Leslie Alexander, The Ohio State University; Carol Anderson, University of Missouri, Columbia; Abel A. Bartley, Clemson University; Jennifer L. Baszile, Yale University; James M. Beeby, West Virginia Wes- leyan College; Richard A. Buckelew, Bethune- Cookman Col- lege; Claude A. Clegg, Indiana University; Gregory Conerly, Cleveland State University; Delia Cook, University of Missouri at Kansas City; Caroline Cox, University of the Pacific; Mary Ellen Curtin, Southwest Texas State University; Henry vance Davis, Ramapo College of NJ; Roy F. Finkenbine, Wayne State University; Dr. Jessie Gaston, California State University, Sacramento; Abiodun Goke-Pariola, Georgia Southern Uni- versity; Robert Gregg, Richard Stockton College of NJ; Keith Griffler, University of Cincinnati; John H. Haley, University of North Carolina at Wilmington; Robert v. Hanes, Western

Kentucky University; Julia Robinson Harmon, Western Michi- gan University; Ebeneazer Hunter, De Anza College; Eric R. Jackson, Northern Kentucky University; Wali Rashash Kharif, Tennessee Technological University; John W. King, Temple Uni- versity; Joseph Kinner, Gallaudet University; Lester C. Lamon, Indiana University, South Bend; Eric Love, University of Colorado- Boulder; John F. Marszalek, Mississippi State Univer- sity; Kenneth Mason, Santa Monica College; Andrew T. Miller, Union College; Diane Batts Morrow, University of Georgia; Ruddy Pearson, American College; Walter Rucker, University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Josh Sides, California State University, Northridge; Manisha Sinha, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; John David Smith, North Carolina State University at Raleigh; Marshall Stevenson, Ohio State University; Betty Joe Wallace, Austin Peay State University; Matthew C. Whitaker, Arizona State University; Harry Williams, Carleton College; vernon J. Williams, Jr., Purdue University; Leslie Wilson, Montclair State University; Andrew Workman, Mills College; Marilyn L. Yancy, Virginia Union University.

We wish to thank the following reviewers for their insight- ful comments in preparation for this seventh edition: Sele Adeyemi, J Sargeant Reynolds Community College; Daniel Anderson, Cincinnati State Technical and Community College; Latangela Crossfield, Clark Atlanta University; Linda Denkins, Houston Community College District– Northeast; Jennifer Harbour, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Misti Harper, University of Arkansas; Maurice Hobson, Univer- sity of Mississippi; Lacey Hunter, Rutgers University; Ryan McMillen, Santa Monica College; Zacharia Nchinda, Univer- sity of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Charmayne Patterson, Clark Atlanta University; Matthew Schaffer, Florence Darlington Technical College; and Erica Woods-Warrior, Hampton University.

Leslie Alexander, The Ohio State University; Lila Ammons, Howard University; Beverly Bunch-Lyons, Virginia Tech- nical College; Latangela Crossfield, Clark Atlanta Univer- sity; Linda Denkins, Houston Community College; Lillie Edwards, Drew University; Jim Harper, North Carolina Cen- tral University; Dr. Maurice Hobson, University of Missis- sippi; Alyce Miller, John Tyler Community College; Zacharia Nchinda, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Melinda Pash, Fayetteville Technical Community College; Charmayne Patterson, Clark Atlanta University; Matthew Schaffer, Florence Darlington Technical College; Denise Scifres, City Colleges of Chicago, Center for Distance Learning; Linda Tomlinson, Fayetteville State University; Angela Winand,

Acknowledgments

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xlvi Acknowledgments

University of Illinois, Springfield; Erica Woods-Warrior, Hampton University.

Many librarians provided valuable help tracking down impor- tant material. They include Avery Daniels, Ruth Hodges, Doris Johnson, the late Barbara Keitt, Cathi Cooper Mack, Mary L. Smalls, Ashley Till, and Adrienne Webber, all of Miller F. Whittaker Library, South Carolina State University; James Brooks and Jo Cottingham of the interlibrary loan depart- ment, Cooper Library, University of South Carolina; and Allan Stokes of the South Carolina Library at the University of South Carolina. Dr. Marshanda Smith and Kathleen Thompson pro- vided important documents and other source material.

Seleta Simpson Byrd of South Carolina State University; Marshanda Smith of Northwestern University provided valuable research assistance in the preparation of several content and statistical charts and timelines.

Each of us also enjoyed the support of family members, par- ticularly Barbara A. Clark, Robbie D. Clark, Emily Harrold, Judy Harrold, Carol A. Hine, and Thomas D. Hine.

Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the essential help of the superb editorial and production team at Prentice Hall/ Pearson Education: Charlyce Jones Owen, Publisher, whose vision got this project started and whose unwav- ering support saw it through to completion; Maureen Diana, Editorial Assistant; Rochelle Diogenes, Editor- in-Chief of Development; Maria Lange, Creative Design Director; Ann Marie McCarthy, Senior Managing Editor; and Emsal Hasan, Project Manager, who saw it efficiently through production; Marianne Gloriande, Manufacturing Buyer; Wendy Albert, Senior Marketing Manager; Beverly Fong, Program Manager; Tanisha Jackson, Program Editor at Ohlinger Publishing Services, for editorial and bibliographical suggestions and material contributions; and Ohlinger Publishing Services, who worked on this edition’s development.

D.C.H. W.C.H.

S.H.

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xlvii

Darlene Clark Hine Darlene Clark Hine is Board of Trustees Professor of African American Studies and Professor of History at Northwestern University. She is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, as well as past president of the Organization of American Historians and of the Southern Historical Association. In 2014 President Barack Obama awarded Hine the National Humanities Medal (2013) for her work in African American and in Black Women’s History. In 2015, the National Women’s History Project honored Hine for her contributions to women’s history. Hine received her BA at Roosevelt University in Chicago, and her MA and PhD from Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. Hine has taught at South Carolina State University and at Purdue University. She was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University and at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Studies at Harvard University. She is the author and/or coeditor of 20 books, most recently The Black Chicago Renaissance (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), Black Europe and the African Diaspora (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), coedited with Trica Danielle Keaton and Stephen Small; Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005), coedited with Barry Gaspar; and The Harvard Guide to African- American History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), coedited with Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham and Leon Litwack. She coedited a two-volume set with Earnestine Jenkins, A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Men’s History and Masculinity (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999, 2001); and with Jacqueline McLeod, Crossing Boundaries: Comparative History of Black People in Diaspora (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000). With Kathleen Thompson she wrote A Shining Thread of Hope: The History of Black Women in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1998), and edited with Barry Gaspar More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996). She won the Dartmouth Medal of the

American Library Association for the reference volumes coedited with Elsa Barkley Brown and Rosalyn Terborg- Penn, Black Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia (New York: Carlson Publishing, 1993). She is the author of Black Women in White: Racial Conf lict and Cooperation in the Nursing Profession, 1890–1950 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989). She continues to work on the forthcoming book project The Black Professional Class: Physicians, Nurses, Lawyers, and the Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 1890–1955.

William C. Hine Now retired, William C. Hine taught history for many years at South Carolina State University.

Stanley Harrold Stanley Harrold is Professor of History at South Carolina State University and coeditor of Southern Dissent, a book series published by the University Press of Florida. Harrold has a BA from Allegheny College and an MA and PhD from Kent State University. He has received four National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowships, most recently in 2013–14. His books include Gamaliel Bailey and Antislavery Union (Kent State University Press, 1986), The Abolitionists and the South (University Press of Kentucky, 1995), Anti- slavery Violence: Sectional, Racial, and Cultural Conflict in Antebellum America, coedited with John R. McKivigan (University of Tennessee Press, 1999), American Abolitionists (Taylor & Francis, 2001), Subversives: Antislavery Community in Washington, D.C., 1828–1865 (Louisiana State University Press, 2003), The Rise of Aggressive Abolitionism: Addresses to the Slaves (University Press of Kentucky, 2004), Civil War and Reconstruction: A Documentary Reader (Wiley, 2007), and Border War: Fighting over Slavery before the Civil War (University of North Carolina Press, 2010). In 2011, Border War won the Southern Historical Association’s 2011 James A. Rawley Award and received an honorable mention for the Lincoln Prize. Harrold has recently published articles in North & South, Organization of American Historian’s Magazine of History, and Ohio Valley History.

About the Authors

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The African-American Odyssey

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Part I

Becoming African American

to 1500 1500–1700

Religion 300s ce Axum adopts Christianity 750s Islam begins to take root in West

Africa 1300s–1500s Timbuktu flourishes as a center

of Islamic learning 1324 Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to

Mecca c. 1500 Portuguese convert Kongo kings

to Christianity

CultuRe 1600s African versions of English and French—Gullah, Geechee, and Creole—begin to develop

1600s–1700s African-American folk culture appears among the slaves

PolitiCs and goveRnment

c. 3150–30 bce Independence of Ancient Egypt 1st century ce Fall of Kush 8th century ce Decline of Axumite Empire

in Ethiopia c. 750–1076 Empire of Ghana 1230–1468 Empire of Mali 1400s–1700s Expansion of Benin 1468–1571 Empire of Songhai

1500s Rise of Akan states 1607 Jamestown founded 1696 South Carolina Slave Code

enacted

soCiety and eConomy

10th century Islamic slave trade across the Sahara and Central Africa begins

1472 First Portuguese slave traders in Benin

1481 First “slave factory” in Elmira on the Guinea coast

1502 First mention of African slaves in the Americas

1518 Spanish Asiento begins c. 1520 Sugar plantations begin

in Brazil 1619 First African slaves arrive

in Jamestown 1620s Chesapeake tobacco plantations

increase the demand for slaves 1624 First black child reported born

in British North America 1660s Chattel slavery emerges in the

southern colonies

M01A_HINE3955_07_SE_P01.indd 2 11/9/16 8:54 AM

1700–1800 1800–1820 Noteworthy Individuals

c. 1738 First Great Awakening: George Whitefield preaches to African Americans

1780 Lemuel Haynes becomes first ordained black Congregationalist minister

1794 Mother Bethel Church founded in Philadelphia St. Thomas’s Episcopal Church established under Absalom Jones

1808 Abyssinian Baptist Church organized in New York City

1811 African Presbyterian Church established in Philadelphia under Samuel E. Cornish

1816 African Methodist Episcopal Church established

King Piankhy of Kush (r. c. 750 bce)

sundiata of mali (c. 1235 ce)

emperor mansa musa of mali (r. 1312–1337)

King sunni ali of songhai (r. 1464–1492)

King askia muhammed toure of songhai (r. 1493–1528)

King nzinga mbemba (afonso i) of Kongo (r. 1506–1543) ayuba suleiman diallo of Bondu (c. 1701–1773)

Jupiter Hammon (1711–c. 1806)

Crispus attucks (1723–1770)

Benjamin Banneker (1731–1806) Prince Hall (1735–1807)

elizabeth Freeman (1744–1811)

absalom Jones (1746–1818)

olaudah equiano (c. 1745–1797) James Forten (1746–1818) Peter salem (1750–1816)

Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753–1784) Richard allen

(1760–1831) Paul Cuffe (1759–1817)

daniel Coker (1780–1846)

gabriel (d. 1800)

Charles deslondes (d. 1811)

1740s Lucy Terry Prince publishes poetry 1760 Jupiter Hammon publishes a book of poetry 1773 Phillis Wheatley’s Poems on Various Subjects 1775 Prince Hall founds first African-American

Masonic Lodge 1780 First African-American mutual aid society

founded in Newport, Rhode Island 1787 Free African Society founded in Philadelphia 1791–1795 Benjamin Banneker’s Almanac published 1793 Philadelphia’s Female Benevolent Society

of St. Thomas founded

1818 Mother Bethel Church establishes the Augustine School

1773 Massachusetts African Americans petition the legislature for freedom

1775 Black militiamen fight at Lexington and Concord 1776 Declaration of Independence 1777 Vermont prohibits slavery 1782 Virginia allows manumission 1783 Massachusetts allows male black taxpayers

to vote 1787 Congress bans slavery in the Northwest Territory 1789 U.S. Constitution includes the Three-Fifths clause 1793 Congress passes First Fugitive Slave Act

1807 Britain abolishes the Atlantic slave trade

1808 U.S. abolishes the Atlantic slave trade

1820 Missouri Compro- mise First settlement of Liberia by African Americans

1712 New York City slave rebellion 1739 Stono slave revolt in South Carolina 1776–1783 100,000 slaves flee southern plantations 1781–1783 20,000 black Loyalists depart with British troops 1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin

1800 Gabriel’s rebellion in Charleston

1811 Deslondes’s rebellion in Louisiana

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West Africans were making iron tools long before Europeans arrived in Africa.

Chapter 1

Africa ca. 6000 bce–ca. 1600 ce

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1 Recognize the geographical characteristics of Africa.

1.2 Be aware of current theories about where and how humans originated.

1.3 Understand why ancient African civilizations are important.

Learning Objectives

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Africa 5

1.4 Appreciate West Africa’s significance in regard to African- American history.

1.5 Analyze what Kongo and Angola had in common with West Africa.

1.6 Understand how legacies of West African society and culture influenced the way African Americans lived.

These [West African] nations think themselves the foremost men in the world, and nothing will persuade them to the contrary. They imagine that Africa is not only the greatest part of the world but also the happiest and

most agreeable.

—Father Cavazzi, 1687

The ancestral homeland of most black Americans is West Africa. Other parts of Africa— Angola and East Africa—were caught up in the great Atlantic slave trade that carried Africans to the New World from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. But West Africa was the center of the trade in human beings. Knowing the history of West Africa therefore is important for understanding the people who became the first African Americans.

That history, however, is best understood within the larger context of the history and geography of the African continent. This chapter begins, therefore, with a survey of the larger context. It emphasizes aspects of a broader African experience that shaped life in West Africa before the arrival of Europeans in that region. It then explores West Africa’s unique heritage and the facets of its culture that have influenced the lives of African Americans from the Diaspora—the original forced dispersal of Africans from their homeland—to the present.

1.1 A Huge and Diverse Land Recognize the geographical characteristics of Africa.

Africa, the second largest continent in the world (only Asia is larger), is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea to the east. A narrow strip of land in Africa’s northeast corner connects it to the Arabian Peninsula and beyond that to Asia and Europe.

From north to south, Africa is divided into a succession of climatic zones (see Map 1-1). Except for a fertile strip along the Mediterranean coast and the agricultur- ally rich Nile River valley, most of the northern third of the continent consists of the Sahara Desert. For thousands of years, the Sahara limited contact between the rest of Africa—known as sub-Saharan Africa—and the Mediterranean coast, Europe, and Asia. South of the Sahara is a semidesert region known as the Sahel, and south of the Sahel is a huge grassland, or savanna, stretching from Ethiopia west to the Atlantic Ocean. Arab adventurers named this savanna Bilad es Sudan, meaning “land of the black people,” and the term Sudan designates this entire region rather than simply the modern East African nations of Sudan and South Sudan. Much of the habitable part of West Africa falls within the savanna. The rest lies within the northern part of a rain forest that extends east from the Atlantic coast over most of the central part of the continent. Another region of savanna borders the rain forest to the south, fol- lowed by another desert—the Kalahari—and another coastal strip at the continent’s southern extremity.

savanna A flat, nearly treeless grassland typical of large portions of West Africa.

rain forest A dense growth of tall trees char- acteristic of hot, wet regions.

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6 Chapter 1

1.2 The Birthplace of Humanity Be aware of current theories about where and how humans originated.

Paleoanthropologists—scientists who study the evolution and prehistory of humans— have concluded that the origins of humanity lie in the savanna regions of Africa. All people today, in other words, are very likely descendants of beings who lived in Africa millions of years ago.

EQUATOR EQUATOR

Nig er River

Ben ue

River

Ubangi River

Senegal River

Ko ng

o (Z

aire ) River

Lake Victoria

Lake Rudolph

Lake Tanganyika

Lake Nyasa

Lake Chad

N ile

R iv

W hi

te N

ile R

ive r

mb ezi River

Lim pop

o River

Orange River

Limit of Rain Fore

Strait of Gibraltar

INDIAN OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN

M oz

am bi

qu e

Ch an

ne l

R e

d S

e a

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Cape Verde

Cape of Good Hope

A t l a s M o u n

t a i n s

Ahaggar Plateau

Tibesti Mountains

Ennedi Plateau

Mt. Kenya

Mt. Kilimanjaro

S a h e l

S a h a r a

K a l a h a r i D e s e r t

EGYPT

NUBIA/KUSH

EASTERN SUDAN

ABYSSINIA (ETHIOPIA)

CENTRAL SUDAN

MADAGASCAR

WESTERN SUDAN

Jos Plateau Nok Culture

Kerma

Meroë Napata

Azum Jenne

Taruga

0 500 1000 mi

0 500 1000 km

Rain forest

Mountain ranges and high plateau

Savanna and steppe

Desert

Rift Valley

Map 1-1 Africa: Climatic Regions and Early Sites Africa is a large continent with several climatic zones. It is also the home of several early civilizations.

What impact did the variety of climatic zones have on the development of civilization in Africa?

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Africa 7

Fossil and genetic evidence suggests that both humans and the forest-dwelling great apes (gorillas and chimpanzees) descended from a common ancestor who lived in Africa about 5 to 10 million years ago. The African climate had grown, as forests gave way to savannas dotted with isolated patches of trees.

The earliest known hominids (the term designates the biological family to which humans belong) were the Ardipithecines, who emerged about 4.5 million years ago. These creatures walked upright but otherwise retained primitive characteristics and did not make stone tools. But by 3.4 million years ago, their descendants, known as Austra- lopithecus, used primitive stone tools to butcher meat. By 2.4 million years ago, Homo habilis, the earliest creature designated as within the homo (human) lineage, had devel- oped a larger brain than Ardipithecus or Australopithecus. Homo habilis (habilis means “tool using”) used fire and built shelters with stone foundations. Like people in hunting-and- gathering societies today, members of the Homo habilis species probably lived in small bands in which women foraged for plant food and men hunted and scavenged for meat.

Recent discoveries suggest Homo habilis may have spread from Africa to the Cau- casus region of southeastern Europe. A more advanced human, Homo erectus, spread even farther from Africa, reaching eastern Asia and Indonesia. Homo erectus, who emerged in Africa about 1.6 million years ago, may have been the first human to use rafts to cross large bodies of water and may have had a limited ability to speak.

Paleoanthropologists agree that modern humans, Homo sapiens, evolved from Homo erectus, but they disagree on how. According to a multiregional model, modern humans evolved throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe from ancestral regional populations of Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens. According to the currently stronger out-of-Africa model, modern humans emerged in Africa some 200,000 years ago and began migrating to the rest of the world about 100,000 years ago, eventually replacing all other existing hominid populations. Both of these models are consistent with recent genetic evidence, and both indicate that all living peoples are closely related. The “Mitochondrial Eve” hypothesis, which supports the out-of-Africa model, suggests that all modern humans are descended from a single African woman who lived in East Africa between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago. The multiregional model maintains that a continuous exchange of genetic material allowed archaic human populations in Africa, Asia, and Europe to evolve simultaneously into modern humans.

1.3 Ancient Civilizations and Old Arguments

Understand why ancient African civilizations are important.

The earliest civilization in Africa and one of the two earliest civilizations in world history is that of ancient Egypt (see Map 1-1), which emerged in the Nile River valley in the fourth millennium bce. Mesopotamian civilization, the other of the two, emerged in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in southwest Asia. In both regions, civilization appeared at the end of a long process in which hunting and gathering gave way to agriculture. The set- tled village life that resulted from this transformation permitted society to become increas- ingly hierarchical and specialized. Similar processes gave rise to civilization in other parts of the world. Among them were the Indus valley in India around 2300 bce, northeast China around 1500 bce, and Mexico and Andean South America during the first millennium bce.

The race of the ancient Egyptians and the nature and extent of their influence on later Western civilizations have long been a source of controversy. That controversy reflects more about the racial politics of recent history than it reveals about the Egyptians them- selves, who did not regard themselves in ways related to modern racial terminology. It is not clear whether the Egyptians were an offshoot of their Mesopotamian contemporaries, whether they were part of a group of peoples whose origins were in both Africa and southwest Asia, or whether black Africans were ancestors of both the Egyptians and

hominids The biological family to which humans belong.

hunting-and-gathering societies Small societies dependent on hunting animals and collecting wild plants rather than on agriculture.

hierarchical Refers to a social system based on class rank.

This drawing is based on a partial, fossilized skeleton discovered at Afar, Ethiopia, in 1994. The anthropologists who found the remains concluded in 2009 that the bones are those of a female Ardipithecus ramidus (nick- named “Ardi”) who lived 4.5 million years ago. Ardi fortifies existing evidence that human origins lay in Africa.

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8 Chapter 1

Mesopotamians. What is clear is that the ancient Egyptians exhibited a mixture of racial features and spoke a language related to the languages spoken by others in the fertile regions of North Africa and southwest Asia.

The argument over the Egyptians’ race began in the nineteenth century when African Americans and white reformers sought to refute claims by racist pseudoscien- tists that people of African descent were inherently inferior to people of European descent. Unaware of the achieve- ments of West African civilization, those who believed in human equality used evidence that the Egyptians were black to counter assertions that African Americans were incapable of civilization.

During the last two decades of the twentieth century, a more scholarly debate occurred between Afrocentricists and traditionalists. Afrocentricists regarded ancient Egypt as an essentially black civilization closely linked to other indigenous African civilizations to its south. They main- tained not only that the Egyptians influenced later African civilizations but also that they had a decisive impact on the Mediterranean Sea region, including ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore, in regard to philosophy and sci- ence, black Egyptians originated Western civilization. In response, traditionalists claimed that modern racial categories have no relevance to the world of the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Greeks, they argued, developed the empirical method of inquiry and notions of individual freedom that characterize Western civilization. Not under debate, however, was Egypt’s contribution to the spread of civilization throughout the Mediterranean region. No one doubts that in religion, commerce, and art, Egypt strongly influenced Greece and subsequent Western civilizations.

1.3.1 Egyptian Civilization Egypt was, as the Greek historian Herodotus observed 2,500 years ago, the “gift of the Nile.” This great river’s gentle annual flooding regularly irrigated its banks, leav- ing behind deposits of fertile soil. This allowed Egyptians to cultivate wheat and barley and herd goats, sheep, pigs, and cattle in an otherwise desolate region. The Nile also provided the Egyptians with a transportation and commu- nications artery, while their desert surroundings protected them from foreign invasion.

Egypt became a unified kingdom around 3150 bce. Between 1550 and 1100 bce, it expanded beyond the Nile valley, creating an empire over the coastal regions of south- west Asia as well as over Libya and Nubia in Africa. It was during this period that Egypt’s kings began using the title pharaoh, which means “great house.” After 1100 bce, Egypt fell prey to a series of outside invaders. With the invasion of Alexander the Great’s Macedonian army in 331 bce, Egypt’s ancient culture began a long decline under the pressure of Greek ideas and institutions (see Map 1-2). Finally the Roman Empire conquered Egypt in 30 bce.

Map 1-2 Ancient Egypt and Nubia

What does this map indicate about the relationship between ancient Egypt and Nubia/Kush?

M e d i t e

r r a n e a n S e a

R e d S e a

N ile

Nil e

PA L E

ST I N

L O W E R E G Y P T

U P P E R E G Y P T

N U B I A / K U S H

S i n a i

A r a b i a n

D e s e r t

W e s t e r n

D e s e r t

N u b i a n

D e s e r t

1st cataract

2nd cataract

3rd cataract

4th cataract 5th cataract

Tell el-Daba

El-Lisht

Meidum Illahun

Dara

Abydos

Tarif

Elephantine

Naqada

Edfu

Seila Mazghuna

DahshurSaqqara

Abusir Giza

Abu Roash

Zawiyet el-Aryan

Hawara

Buto

Tanis

Bubastis Heliopolis

Maadi

El-Omari

Amarna

Cusae

Deir el-Medina

Hierakonpolis

Abu Simbel

Napata

Kerma

Meroë

Luxor

El-Kab

Memphis

Pyramid

City/ administrative center

0 50 100 mi

0 50 100 km

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Africa 9

Before decline began, Egypt had resisted change for thousands of years. Pharaohs presided over a hierarchical society. Beneath them were classes of warriors, priests, mer- chants, artisans, and peasants. Scribes, who mastered Egypt’s complex hieroglyphic writ- ing system, staffed a large bureaucracy. Egyptian society was also patrilineal and patriarchal. Royal incest was customary, as pharaohs often chose one of their sisters to be their queen. Pharaohs also had numerous concubines, and other men could take additional wives if their first wife failed to produce children. Egyptian women nonetheless held a high status compared with women in much of the rest of the ancient world. They owned property independently of their husband, oversaw household slaves, controlled the educa- tion of their children, held public office, served as priests, and operated businesses. Several women became pharaoh, one of whom, Hatshepsut, reigned for 20 years (1478–1458 bce).

A complex polytheistic religion shaped Egyptian life. Although there were many gods, two of the more important were the sun god Re (or Ra), who represented the immortality of the Egyptian state, and Osiris, the god of the Nile, who embodied each person’s immor- tality. Personal immortality and the immortality of the state merged in the person of the pharaoh, as expressed in Egypt’s elaborate royal tombs. The most dramatic examples of those tombs, the Great Pyramids at Giza near the modern city of Cairo, were built more than 4,500 years ago to protect the bodies of three Egyptian pharaohs, so that their souls might enter the life to come. The pyramids also symbolized the power of the Egyptian state. They endure as embodiments of the grandeur of Egyptian civilization.

1.3.2 Nubia, Kush, Meroë, and Axum To the south of Egypt in the upper Nile valley, in what is today the nation of Sudan, lay the ancient region known as Nubia. As early as the fourth millennium bce, the black people who lived there interacted with the Egyptians. Archaeological evidence suggests that grain production and the concept of monarchy may have arisen in Nubia and then spread north to Egypt. But Egypt always had a much larger population than Nubia’s, and during the second millennium bce, Egypt used its military power to make Nubia an Egyptian colony and control Nubian copper and gold mines. Egyptians also imported ivory, ebony, leopard pelts, and slaves from Nubia and required the sons of Nubian nobles to live in Egypt as hostages.

Egyptian religion, art, hieroglyphics, and political structure influenced Nubia. Then, with Egypt’s decline during the first millennium bce, the Nubians established

hieroglyphics A writing system based on pictures or symbols.

patrilineal Descent through the male line.

patriarchal A society ruled by a senior man.

The ruined pyramids of Meroë on the banks of the upper Nile River are not as old as those at Giza in Egypt, and they differ from them stylistically. But they nonetheless attest to the cultural connections between Meroë and Egypt.

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10 Chapter 1

an independent kingdom known as Kush, which had its capital at Kerma on the Nile River. During the eighth century bce, the Kushites took control of upper (meaning southern because the Nile flows from south to north) Egypt, and in about 750 bce, the Kushite king Piankhy added lower Egypt to his realm. Piankhy became pharaoh and founded Egypt’s twenty-fifth dynasty. This dynasty ruled Egypt until the Assyrians invaded from southwest Asia in 663 bce and drove the Kushites out.

Kush itself remained independent for another thousand years. Its kings continued for centuries to call themselves phar- aohs and had themselves buried in pyramid tombs covered with Egyptian hieroglyphics. They and the Kushite nobility practiced the Egyptian religion and spoke the Egyptian language. In 540 bce a resurgent Egyptian army destroyed Kerma, and the Kush- ites moved their capital southward to Meroë. The new capital became wealthy from trade with East Africa, with regions to the west across Sudan, and with the Mediterranean world by way of the Nile River. The development of a smelting technology capable of exploiting local deposits of iron transformed the city into Africa’s first industrial center.

Kush’s wealth attracted powerful enemies, and in 23 bce a Roman army invaded. But it was the decline of Rome and its Mediterranean economy that hurt Kush the most. As the Roman Empire grew weaker and poorer, its trade with Kush declined, and Kush, too, weakened. During the early fourth century ce, it fell to the neighboring Noba people, who in turn fell to the kingdom of Axum, whose warriors destroyed Meroë.

Located in what is today Ethiopia, Axum emerged as a nation during the first century bce as Semitic people from the Arabian

Peninsula settled among a local black population. By the time it absorbed Kush during the fourth century ce, Axum had become the first Christian state in sub-Saharan Africa. By the eighth century, shifting trade patterns, environmental depletion, and Islamic invaders com- bined to reduce Axum’s power. It nevertheless retained its unique culture and its independence.

1.4 West Africa Appreciate West Africa’s significance in regard to African-American history.

For centuries, legend has held that the last kings of Kush retreated across the savanna to West Africa, bringing with them artistic motifs, the knowledge of iron making, and the concepts of divine kingship and centralized government. It is true that by the fifth century bce, in what is today Libya, Garamantian Berbers introduced pyramids, Egyp- tian gods, and ancestor worship to the western Sahara region.

But no archaeological evidence supports the Kush kings legend. Instead, West African civilization had independent roots. Ironworking, for example, arose earlier in West Africa than it did at Meroë. Therefore the major early roots of African-American culture lay in the civilizations that emerged in West Africa during the first millennium bce. This, however, does not mean that the Nile valley civilizations of Egypt and Kush did not contribute to the heritage of all Africans.

Like Africa as a whole, West Africa is physically, ethnically, and culturally diverse. Much of West Africa south of the Sahara Desert falls within the savanna that spans the continent from east to west. West and south of the savanna are extensive forests. They

Semitic Refers to languages, such as Arabic andHebrew,nativeto southwest Asia.

Berbers ApeoplenativetoNorthAfrica and the Sahara Desert.

This giant stele at Axum demonstrates the spread of Egyptian architecture into what is today Ethiopia. Probably erected during the first century ce, before Axum converted to Christianity, this is the last of its kind still standing.

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Africa 11

cover Senegambia (modern Senegal and Gambia), the southwest coast of West Africa, and the lands located along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. These two environments—savanna and forest—were home to a variety of cultures and languages. Patterns of settlement in the region ranged from isolated homesteads and hamlets to villages, towns, and cities.

West Africans began cultivating crops and tending domesticated animals between 1000 bce and 200 ce. Those who lived on the savanna usually adopted settled village life well before those who lived in the forests. The early farmers produced grains— millet, rice, and sorghum—while tending cattle and goats. By 500 bce, beginning with the Nok people of the forest region, some West Africans produced iron tools and weapons.

From early times, the peoples of West Africa traded among themselves and with the peoples who lived across the Sahara Desert in North Africa. This extensive trade became an essential part of the region’s economy and had two other important results. First, it served as the basis for the three great western Sudanese empires that succes- sively dominated the region, from before 800 ce to the beginnings of the modern era. Second, it drew Arab merchants, and the Islamic religion, into the region.

1.4.1 Ancient Ghana The first known kingdom in western Sudan was Ghana (see Map 1-3). Founded by the Soninke people in the area north of the modern republic of Ghana, the kingdom’s origins are unclear. It may have arisen as early as the fourth century ce or as late as the

Map 1-3 The Empires of Ghana and Mali The western Sudanese empires of Ghana and Mali helped shape West African culture. Ghana existed from as early as the fourth century ce to 1076. Mali dominated western Sudan from 1230 to 1468.

What does this map suggest concerning the historical relationship between ancient Ghana and Mali?

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Senegal R. Gambia R.

Nig er R

Ben ue

N iger R.

GHANA

MOROCCO

ALGERIA

TUNISIA Fez

Marrakesh

Kumbi Saleh

Awdaghost

0 500 mi250

0 500 km250

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Senegal R. Gambia R. Nig

er R.

Niger R .

Ben ue

MALI

MOROCCO

ALGERIA

TUNISIA

SONGHAI

TUAREG

Fez

Marrakesh

Tekedda (copper mines)

Taghaza (salt mines)

Gao

TimbuktuWalata

Kumbi Saleh Jenné

Niani

0 500 mi250

0 500 km250

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12 Chapter 1

eighth century when Arab merchants began to praise its wealth. Its name comes from the Soninke word for “king,” which Arab traders mistakenly applied to the entire kingdom.

Because they possessed superior iron weapons, the Soninke could dominate their neighbors and forge an empire through constant warfare. Ghana’s boundaries reached into the Sahara Desert to its north and into modern Senegal to its south. But the empire’s real power lay in commerce.

Ghana’s kings had a reputation in Europe and southwest Asia as the richest of monarchs, and trade produced their wealth. Camels were key to this trade. Introduced into Africa from Asia during the first century ce, camels could carry heavy burdens over long distances while consuming small amounts of food and water. Reliance on them therefore allowed for a dramatic increase in trade across the Sahara between the western Sudan and coastal regions of North Africa.

Ghana traded in several commodities. From North Africa came silk, cotton, glass beads, horses, mirrors, dates, and especially salt—a scarce necessity in the torridly hot western Sudan. In return, Ghana exported pepper, slaves, and especially gold. The slaves were usually war captives, and the gold came from mines in the Wangara region to the southwest of Ghana. The Soninke did not mine the gold themselves. Instead, the kings of Ghana grew rich by taxing the gold as it passed through their lands.

Before the fifth century ce, Roman merchants and Berbers served as West Africa’s chief partners in the trans-Sahara trade. As Roman power declined and Islam spread across North Africa during the seventh and eighth centuries, Arabs replaced the Romans. Arab merchants settled in Saleh, the Muslim part of Kumbi Saleh, Ghana’s

Voices Al Bakri Describes Kumbi Saleh and Ghana’s Royal Court Nothing remains of the documents compiled by Ghana’s Islamic bureaucracy. As a result, accounts of the civilization are all based on the testimony of Arab or Berber visitors. In this passage, written in the eleventh century, Arab geographer Al Bakri describes the great wealth and power of the king of Ghana and suggests there were tensions between Islam and the indigenous religion of the Soninke.

The city of Ghana [Kumbi Saleh] consists of two towns lying in a plain. One of these towns is inhabited by Muslims. It is large and possesses twelve mosques. . . . There are imams and muezzins, and assistants as well as jurists and learned men. Around the town are wells of sweet water from which they drink and near which they grow vegetables. The town in which the king lives is six miles from the Muslim one, and bears the name Al Ghaba [the forest]. The land between the two towns is covered with houses. The houses of the inhabitants are of stone and acacia wood. The king has a palace and a number of dome-shaped dwellings, the whole surrounded by an enclosure like the defensive wall of a city. In the town where the king lives, and not far from the hall where he holds his court of justice, is a mosque where pray the Muslims who come on diplomatic missions. Around the king’s town are domed buildings, woods, and copses where live the sorcerers of these people, the men in charge of the religious cult. . . .

Of the people who follow the king’s religion, only he and his heir presumptive, who is the son of his sister, may wear sewn clothes. All the other people wear clothes of cotton, silk, or brocade, according to their means. All men shave their beards and women shave their heads. The king adorns himself like a woman, wearing necklaces and bracelets, and when he sits before the people he puts on a high cap decorated with gold and wrapped in a turban of fine cotton. The court of appeal [for grievances against officials] is held in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses with gold embroidered trappings. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the subordinate kings of his country, all wearing splendid garments and their hair mixed with gold. . . . When the people professing the same religion as the king approach him, they fall on their knees and sprinkle their heads with dust, for this is their way of showing him their respect. As for the Muslims, they greet him only by clapping their hands.

1. What does this passage indicate about life in ancient Ghana?

2. According to Al Bakri, in what ways do customs in Kumbi Saleh differ from customs in Arab lands?

SOuRCE: Abu Abdullah al-Bakri (1068), Book of Roads & Kingdoms.

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capital, which by the twelfth century had become an impressive city. There were stone houses and tombs and as many as 20,000 people. Visitors remarked on the splendor of Kumbi Saleh’s royal court. Saleh had several mosques, and some Soninke converted to Islam, although it is unclear whether the royal family joined them. Muslims dominated the royal bureaucracy and introduced Arabic writing to the region.

Commercial and religious rivalries led to Ghana’s decline during the twelfth cen- tury. The Almoravids, who were Islamic Berbers from what is today Morocco, had been Ghana’s principal competitors for control of the trans-Sahara trade. In 992 Ghana’s army captured Awdaghost, the Almoravid trade center northwest of Kumbi Saleh. Driven as much by religious fervor as by economic interest, the Almoravids retaliated in 1076 by conquering Ghana. The Soninke regained their independence in 1087, but a little over a century later the Sosso, a previously tributary people, destroyed Kumbi Saleh.

1.4.2 The Empire of Mali, 1230–1468 Following the defeat of Ghana by the Almoravids, western Sudanese peoples competed for political and economic power. This contest ended in 1235 when the Mandinka, under their legendary leader Sundiata (c. 1210–1260), defeated the Sosso at the Battle of Kirina. Sundiata then forged the Empire of Mali.

Mali, which means “where the emperor resides” in Mende, the language of the Mandinka, was socially, politically, and economically similar to Ghana. It was larger than Ghana, however—stretching 1,500 miles from the Atlantic coast to the region east of the Niger River. Its center lay farther south than Ghana’s in a region of greater rain- fall and more abundant crops. In addition, Sundiata gained control of the gold mines of Wangara, making his empire wealthier than Ghana had been. As a result, Mali’s population grew to eight million.

Sundiata also had an important role in western Sudanese religion. According to legend, he wielded magical powers to defeat his enemies. This suggests he practiced an indigenous faith. But Sundiata was also a Muslim and helped make Mali—at least superficially—an Islamic state. As we have mentioned, West Africans had been con- verting to Islam since Arab traders arrived in the region centuries before. But many converts, like Sundiata, continued to practice indigenous religions. By his time, most merchants and bureaucrats were Muslims, and the empire’s rulers gained stature among Arab states by converting to Islam.

To administer their vast empire at a time when communication was slow, Mali’s rulers relied on personal and family ties with local chiefs. Commerce, bureaucracy, and scholarship also helped hold the empire together. Mali’s most important city was Timbuktu, which had been established during the eleventh century beside the Niger River near the southern edge of the Sahara.

By the thirteenth century, Timbuktu had become a major hub for trade in gold, slaves, and salt. It attracted merchants from throughout the Mediterranean world and became a center of Islamic learning. The city had several mosques, 150 Islamic schools, a law school, and many book dealers. It supported a cosmopolitan community and impressed visitors with its religious and ethnic tolerance. Even though Mali enslaved war captives and traded slaves, an Arab traveler noted in 1352–1353, “the Negroes pos- sess some admirable qualities. They are seldom unjust, and have a greater abhorrence of injustice than any other people.”

Mali reached its peak during the reign of Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337). One of the wealthiest rulers the world has known, Musa made himself and Mali famous when in 1324 he undertook a pilgrimage across Africa to the Islamic holy city of Mecca in Ara- bia. With an entourage of 60,000, a train of one hundred elephants, and a propensity for distributing huge amounts of gold to those who greeted him along the way, Musa amazed the Islamic world. After his death, however, Mali declined. In 1468, one of its formerly subject peoples, the Songhai, captured Timbuktu, and their leader, Sunni Ali, founded a new West African empire.

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14 Chapter 1

1.4.3 The Empire of Songhai, 1464–1591

Like the Mandinka and Soninke before them, the Songhai were great traders and warriors. The Songhai had seceded from Mali in 1375, and under Sunni Ali (r. 1464–1492), they built the last and largest of the western Sudanese empires (see Map 1-4). Sunni Ali required conquered peoples to pay tribute but otherwise let them control their own affairs. Nom- inally a Muslim, he—like Sundiata—was reputedly a great magician who derived power from the traditional spirits.

When Sunni Ali died by drowning, Askia Muham- mad Toure led a successful revolt against Ali’s son and made himself king of Songhai. The new king (r. 1492–1528) extended the empire north into the Sahara, west into Mali, and east to include the trading cities of Hausaland. He cen- tralized the administration of the empire, replacing local chiefs with members of his family, substituting taxation for tribute, and establishing a bureaucracy to regulate trade.

A devout Muslim, Muhammad Toure used his power to spread the influence of Islam within the empire. Dur- ing a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1497, he established diplo- matic relations with Morocco and Egypt and recruited Muslim scholars to serve at the Sankore Mosque at Timbuktu. The mosque became a center for the study of theology, law, mathematics, and medicine. Despite these efforts, by the end of Muhammad Toure’s reign— members of his family deposed the aging, senile, and blind ruler—Islamic culture remained weak in West Africa outside urban areas. Peasants, who made up 95 percent of the population, spoke a variety of languages, continued to practice indigenous religions, and remained loyal to their local chiefs.

Mansa Musa, who ruled the West Afri- can Empire of Mali from 1312 to 1337, is portrayed at the bottom center of this portion of the fourteenth-century Catalan Atlas. Musa’s crown, scepter, throne, and the huge gold nugget he displays symbolize his power and wealth.

Map 1-4 West and Central Africa, c. 1500 This map shows the Empire of Songhai (1464–1591), the Kongo kingdom (c. 1400–1700), and the major kingdoms of the West African forest region.

How did the western Sudanese empires’ geographical location make them susceptible to slave trading?

Senegal R. Gambia R.

ge r R

Be nue

Co ngo R.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Gulf of Guinea

Lake Chad

CENTRAL SUDAN

WESTERN SUDAN

SENEGAMBIA

ASHANTE

AKAN DAHOMEY OYO

YORUBALAND

BENIN

ANGOLA

MOROCCO

SONGHAI

KONGO

ALGERIA

TUNISIACanary Islands

Fez

Sijilmasse

Taghaza

Timbuktu

AgadesGao

Jenne Gabir

Katsina

Benin City

Mbanza Kongo

Ife

Walata

0 500 mi250

0 500 km250

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Africa 15

Songhai reached its peak of influence under Askia Daud (r. 1549–1582). However, as the political balance of power in West Africa changed rapidly, Songhai failed to adapt, as it lacked new leaders as resourceful as Sunni Ali or Muhammad Toure. Since the 1430s, adventurers from the European country of Portugal had been establishing trading cent- ers along the Guinea Coast, seeking gold and diverting it from the trans-Sahara trade. Their success threatened the Arab rulers of North Africa, Songhai’s traditional partners in the trans-Sahara trade. In 1591 the king of Morocco, hoping to regain access to West African gold, sent an army of 4,000—mostly Spanish mercenaries armed with muskets and cannons—across the Sahara to attack Gao, Songhai’s capital. Only 1,000 of the soldiers survived the grueling march to confront Songhai’s elite cavalry at Tondibi on the approach to Gao. But the Songhai warriors’ bows and lances were no match for firearms, and the mercenaries routed them. Its army destroyed, the Songhai empire fell apart. The center of Islamic scholarship in West Africa shifted east from Timbuktu to Hausaland. When the Moroccans soon departed, West Africa no longer had a govern- ment powerful enough to intervene when the Portuguese, other Europeans, and the African kingdoms of the Guinea Coast became more interested in trading for human beings than for gold.

1.4.4 The West African Forest Region The area known as the forest region of West Africa extends 2,000 miles along the Atlan- tic coast from Senegambia in the northwest to the former kingdom of Benin (modern Cameroon) in the east. Among the early settlers of this region were the Nok, who, in what is today southern Nigeria, created around 500 bce a culture noted for its ironwork- ing technology and its terra-cotta sculptures. But significant migration into the forests began only after 1000 ce, as the western Sudanese climate became increasingly dry.

Some ancient customs survived in the forest region. They included dividing types of agricultural labor by gender and living in villages composed of extended families. But, because people migrated south from Sudan in small groups over an extended period, considerable cultural diversification occurred. A variety of languages, economies, political sys- tems, and traditions came into existence. The region became a patchwork of diverse ethnic groups with related but various ways of life.

It took hard work to colonize a region covered with thick vegetation. In some portions of the forest, agriculture did not supplant hunting and gathering until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In more open parts of the region, however, small king- doms emerged centuries earlier. Benin City dates to the thirteenth century and Ife in Nigeria to the eleventh. Although none of these kingdoms ever grew as large as the empires of western Sudan, some became powerful. Their kings claimed semidivine status and sought to extend their power by conquering and assimilating neighboring peoples. Secrecy and elaborate ritual marked royal courts, which also became centers of patronage for art and reli- gion. Meanwhile, nobility and urban elites worked to limit the kings’ power.

The peoples of the forest region are of particular impor- tance for African-American history because of the role they played in the Atlantic slave trade as both slave traders and victims. Space limitations permit only a survey of the most important of these peoples, beginning with those of Senegam- bia in the northwest.

The Nok people of what is today Nigeria produced terra-cotta sculp- tures like this one during the first millennium bce. They also pioneered, between 500 and 450 bce, iron smelting in West Africa.

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16 Chapter 1

The inhabitants of Senegambia shared a common history and spoke closely related languages, but they were not politically united. Parts of the region had been incorpo- rated within the empires of Ghana and Mali and had been exposed to Islamic influ-

ences. Senegambian society was strictly hierarchical, with royalty at the top and slaves at the bottom. Most people were farmers, growing rice, millet, sorghum, plantains, beans, and bananas. They supplemented their diet with fish, oysters, rabbits, and monkeys.

Southeast of Senegambia, the Akan states emerged during the sixteenth century as the gold trade provided local rulers with the wealth they needed to clear forests and initiate agricultural economies. The rulers used gold from mines they controlled to purchase slaves who did the difficult work of cutting trees and burning refuse. The rulers then distributed the cleared fields to settlers. In return the settlers gave the rulers a portion of their produce and provided services. When Europeans arrived, the rulers used gold to purchase guns. The guns in turn allowed the Akan states to expand. During the late seventeenth century, one of them, the Ashantee, created a well- organized and densely populated kingdom, comparable in size to the modern country of Ghana. By the eighteenth century, this kingdom dominated the central portion of the forest region and used its army to capture slaves for sale to European traders.

To the east of the Akan states (in modern Benin and western Nigeria) lived the people of the Yoruba culture. They gained ascendancy in the area as early as 1000 ce by trading kola nuts and cloth to the peoples of the western Sudan. The artisans of the Yoruba city of Ife gained renown for their fine bronze, brass, and terra-cotta sculptures. Ife was also notable for the prominent role women played in commerce. During the seventeenth century, the Oyo people, employing a well-trained cavalry, imposed political unity on part of the Yoruba region. They, like the Ashantee, became extensively involved in the Atlantic slave trade.

West of the Oyo were the Fon people, who formed the Kingdom of Dahomey, which rivaled Oyo as a center for the slave trade. The king of Dahomey was an absolute monarch who, to ensure the loyalty of potential rivals, took thousands of wives for himself from leading families.

At the eastern end of the forest region was the Kingdom of Benin, which con- trolled much of what is today southern Nigeria. The people of this kingdom shared

The great mosque in the West African city of Jenne was first built during the fourteenth century ce. It demonstrates the importance of Islam in the region’s trading centers.

This carved wooden ceremonial offering bowl is typical of a Yoruba art form that has persisted for centuries. It reflects religious practices as well as traditional hairstyle and dress.

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Africa 17

a common heritage with the Yoruba, who played a role in the kingdom’s formation during the thirteenth century. Throughout Benin’s history, the Obas (kings), who claimed divine status, struggled for power with the kingdom’s hereditary nobility.

After a reform of its army during the fifteenth century, Benin expanded to the Niger River in the east, to the Gulf of Guinea to the south, and into Yoruba country to the west. The kingdom peaked during the late sixteenth century. European visitors noted the size and sophistication of its capital, Benin City. There skilled artisans produced the fine bronze sculptures for which the region is still known. The city’s wealthy class dined on beef, mutton, chicken, and yams. Its streets, unlike those of European cities of the time, had no beggars.

Benin remained little influenced by Islam or Christianity, but like other coastal kingdoms, it joined in the Atlantic slave trade. Beginning in the late fifteenth century, the Oba allowed Europeans to trade for gold, pepper, ivory, and slaves. Initially, the Oba forbade the sale of his subjects, but his large army—the first in the forest region to have European firearms—captured others for the trade as it conquered neighboring regions. By the seventeenth century, Benin’s prosperity depended on the slave trade. As the kingdom declined during the eighteenth century, it began to sell its own people to European slave traders.

To Benin’s east was Igboland, a densely populated but politically weak region along the Niger River. The Igbo people lived in one of the stateless societies common in West Africa. In these societies, families rather than central authorities ruled. Village elders provided local government, and life centered on family homesteads. Igboland had long exported fieldworkers and skilled artisans to Benin and other kingdoms. When Europeans arrived, they expanded this trade, which brought many Igbos to the Americas (see Map 1-5).

Map 1-5 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes Ancient trade routes connected sub-Saharan West Africa to the Mediterranean coast. Among the commodities carried southward were silk, cotton, horses, and salt. Among those carried northward were gold, ivory, pepper, and slaves.

What was the significance of the trans-Sahara trade in West African history?

Ben ue

River

Ubangi River

Senegal River

Lake Rudolph

Lake Chad

N ile

R ive

hit e

N ile

R ive

Niger River

B lue N

ile R .

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

R e

d S

e a

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a A t l a

s M o u n t a i n

T u a t

S a h e l

Libyan Desert

F e z z a n

S a h a r a

Tassi l i Massif

S u d a n

A h a g g a r

EGYPT

CYRENAICA

WADAI

KANEM- BORNO

NUBIA

DARFUR FUNJ

ETHIOPIA

ADAL AXUM

KWARARAFA

BENIN

YORUBA AKAN

GHANA

SONGHAY

MOROCCO TUNISIA

HAUSA

AIR

GAO

NUPE

A R A B I A

Tunis

Tripoli

Murzak

Augila Cairo

Adulis

Dongola

Meroë

Alexandria Ghadames

Wargla

Sijilmassa

Wadan

Awdaghost

Kumbi Saleh

Bamako

Mopti

Jenne

Gao

Agades

Bilma

Daima Kano

Igbo Ukwu

Timbuktu

Tadmekka

Ife

Tamanrasset

Ghat

Walata

Taghaza

Tlemcen Algiers

Fez

Tangier

0 500 1000 mi

0 500 1000 km

Trans-Saharan trade routes

Trading centers

Trading statesNUBIA

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18 Chapter 1

Voices A Description of Benin City Benin was a port city in southern Nigeria, where trade with European nations flourished during the 16th and 17th centu- ries. This description of Benin City, published in 1760, is based on two separate accounts by Dutch visitors during the 17th century. It indicates how impressive the city was.

Benin, the capital, is a city of great extent. Artus of Dantzic calls it eleven miles in circumference, containing 100,000 inhabitants. You enter it by a large street, which, according to the same writer, is eight times wider than any street in Holland. This we apprehend to be a sort of avenue or great road leading to the city, since other travellers, who have measured it, call it eight leagues in length. It passes through the city, dividing it into two equal parts, and is itself cut by innumerable other streets that traverse it.

For the whole eight leagues the houses stand so close on each side the road, that it may well be mistaken for a street. After advancing twelve miles, you come to a large gate, which divides the city from the suburbs. The gate is of wood; but it is defended by a strong bastion of mud and earth, surrounded by a deep ditch forty feet wide. Here a guard is constantly kept to receive the tolls, duties, and imposts, upon merchandize. All the streets of the city are strait, long, and broad, adorned with a variety of shops filled with European merchandize, as well as the commodities of the country.

Formerly the houses stood close, the whole street appearing like one complete building, every part of it in a manner surcharged with inhabitants; at present it is broke by numberless chasms and ruins, that seem to presage its short duration. As the country affords no stone, all the houses are built with mud and clay, covered with reeds, straw, or clay, with an elegance that is astonishing. Nor is the architecture of the principal buildings altogether contemptible; many of them being not unworthy of a more civilized people. Only natives are permitted to live here; several of whom are wealthy, and trade to a great extent. Here the women are employed in keeping the streets neat and clean; in which respect the inhabitants of Benin are not exceeded by the Hollanders themselves.

A principal part of the city is taken up by the royal palace, which is rather prodigious in

its dimensions than commodious or elegant in the contrivance. The eye is first met by a long gallery, sustained by fifty-eight strong planks, rough and unpolished, above twelve feet in height, and three in circumference. Passing this gallery, you come to a high mud wall, which hath three gates. That in the center is decorated at the top with a wooden turret of a spiral form, 79 feet high. upon the very extremity of this cone is fixed a large copper snake, well cast, carved, and bearing marks of a proficiency in the arts. Within the gate you are presented with an area of fine turf, a quarter of a mile in length, and near as broad; at the further end of which is another gallery in the same taste as the former, only that the pilasters, which sustain it, are ornamented with human figures, and many of them cut out in that form, but in a gross and awkward manner. Behind a canvas curtain are shewn four heads cast in brass, neither resembling the human or brute figure, each of them supported by a large elephant’s tooth, the king’s property.

Passing through this gallery and another gate, you have the king’s dwelling-house in front; an appearance that by no means dazzles with its pomp and magnificence. Here is another snake over the porch, done probably by the same artist as that on the turret. In the first apartment is the king’s audience-chamber, where, in presence of the chief nobility or officers of the court, he receives foreign ministers and ambassadors. His throne is of ivory, under a canopy of rich silk. This chamber of audience would likewise seem to be the repository of his majesty’s merchandize (for here the king, as well as his subjects, is a trader), it being filled with loads of elephants teeth, and other commodities, lying in a confusion which plainly indicates they are not intended for ornament. The room is hung with fine tapestry, and the floor covered with mats and carpets of an indifferent manufacture. . . .

1. According to the Dutch visitors, how does Benin City compare to Holland?

2. What seems to impress the Dutch visitors most about Benin City?

SOuRCE: [John Swinton, et al. eds.], The Modern Part of an Universal History: From the Earliest Account of Time Compiled from Original Authors . . . 43 vols. (London: S. Richardson and others, 1760), 16:360–61.

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Africa 19

Profile Nzinga Mbemba (Afonso I) of Kongo

Nzinga Mbemba, baptized Dom Afonso, ruled as the Mani

Kongo (r. c. 1506–1543 ce). His life illustrates the complex

and tragic relationships between the African coastal king-

doms and Europeans in search of power, cultural hegemony,

and wealth.

Mbemba was a son of Nzinga Knuwu, who, as Mani

Kongo, established diplomatic ties with Portugal. Portuguese

vessels had first reached Kongo in 1482, and in 1491 the

Portuguese king sent a formal mission to Mbanza Kongo (the

City of Kongo). Amid considerable ceremony, Knuwu con-

verted to Christianity because conversion gave him access to

Portuguese musketeers he needed to put down a rebellion.

Mbemba served as his father’s general in the ensuing suc-

cessful campaign.

By 1495, internal politics and Knuwu’s inability to accept

Christian monogamy had led him to renounce his baptism

and banish Christians—both Portuguese and Kongolese—

from Mbanza Kongo. Mbemba, who was a sincere Christian,

became their champion in opposition to a traditionalist fac-

tion headed by his half-brother Mpanza. Following Knuwu’s

death in 1506, the two princes fought over the succession.

Mbemba’s victory led to his coronation as Afonso and the

execution of Mpanza.

By then Mbemba had learned to speak, read, and write

Portuguese. He gained at least outward respect from the Por-

tuguese monarchy as a ruler and Christian missionary. Soon

hundreds of Portuguese advisers, priests, artisans, teachers,

and settlers lived in Mbanza Kongo and its environs. In 1516

a Portuguese priest described Mbemba as “not . . . a man

but an angel sent by the Lord to this kingdom to convert

it. . . . Better than we, he knows the Prophets and the Gospel

of Our Lord Jesus Christ.” Mbemba destroyed images and

shrines associated with Kongo’s traditional religion, replaced

them with crucifixes and images of saints, built Christian

churches in Mbanza Kongo, and had some of his opponents

burned.

While seeking the spiritual salvation of his nation, Mbemba

hoped also to modernize it on a European model. He dressed

in Portuguese clothing, had his sons and other young men

educated in Portugal, and began schools for the children of

Kongo’s nobility. He corresponded with Portuguese kings, and

his son Dom Henrique, who became a Christian bishop, rep-

resented Kongo at the Vatican, where he addressed the pope

in Latin in 1513.

Mbemba put too much faith in his Portuguese patrons and

too little in the traditions of his people. By 1508, Portuguese

priests traded in slaves and lived with Kongolese mistresses.

This disturbed Mbemba not because he opposed slavery but

because the priests undermined his authority. He was sup-

posed to have a monopoly over the slave trade, and he did not

want his own people subjected to it.

Mbemba’s complaints led to a formal agreement with

Portugal in 1512 called the Regimento, which only made mat-

ters worse. It placed restrictions on the priests and pledged

continued Portuguese military assistance. But it also recog-

nized Portuguese merchants’ right to trade for copper, ivory,

and slaves, and it exempted the Portuguese from punishment

under local law. Soon the slave trade and related corrup-

tion increased, as did unrest among Mbemba’s increasingly

unhappy subjects. In 1526, Mbemba created a commission

to ensure that only war captives could be enslaved. When

this strategy failed, he begged the Portuguese king, “In these

kingdoms there should not be any trade in slaves or market

for slaves.”

In response, Portugal made alliances with Kongo’s

neighbors and withdrew much of its support from Mbemba,

who died surrounded by scheming merchants, corruption,

and dissension. In 1568—a quarter century after his death—

Kongo became a client state of Portugal, and the slave trade

expanded.

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20 Chapter 1

1.5 Kongo and Angola Analyze what Kongo and Angola had in common with West Africa.

Although the forebears of most African Americans originated in West Africa, a large minority came from Central Africa. In particular, they came from the area around the Congo River and its tributaries and from the region to the south that the Portuguese called Angola. The people of these regions had much in common with those of the Guinea Coast. They divided labor by gender, lived in villages of extended families, and gave semidivine status to their kings. Also the Atlantic slave trade ensnared them, much as it did the peoples of West Africa.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a number of states formed in the area to the north and south of what is today the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola. Among them were Ndonga, Matamba, Ksanje, and Lunda. By far the most important was Kongo Kingdom, which controlled much of the Congo River system, with its fertile valleys and abundant fish. In addition to farming and fish- ing, this kingdom’s wealth derived from access to salt, iron, and trade with the interior. Nzinga Knuwu was Mani Kongo (the Kongolese term for king) when Portuguese expe- ditions arrived in the late fifteenth century, seeking chiefly to trade for slaves. Knuwu surpassed other African rulers in welcoming the intruders. His son Nzinga Mbemba tried to convert the kingdom to Christianity and remodel it along European lines. The resulting unrest, combined with Portuguese greed and the effects of the slave trade, undermined royal authority. The ultimate result was the breakup of the kingdom and the disruption of the other Kongo-Angola states.

1.6 West African Society and Culture Understand how legacies of West African society and culture influenced the way African Americans lived.

West Africa’s great ethnic and cultural diversity makes it hazardous to generalize about the social and cultural background of the first African Americans. The dearth of writ- ten records from the region south of Sudan compounds the difficulties. But by working with a variety of sources, including oral histories, traditions, and archaeological studies, historians have pieced together a broad understanding of the way the people of West Africa lived at the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.

1.6.1 Families and Villages By the early sixteenth century, most West Africans were farmers. They usually lived in hamlets or villages of extended families and clans called lineages. Villages tended to be larger on the savanna than in the forest region, and usually one lineage occupied each village, although some large lineages peopled several villages. Each extended family descended from a common ancestor, and each lineage claimed descent from a mythical personage. Depending on the ethnic group involved, extended families and lineages were either patrilineal or matrilineal. In patrilineal societies, social rank and property passed in the male line from fathers to sons. In matrilineal societies, rank and property, although controlled by men, passed from generation to generation in the female line. A village chief in a matrilineal society was succeeded by his sister’s son, not his own. According to the Arab chronicler Al Bakri, the succession to the throne of the empire of Ghana followed this pattern. But, like the people of Igboland, many West Africans lived in stateless socie- ties with no government other than that provided by extended families and lineages.

Within extended families, nuclear families (husband, wife, and children) or in some cases polygynous families (husband, wives, and children) acted as economic units. In other words, nuclear and polygynous families existed in the context of broader family communities composed of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Elders in

lineage A type of clan, typical of West Africa, in which members claim descent from a single ancestor.

matrilineal Descent traced through the female line.

nuclear family A family unit consisting solely of one set of parents and their children.

polygynous family A family unit consisting of a man, hiswives,andtheirchildren.

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Africa 21

these extended families had great power over the economic and social lives of their members. Each nuclear or polygynous family unit might have several houses. In nuclear households, the husband occupied the larger house and his wife the smaller. In polygy- nous households, the husband had the largest house, and his wives lived in smaller ones. In contrast with ancient Egypt, strict incest taboos prohibited people from mar- rying within their extended family.

Villagers’ few possessions included cots, rugs, stools, and wooden storage chests. Their tools and weapons included bows, spears, iron axes, hoes, and scythes. House- holds used grinding stones, baskets, and ceramic vessels to prepare and store food. Villagers in both the savanna and forest regions produced cotton for clothing, but their food crops were distinct. West Africans in the savanna cultivated millet, rice, and sor- ghum as their dietary staples; kept goats and cattle for milk and cheese; and supple- mented their diets with peas, okra, watermelons, and nuts. Yams, rather than grains, were the dietary staple in the forest region. Other important forest region crops included bananas and coco yams, both derived from Indonesia.

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