Matlin, m. w. & thomas a. farmer (2016). cognition (9th ed.). hoboken, nj: wiley.

Cognition

Cognition TENTH

EDITION

Thomas A. Farmer California State University, Fullerton

and

Margaret W. Matlin SUNY Geneseo

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v

Preface xv

1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1 Chapter Introduction, 1 What Is Cognitive Psychology?, 2 Historical Perspective on the Field, 4

Origins of Cognitive Psychology, 4 Wilhelm Wundt, 4 Early Memory Researchers, 5 William James, 5 Behaviorism, 5 The Gestalt Approach, 6 Frederic Bartlett, 7

Cognitive Revolution, 7 Cognitive Psychology in Present Times, 8

Mind, Brain, and Behavior, 9 Cognitive Science, 9

Artificial Intelligence, 9 Computer Metaphor of the Mind, 10

The Connectionist Approach, 11 Cognitive Neuroscience, 12

Brain Lesions, 13 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan), 13 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 14 Event-Related Potential Technique, 14 Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 15

Textbook Overview, 15 Chapter Preview, 16 Themes in the Book, 17

Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive, 17 Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate, 17 Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information, 18 Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation, 18 Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing, 18

How to Use Your Book Effectively, 18 Chapter Outline, 18 Chapter Introductions, 18 Demonstrations, 19 Individual Differences Focus, 19 Application, 20 Section Summaries, 20

Contents

CONTENTSvi

End of Chapter Review Questions, 20 Keywords, 20 Keywords List & Glossary, 20 Recommended Readings, 20

Section Summary Points, 21 Chapter Review Questions, 21 Keywords, 22 Recommended Readings, 22 Answer to Demonstration 1.4, 22

2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23 Chapter Introduction, 23 Overview of Visual Object Recognition, 24

The Visual System, 24 Organization in Visual Perception, 26 Theories of Visual Object Recognition, 27

Feature-Analysis Theory, 27 The Recognition-by-Components Theory, 29

Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition, 30 Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing, 31 Top-Down Processing and Reading, 32 “Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition, 33

Change Blindness, 33 Inattentional Blindness, 35

Specialized Visual Recognition Processes, 36 Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition, 36 Applied Research on Face Recognition, 37

Speech Perception, 39 Characteristics of Speech Perception, 40

Word Boundaries, 40 Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation, 40 Context and Speech Perception, 41 Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception, 41

Theories of Speech Perception, 42 The Special Mechanism Approach, 42 The General Mechanism Approaches, 43

Section Summary Points, 43 Chapter Review Questions, 44 Keywords, 45 Recommended Readings, 45

3 Attention and Consciousness 46 Chapter Introduction, 46 Overview of Attention, 47

Divided Attention, 47 Selective Attention, 48

Dichotic Listening, 48 The Stroop Effect, 49 Visual Search, 51

Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Overview of Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Selective Attention in Reading, 54

Contents vii

Neuroscience of Attention, 55 The Orienting Attention Network, 56 The Executive Attention Network, 56

Theories of Attention, 57 Early Theories of Attention, 57 Feature-Integration Theory, 57

Consciousness, 59 Thought Suppression, 61 Blindsight, 61

Section Summary Points, 62 Chapter Review Questions, 63 Keywords, 64 Recommended Readings, 64

4 Working Memory 65 Chapter Introduction, 65 Classical Research on Short-Term Memory, 66

Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits, 67 The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique, 67 Serial Position Effect, 68 Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory, 69

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Information Processing, 70 The Turn to Working Memory, 71

Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities, 73 Phonological Loop, 74

Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop, 75 Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76

Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76 Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 77

Central Executive, 77 Characteristics of the Central Executive, 77 The Central Executive and Daydreaming, 78 Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive, 78 Recent Views of the Central Executive, 78

Episodic Buffer, 79 Applications of Working Memory, 80

Working Memory and Academic Performance, 80 Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations, 80

Working Memory and Major Depression, 80 Working Memory and ADHD, 81 Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 82 Summary, 82

Section Summary Points, 82 Chapter Review Questions, 83 Keywords, 84 Recommended Readings, 84

5 Long-Term Memory 85 Chapter Introduction, 85 Overview of Long-Term Memory, 86 Encoding in Long-Term Memory, 87

Levels of Processing, 87

CONTENTSviii

Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material, 88 Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect, 88

Encoding-Specificity Principle, 90 Research on Encoding Specificity, 90 Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity, 91

Retrieval in Long-Term Memory, 92 Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks, 92

Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks, 93 Individuals with Amnesia, 94

Autobiographical Memory, 95 Schemas and Autobiographical Memory, 96 Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring, 96 Flashbulb Memories, 97 Eyewitness Testimony, 99

Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony, 99 The Post-Event Misinformation Effect, 99 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony, 101 The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy, 101

Special Topics in Long-Term Memory, 102 Expertise, 102

The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise, 102 How Do Experts and Novices Differ?, 102 Own-Ethnicity Bias, 103

Emotions and Memory, 104 The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy, 107

The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy, 107 The Potential for Memory Errors, 108 Arguments for False Memory, 108 Arguments for Recovered Memory, 109 Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct, 109

Section Summary Points, 109 Chapter Review Questions, 110 Keywords, 111 Recommended Readings, 111

6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112 Chapter Introduction, 112 Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts, 113

Divided Attention, 113 Working Memory, 113 Levels of Processing, 114

Elaboration, 114 Distinctiveness, 114

Encoding Specificity, 115 Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics, 116

Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice, 116 Distributed Practice Effect, 116 Testing Effect, 116 Test Anxiety, 117

Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization, 118 Imagery, 118

Contents ix

Organization, 119 Prospective Memory, 121

Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory, 121 Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures, 122 Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory, 122

Metamemory, 123 Accuracy of Metamemory, 124

Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items, 124 Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay, 125

Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy, 126 Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies, 126

Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy, 126 Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult, 127 Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies, 127

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects, 127 Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect, 127 Feeling of Knowing, 129

Metacomprehension, 129 Metacomprehension Accuracy, 129 Improving Metacomprehension, 130

Section Summary Points, 131 Chapter Review Questions, 132 Keywords, 132 Recommended Readings, 133 Answer to Demonstration 6.4, 133

7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134 Chapter Introduction, 134 Classical Research on Visual Imagery, 135

Overview of Mental Imagery, 135 Mental Rotation, 136

Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation, 138 Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks, 139

The Imagery Debate, 139 Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures, 140

Individual differences in mental imagery, 142 Summary, 143

Factors That Influence Visual Imagery, 143 Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery, 143 Visual Imagery and Interference, 144 Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes, 145 Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability, 145

Auditory Imagery, 146 Auditory Imagery and Pitch, 147 Auditory Imagery and Timbre, 147

Cognitive Maps, 148 Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps, 150

Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities, 150 Distance Estimates and Category Membership, 150 Distance Estimates and Landmarks, 151 Cognitive Maps and Shape, 151

CONTENTSx

Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps, 152 The Rotation Heuristic, 152 The Alignment Heuristic, 153

Creating a Cognitive Map, 154 The Spatial Framework Model, 154 The Situated Cognition Approach, 155

Section Summary Points, 155 Chapter Review Questions, 156 Keywords, 157 Recommended Readings, 157

8 General Knowledge 158 Chapter Introduction, 158 Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory, 159

Background Information, 159 The Prototype Approach, 161

Characteristics of Prototypes, 162 Levels of Categorization, 163 Conclusions About the Prototype Approach, 164

The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory, 164 Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches, 166

Network Models of Semantic Memory, 167 Anderson’s ACT-R Approach, 167 The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach, 169

Schemas and Scripts, 172 Background on Schemas and Scripts, 173

Schemas and Scripts, 173 Identifying the Script in Advance, 174

Schemas and Memory Selection, 174 Schemas and Boundary Extension, 176 Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 178

The Constructive Approach, 178 The Pragmatic Approach, 179 The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 179

Schemas and Memory Integration, 179 The Classic Research on Memory Integration, 180 Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes, 180

Section Summary Points, 184 Chapter Review Questions, 184 Keywords, 185 Recommended Readings, 185 Answer to Demonstration 8.1, 186

9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 187

Chapter Introduction, 187 Overview of Psycholinguistics, 188

Relevant Terminology and Background on Language, 188 Basic Facts About Human Language, 189

A Brief History of Psycholinguistics, 190 Chomsky’s Approach, 190 Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory, 191

Contents xi

Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning, 191 On-line Sentence Comprehension, 192

Negation and the Passive Voice, 192 Syntactic Complexity, 193

Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Lexical Ambiguity, 195 Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Good-Enough Processing, 197

Brain and Language, 198 General Considerations, 198 Aphasia, 199 Revisiting Broca’s Area, 200 Hemispheric Specialization, 201 The Mirror System, 203

Reading, 203 Comparing Written and Spoken Language, 204 Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches, 205

The Direct-Access Route, 205 The Indirect-Access Route, 205

Implications for Teaching Reading to Children, 206 Discourse Comprehension, 207

Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text, 208 Drawing Inferences During Reading, 209

The Constructionist View of Inferences, 209 Factors That Encourage Inferences, 210 Higher-Level Inferences, 211

Teaching Metacomprehension Skills, 211 Section Summary Points, 212 Chapter Review Questions, 213 Keywords, 213 Recommended Readings, 213 Answer to Demonstration 9.1, 214

10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215 Chapter Introduction, 215 Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes, 216

Producing a Word, 216 Speech Errors, 217

Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors, 217 Explanations for Speech Errors, 217

Producing a Sentence, 218 Producing Discourse, 219

Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication, 219 Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition, 219 The Social Context of Language Production, 222

Common Ground, 222 Directives, 224 Framing, 224

Language Production and Writing, 225 The Role of Working Memory in Writing, 225 Planning a Formal Writing Assignment, 226 Sentence Generation during Writing, 226

CONTENTSxii

The Revision Phase of Writing, 227 Bilingualism, 227

Background on Bilingualism, 228 The Social Context of Bilingualism, 229 Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism, 230

Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition, 231 Second Language Proficiency, 232 Vocabulary, 232 Phonology, 232 Grammar, 232 Simultaneous Interpreters, 234

Section Summary Points, 235 Chapter Review Questions, 236 Keywords, 236 Recommended Readings, 237

11 Problem Solving and Creativity 238 Chapter Introduction, 238 Understanding the Problem, 239

Methods of Representing the Problem, 240 Symbols, 240 Matrices, 241 Diagrams, 241 Visual Images, 242

Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving, 243 Situated Cognition, 243 Embodied Cognition, 244

Problem-Solving Strategies, 244 The Analogy Approach, 245

The Structure of the Analogy Approach, 245 The Means-Ends Heuristic, 246

Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic, 246 Computer Simulation, 247

The Hill-Climbing Heuristic, 247 Factors That Influence Problem Solving, 248

Expertise, 248 Knowledge Base, 248 Memory, 248 Problem-Solving Strategies, 249 Speed and Accuracy, 249 Metacognitive Skills, 249

Mental Set, 249 Functional Fixedness, 250 Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving, 251

Research with Asian American Females, 251 Potential Explanations, 252

Insight versus Noninsight Problems, 253 The Nature of Insight, 253 Metacognition during Problem Solving, 254 Advice about Problem Solving, 254

Creativity, 255

Contents xiii

The Nature of Creativity, 255 Motivation and Creativity, 256

Section Summary Points, 257 Chapter Review Questions, 258 Keywords, 259 Recommended Readings, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.3, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.5, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.6B, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.7A, 260 Answer to Demonstration 11.7B, 260

12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 261 Chapter Introduction, 261 Deductive Reasoning, 262

Overview of Conditional Reasoning, 263 Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning, 264 Belief-Bias Effect, 265 Confirmation Bias, 266

The Standard Wason Selection Task, 266 Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task, 267 Applications in Medicine, 267 Further Perspectives, 267

Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics, 268 Representativeness Heuristic, 268

Sample Size and Representativeness, 269 Base Rate and Representativeness, 270 The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness, 271

Availability Heuristic, 272 Recency and Availability, 273 Familiarity and Availability, 273 The Recognition Heuristic, 274 Illusory Correlation and Availability, 274

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic, 275 Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic, 276 Estimating Confidence Intervals, 276

Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making, 277 Decision Making II: Applications of Decision Making Research, 278

Framing Effect, 278 The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect, 279

Overconfidence about Decisions, 280 General Studies on Overconfidence, 280 Overconfidence about Completing Projects on Time, 281 Overconfidence in Political Decision Making, 281 Reasons for Overconfidence, 282

Hindsight Bias, 282 Explanations for the Hindsight Bias, 283

Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being, 283 Section Summary Points, 284 Chapter Review Questions, 285 Keywords, 286

CONTENTSxiv

Recommended Readings, 286 Answer to Demonstration 12.1, 286 Answer to Demonstration 12.6, 286

13 Cognitive Development throughout the Lifespan 287 Chapter Introduction, 287 The Lifespan Development of Memory, 288

Memory in Infants, 288 Recognizing Mother, 289 Conjugate Reinforcement, 289

Memory in Children, 291 Children’s Working Memory, 291 Children’s Long-Term Memory, 292 Children’s Memory Strategies, 294 Children’s Eyewitness Testimony, 295 Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony, 297

Memory in Elderly People, 297 Working Memory in Elderly People, 298 Long-Term Memory in Elderly People, 298 Explanations for Age Differences in Memory, 300

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory, 301 Metamemory in Children, 301

Children’s Understanding of How Memory Works, 301 Children’s Awareness That Effort Is Necessary, 302 Children’s Judgments about Their Memory Performance, 302 Children’s Metamemory: The Relationship between Metamemory and Memory Performance, 302

Metamemory in Elderly People, 304 Beliefs about Memory, 304 Memory Monitoring, 304 Awareness of Memory Problems, 304

The Development of Language, 305 Language in Infants, 305

Speech Perception during Infancy, 305 Language Comprehension during Infancy, 306 Language Production during Infancy, 307 Adults’ Language to Infants, 307 Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD?, 308

Language in Children, 308 Words, 309 Morphology, 310 Syntax, 310 Pragmatics, 311

Section Summary Points, 312 Chapter Review Questions, 313 Keywords, 313 Recommended Readings, 314

Glossary 315 References 333

Index 404

xv

The 1st edition of this textbook was published in 1983, and was followed by eight more editions published over the course of roughly three decades. Margaret W. Matlin was the sole author of the 1st through 8th editions. After 30 years of dedication to this and other textbooks, Margaret has retired from the text- book writing enterprise. In the wake of her retirement, Thomas A. Farmer, Lecturer in Psychology at California State University—Fullerton, was contracted by Wiley to carry out the revision and updating process starting with the 9th edition of the textbook (2015). Margaret Matlin and Thomas Farmer thus share authorship for this 10th edition of Cognition.

Message from Author Thomas Farmer

I took Cognitive Psychology during the Spring Semester, 1999, as an undergraduate Psychology major at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia. Margaret Matlin’s Cognition was the assigned textbook, and at that point in time, it was in its 4th edition. I remember the textbook as engaging, thought provoking, and highly accessible. In hindsight, I think that Cognition helped ignite my interests in topics related to the mind–body–environment relationship, and certainly contributed to my decision to pursue research opportunities in the cognitive sciences. I am thus immensely grateful for the opportunity to carry this textbook into its 10th edition.

The revisions and updates that I instituted in this edition of Cognition are additive in nature. For the most part, I did not remove discussions of key concepts, debates, theoretical topics, or methodological consid- erations. Instead, I supplemented the existing text with additional explanation, examples, and up-to-date citations. I expanded more heavily in certain places, aiming to provide readers with an overview of both classical and more contemporary treatments of a concept or theoretical framework. Additionally, I have increased the number of experiments discussed, the amount of detail embedded in their discussion, and have made a concerted effort to highlight basic components of experimental design and behavioral testing methodologies. My hope is that these additions will facilitate a greater appreciation for the rigorous experi- mental research so characteristic of the field. I think that these additions will aid students in the development of their ability to critically assess links between experimental design and the conclusions drawn from their results.

In the preface to the 8th edition of Cognition, Margaret noted that the field of cognitive psychology has changed in many ways over the past decade. She then discussed three of these changes: (1) an increase in reliance on neuroscience and neuroscientific testing methods in the scientific study of human cognition, (2) an increase in the interdisciplinary nature of research on cognitive processes, and (3) a sharp increase in the application of research in the cognitive sciences to real-world problems. I strongly agree with her observations, and have continued her mission to integrate these recent advances into this textbook. Indeed, cognitive neuroscience, interdisciplinary collaboration, and real-world application were three of the fac- tors that motivated my decisions about how to revise and update material in this edition of the book.

In her textbooks, Margaret repeatedly demonstrates a keen ability to provide comprehensive treatments of complex research topics while writing in a style that makes them understandable to a wide range of undergraduate audiences. Although I could never perfectly mirror Margaret’s elegant writing style, I tried my best to imitate it. Thus, I strived to maintain the clarity and accessibility so characteristic of Margaret’s work.

In the remainder of this preface, I (1) provide an overview of the more substantial content-based addi- tions to this edition, (2) highlight the features and organization of the book, and (3) acknowledge the many individuals who have contributed to this and previous editions.

Preface

PREFACExvi

Content-Based Additions to the 10th Edition

As noted above, very few topics were eliminated in my updating and revision of this textbook. Instead, most content-based revisions and updates involve the addition of information detailing more recent con- ceptualizations of key concepts and principles. Some of the more substantial changes include the follow- ing:

Chapter 1 now includes a discussion of the magnetoencephalography (MEG) cognitive neuroscientific testing method, along with a more comprehensive historical overview of individuals who have contributed to the emergence of the field of experimental psychology.

Chapter 2 includes an enhanced explanation of the speech recognition process and an extended discus- sion of deficits in face recognition (prosopagnosia).

Chapter 3 includes an updated discussion of research involving the Stroop task. Chapter 4 was modified to include a more in-depth overview of the manner in which individual differ-

ences in working-memory capacity map onto variability in performance on an array of cognitive tasks. Additionally, the section on working-memory abilities in clinical populations has been extended to include a discussion of the relationship between working memory and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

Chapter 5 now details recent research on the effects of different amnesias on cognitive processing, as well as an extended discussion of expertise effects.

Chapter 6 now includes a discussion of test anxiety. Chapter 7 now discusses research on individual differences in cognitive style, and provides a corre-

sponding overview of cognitive neuroscientific research supporting these style differences. Chapter 8 contains an updated overview of research involving the implicit attitude test, along with a

discussion of more recent methodological extensions of the paradigm. Chapter 9 includes the reintroduction of “good enough processing,” along with a more integrative dis-

cussion of the cognitive neuroscience of language. Chapter 10 now provides an overview of research supporting a compelling role for gesture in learning,

as well as a more up-to-date overview of controversy regarding the bilingual advantage. Chapters 11 and 12 contain updated references to the classical problem solving and decision-making

effects detailed in these chapters, along with a discussion of more recent research involving these effects. Chapter 13 continues to provide an overview of research on lifespan developmental questions as they

pertain to memory, language, and metacognitive abilities.

Features of This Textbook

I genuinely believe that cognitive psychology can have practical applications that stretch far beyond the classroom. Therefore, students must be able to understand and remember the material. Here are some of the ways in which I consider this textbook to be student-oriented:

1. The writing style is clear and interesting, with frequent examples to make the information more concrete. Indeed, over the years, Margaret has received letters and comments from hundreds of students and professors expressing enthusiasm for the accessibility and clarity of the writing. This edition of the textbook has been line-edited in order to ensure precision and clarity.

2. The text demonstrates how our cognitive processes are relevant in our everyday, real-world experiences.

3. The book frequently examines how cognition can be applied to other disciplines, such as clinical psychology, social psychology, consumer psychology, education, communication, business, medicine, and law.

4. The 1st chapter introduces five major themes that are repeatedly emphasized throughout the book. Because the current research in cognitive psychology is so extensive, students need a sense of continuity that helps them appreciate the connections among many diverse topics.

5. An outline appears before each chapter, providing a helpful framework for understanding the new material.

6. Each new term is presented in boldface print. Every term is also accompanied by a concise definition that appears in the same sentence. In addition, pronunciation guides are provided for new

Preface xvii

terms with potentially ambiguous pronunciation. If students are hesitant about pronouncing terms such as schema and saccadic, they will be reluctant to use these words or ask questions about them.

7. Many easy-to-perform demonstrations illustrate important research in cognition, and they clarify central concepts in the discipline. These demonstrations were designed so that they would require equipment that undergraduate students typically have on hand.

8. Each chapter concludes with point-by-point summaries for each section of a chapter, followed by comprehensive review questions and a list of new terms. These features provide students with additional opportunities to review material and to identify knowledge gaps.

9. Each chapter concludes with a list of recommended readings, along with a brief description of each resource. This feature should be useful if students are searching for a topic for a literature-review paper. Furthermore, professors can consult these resources when they want to update a specific lecture.

10. A glossary at the end of the book provides a definition of every keyword. I tried to include additional contextual information wherever it might be useful, in order to clarify the terms as much as possible. For example, the word antecedent can be used in many contexts. Accordingly, my definition for antecedent begins with the phrase, “In conditional reasoning. ...”

11. The subject index is comprehensive and detailed. Students can quickly locate the keywords, because they appear in boldface.

The Textbook’s Organization

A textbook needs to be interesting and helpful. It must also reflect current developments in the discipline, and it should allow instructors to adapt its structure to their own teaching plans. The following features should therefore be useful for professors:

1. The tenth edition of Cognition offers a comprehensive overview of the field, including chapters on perceptual processes, memory, imagery, general knowledge, language, problem solving and creativity, reasoning and decision making, and cognitive development.

2. Each chapter is a self-contained unit. For example, terms such as heuristics, schema, and top- down processing are defined in every chapter where they are used. This feature allows professors considerable flexibility in the sequence of chapter coverage. Some professors may wish to discuss the topic of imagery (Chapter 7) prior to the three chapters on memory. Others might want to assign the chapter on general knowledge (Chapter 8) during an earlier part of the academic term.

3. Each section within a chapter can stand as a discrete unit, especially because every section concludes with a section summary. Professors may choose to discuss the individual sections in a different order. For example, one professor may want students to read the section on schemas prior to the chapter on long-term memory. Another professor might prefer to subdivide Chapter 13, on cognitive development, so that the 1st section of this chapter (on memory) follows Chapter 5, the 2nd section (on metacognition) follows Chapter 6, and the 3rd section (on language) follows Chapter 10. In summary, these separate sections provide professors with additional flexibility.

4. In previous editions, Margaret went to great lengths to emphasize the importance of individual differences in the study of cognitive processes. I carry on this tradition by exploring individual differences in each cognitive process discussed in this book. I take great care to emphasize to the reader how an individual difference effect can further inform our understanding of a process as it relates to theories of cognition, as well as to other clinical and social issues.

5. In all, the bibliography contains over 2,000 references, over half of which have been published since the year 2005. As a result, the textbook provides a current overview of cognitive psychology.

6. TEST BANK: Professors who teach courses in cognitive psychology consistently emphasize the importance of a high-quality Test Bank. The multiple-choice questions must be clear and unambiguous, and they must not focus on relatively trivial details. Most of the questions should be conceptually rich, rather than requiring brief, obvious answers. Furthermore, each chapter in

PREFACExviii

the Test Bank should contain a large number of questions, so that professors can select a different sample every time they create an examination. The Test-Bank questions available here to instructors emphasize conceptual knowledge, as well as applications to real-world situations. Furthermore, I have rated each question as “easy,” “moderate,” and “difficult.” These difficulty ratings can help professors to create a test that is appropriate for the students in their classes.

For more information, professors should contact their Wiley sales representative about the Test Bank for the tenth edition of Cognition. They can also visit the Wiley website for this book, www.wiley.com/ college/matlin.

Acknowledgments

I offer my sincerest thanks to the many great minds who provided me with countless hours of academic guidance and support over the years, including: Morten Christiansen, Kenny Coventry, Melissa Fergu- son, Fernanda Ferreira, Barbara Finlay, John Henderson, Florian Jaeger, Sheena Rogers, Michael Spivey, Michael Tanenhaus, Richard West, and Jason Zevin. I’m honored and truly lucky to have had the oppor- tunity to learn from each one of you.

I would also like to thank the many individuals at John Wiley & Sons for their substantial contributions to the development and production of the 10th edition of Cognition, especially Veronica Visentin for her guidance in the updating and revision of this textbook (and to Chris Johnson for his support during the 9th edition revision process). Additionally, I thank all of the Wiley sales representatives for their excellent work and enthusiastic support, and especially Marti Mount for her years of service in Iowa City and its surrounding areas.

Many thanks are also in order for the graduate students who have served as Teaching Assistants for my Introduction to Cognitive Psychology course: Kimberly Halvorson, Valerie Beck, Francis Smith, Caglar Tas, and Sharong Yan. Your commitment to excellence in the classroom was always apparent. I also express an especially large amount of gratitude to Caitie Hilverman for her unwavering friendship and hours of fun and stimulating academic conversation.

In the preface to the 8th edition, Margaret offered thanks to a number of students who have provided useful input, feedback, and suggestions to various editions of Cognition. She also thanked a number of colleagues for making suggestions about references and for providing feedback on various passages over time. Given their valuable contributions to previous editions, I would also like to offer my thanks to these individuals:

Ned Abbott, Laura Aizpuru, Drew Appleby, Jennifer Balus, Alesya Borisyuk, Tim Bowersox, Mary Jane Brennan, Stacey Canavan, Angela Capria, Elizabeth Carey, A. Eleanor Chand, Lindsay Ciancetta, Kristina Condidorio, Melissa Conway, Amanda Crandall, Ganie DeHart, Lucinda DeWitt, Thomas Don- nan, Miriam Dowd, Elizabeth Einemann, Connie Ellis, K. Anders Ericsson, Beverly Evans, Michelle Fischer, Hugh Foley, Sarah Gonnella, Moises Gonzales, Mark Graber, Katie Griffin, Laurie Guarino, Ben- jamin Griffin, Sven Halstenburg, Elliot D. Hammer, Heather Henderson, Douglas Herrmann, Eve Higby, Jessica Hosey, Don Hudson, Hideaki Imai, Ken Kallio, Peter Kang, Becky Keegan, Jay Kleinman, Kristen Kolb, Maria Korogodsky, Jessica Krager, Patricia Kramer, Mary Kroll, Leslie Lauer, Eun Jung Lim, Rod- rigo Liong, Jean Lu, Colin M. MacLeod, Edwardo Martinez, Sally Matlin, Pamela Mead, Kristen Merkle, Pamela Mino, Kaveh Moghbeli, Jacquilyn Moran, Michelle Morante, Monica Morris, Lisbet Nielsen, Jennifer Niemczyk, Paul Norris, Danielle Palermo, Jill Papke, Dorin Parasca, Matt Pastizzo, Christopher Piersante, Heather Quayle, Alison Repel, Judith Rickey, Mary Riley, Margery Schemmel, Brooke Schurr, Bennett L. Schwartz, Laura Segovia, Richard Slocum, John Tanchak, Brenna Terry, Sherri Tkachuk, Nancy Tomassino, Laura Uribarri, Dan Vance, Lori Van Wallendael, Douglas Vipond, Sara Vonhold, Julia Wagner, Heather Wallach, Melissa Waterman, Alan Welsh, Lauren Whaley, Rachelle Yablin.

Many reviewers have provided invaluable feedback on one of multiple editions of the 1st nine editions of this textbook. Both Margaret and I would like to express our appreciation for these reviewer contributions. I list each reviewer’s name and affiliation below, noting that affiliations were accurate at least until the publication of the 8th edition of Cognition: Lise Abrams, University of Florida; John Agnew, University of Colorado, Boulder; Tom Alley, Clemson University; Harriett Amster, University of Texas, Arlington; Mark Ashcraft, Cleveland State University; Kurt Baker, Emporia State University; Heather Bartfeld, Texas A&M University; James Bartlett, University of Texas at Dallas; Richard Block, Montana State University; Kyle Cave, University of Southampton (United Kingdom); Stephen Christman, University of Toledo; Tim Curran, University of Colorado; Lucinda DeWitt, University of Minnesota; Mike Dodd, University of

http://www.wiley.com/college/matlin
http://www.wiley.com/college/matlin
Preface xix

Nebraska, Lincoln; Francis T. Durso, University of Oklahoma; Susan E. Dutch, Westfield State College; Randolph Easton, Boston College; James Enns, University of British Columbia; Ira Fischler, University of Florida; Kathleen Flannery, Saint Anselm College; John Flowers, University of Nebraska; Nancy Franklin, SUNY Stony Brook; Joanne Gallivan, University College of Cape Breton; Linda Gerard, Michigan State University; Barbara Goldman, University of Michigan, Dearborn; Sallie Gordon, University of Utah; Richard Gottwald, University of Indiana, South Bend; Kenneth R. Graham, Muhlenberg College; Catherine Hale, University of Puget Sound; Mark Hale, Rowan University; Harold Hawkins, University of Oregon; Morton A. Heller, Winston-Salem State University; Joseph Hellige, University of Southern California; Richard High, Lehigh University; Philip Higham, University of Northern British Columbia; Robert J. Hines, University of Arkansas, Little Rock; Mark Hoyert, Indiana University Northwest; Matthew Hunsinger, Mary Baldwin College; Margaret Intons-Peterson, Indiana University; Timothy Jay, North Adams State College; Kathy E. Johnson, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis; James Juola, University of Kansas; Gretchen Kambe, University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Richard Kasschau, University of Houston; and R. A. Kinchla, Princeton University; Joseph Lao, Teachers College, Columbia University; Susan Lima, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Christine Lofgren, University of California, Irvine; Bill McKeachie, University of Michigan; Anita Meehan, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Eduardo Mercado, University at Buffalo, SUNY; Heather Mong, Laurentian University; Julien Musolino, Rutgers University; Janet Nicol, University of Arizona; Michael W. O’Boyle, Iowa State University; William Oliver, Florida State University; David G. Payne, SUNY Binghamton; W. Daniel Phillips, Trenton State College; Thomas Piccin, Loyola University Maryland; Joan Piroch, Coastal Carolina University; David Pittenger, Marietta College; Dana Plude, University of Maryland; Catherine Powright, University of Ottawa; Sara Ransdell, Nova Southeastern University; David Rapp, Northwestern University; Andrea Richards, University of California, Los Angeles; Tony Ro, Rice University; Michael Root, Ohio University; Jonathan Schooler, University of Pittsburgh; Mithell Serman, University of Wisconsin, Stout; Matthew Sharps, California State University, Fresno; Greg Simpson, University of Kansas; Louisa M. Slowiaczek, Loyola University, Chicago; Albert Smith, Cleveland State University; Donald A. Smith, Northern Illinois University; Patricia Snyder, Albright College; David Somers, Boston University; Garrett Strosser, Southern Utah University; Margaret Thompson, University of Central Florida; Jyotsna Vaid, Texas A & M University; James P. Van Overschelde, University of Maryland; Christian Vorstius, Florida State University; Richard K. Wagner, Florida State University; Thomas B. Ward, University of Alabama; Paul Zelhart, East Texas State University.

I conclude by expressing much gratitude to my loving, patient, and supportive husband Giuseppe Vez- zoli. We’ve had a great run, and I look forward to the future. I also send my sincerest regards to the mem- bers of my family who have offered much love, guidance, and support over the years, including my parents Thomas and Catherine Farmer, my sister Amy Farmer, and grandparents Charlotte Estep, Patricia Farmer, Raymond Farmer, and H. B. Estep.

In the 8th edition of Cognition, Margaret concluded the preface with the following words of thanks to members of her family. I conclude by carrying them over to the preface of Cognition, 10th edition:

The final words of thanks belong to my family members. My husband, Arnie Matlin, encouraged me to write the first edition of this book during the early 1980s. His continuing enthusiasm, superb sense of humor, and loving support always bring joy to my writing, and certainly to my life! Our daughters and their husbands now live in other parts of the United States, but I always value their perspectives. I’d like to thank Sally Matlin and Jay Laefer, who now live in the San Francisco Bay area. Thanks also to Beth Matlin-Heiger, Neil Matlin-Heiger, and our grandchildren, Jacob and Joshua Matlin-Heiger), who live in the Boston area. Their continuing pride in my accomplishments makes it even more rewarding to be an author! Last, I would like to express my gratitude to four other important people who have shaped my life, my parents by birth and my parents by marriage: Helen and Donald White, and Clare and Harry Matlin.

Thomas A. Farmer Palm Springs, California

1

1 Chapter Introduction What Is Cognitive Psychology? Historical Perspective on the Field

Origins of Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Revolution Cognitive Psychology in Present Times

Mind, Brain, and Behavior Cognitive Science Computer Metaphor of the Mind Cognitive Neuroscience

Textbook Overview Chapter Preview Themes in the Book How to Use Your Book Effectively

Chapter Introduction Cognitive psychology is a subdiscipline of experimental psychology focused on investigating the mental processes that give rise to our perceptions and interpretations of the world around us.

In this chapter, we first explore a definition of cognition before walking through an example designed to provide clarity regarding the topics covered in the remainder of this textbook. We then examine a handful of historical developments that contributed to the emergence of cognitive psy- chology as a coherent subdiscipline of experimental psychology. Indeed, understanding the historical events that occurred prior to the emergence of cognitive psychology will help you appreciate how a cognitive approach differs from other approaches. In the third section of this chapter, we review con- tributions from multiple fields outside of psychology that have served as the basis for recent spikes in our current understanding of how the mind works. As you can imagine, recent advances in the field of neuroscience have had an immeasurable effect on our current understanding of how neural systems support mental processes.

We conclude this chapter with an overview of the general themes that you will encounter time and time again throughout this textbook. Additionally, we detail the large number of learning features that are built into this textbook. Their design is based on research in areas of cognitive psychology, such as human memory, and will help you to maximize the amount of information that you maintain as you read.

An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY2

What Is Cognitive Psychology? The term cognition, or mental activity, refers to the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowl- edge. Although many have argued that nonhuman animals also have cognitive abilities, our focus here is on the inner workings of the human mind. You will likely have the opportunity to learn more about nonhuman animal cognition in other courses offered by the Psychology and Biology departments at your university.

Cognition is inescapable. At any point that you are awake, your cognitive processes are at work. They grant you the ability to recognize and interpret stimuli in your environment and to act (or react) strategi- cally to environmental input. Cognitive processes afford you the ability to plan, to create, to interact with others, and to process all of the thoughts, sensations, and emotions that you experience on a daily basis. Your cognitive abilities operate together in intricate and highly coordinated ways to create your conscious experiences.

While reading this paragraph, for example, you are performing multiple cognitive tasks at the same time. In order to reach this paragraph, you used pattern recognition to create words from an assortment of squiggles and lines that form the letters on this page. You also consulted your memory and your knowledge about language to search for word meanings and to link together the ideas in this paragraph. Addition- ally, right now, as you think about these cognitive tasks, you are engaging in another cognitive task called metacognition—you were thinking about your own thought processes. Perhaps you made an inference such as, “This book may help me learn to study more effectively.” You may have also used decision making by saying to yourself, for instance, “I’ll finish this section of the book before I eat lunch.”

If cognition operates every time you acquire some information, place it in storage, transform that infor- mation, and use it…then cognition includes a wide range of mental processes! This textbook will explore many of these mental processes, such as perception, memory, imagery, language, problem solving, reason- ing, and decision making.

Cognitive psychology has two meanings: (1) Sometimes it is a synonym for the word cognition; (2) Sometimes it refers to a particular theoretical approach to psychology. Specifically, the cognitive approach is a theoretical orientation that emphasizes people’s thought processes and their knowledge. For example, a cognitive explanation of ethnic stereotypes would emphasize topics such as the influence of these stereotypes on the judgments we make about people from different ethnic groups (Whitley & Kite, 2010).

I took Introduction to Cognitive Psychology during my junior year of college. I remember quite vividly that I had enrolled for the course because it was required, but I honestly had no idea what the term “cogni- tive psychology” meant. Even after our brief discussion of a definition of cognition, some of you may still not have a strong sense of what a cognitive psychologist really studies. Below, I offer a brief demonstra- tion that should help you gain a stronger sense of what you’re in store for over the course of the semester.

Open up a Web browser, pull up a recent episode of a television show or a random video clip, and do the following: 1) Watch one minute of the video; 2) Exit your Web browser; and 3) In only two minutes, write down (or type) everything that you experienced as you watched the TV or video clip. Go ahead…give it a shot. It will only take you a total of three minutes.

I just completed the demonstration myself. I went online and selected a random music video, and I watched one minute of it. Here’s what I was able to type in two minutes after closing the Web browser:

• There was a strong bass line.

• I have never heard this song before.

• Approximately 20 people were standing close together. Music was playing but no one was moving.

• One person at the center of the group of people was female, and she was wearing a turquoise dress that looked kind of fancy.

• The camera moved from left to right but remained focused on the 20 or so people standing in a group.

• Somebody coughed in the next room (not in the video, but in the room next to where I’m sitting and watching this video).

• A female voice started to sing. She’s singing in a language that I don’t know. It sounds like it could be Swedish, but I don’t know.

Krystal Munoz
What Is Cognitive Psychology? 3

Most of you were probably able to generate a list of bullet points. Now focus on the list and think about everything that you had to do in order to produce it. Or, if you didn’t really complete the exercise yourself, think about all of the types of processes that I had to complete in order to produce the list above.

Importantly, I had to create a rich internal interpretation of the video in order to have a meaningful, conscious experience of it. In order to do so, I had to process auditory information (the music), linguistic information (the lyrics, although I couldn’t really understand them), and visual information (the visual images that accompanied the music in the video).

I also had to rely heavily on information that is stored in my memory as a guide for how to interpret the auditory and visual streams of information I encountered while watching the video. Many of you are likely to be in your early 20s. That means that you have had approximately 20 years of experience with the world around you. Based on that experience, you’ve come to possess knowledge about facts (such as, “Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs of New York City”), and about patterns that are embedded in environmental stimuli (for example, the word “the” rarely comes before a verb). Crucially, notice how important this stored knowledge is for your ability to interpret and understand the video you watched. In the case of my video, I had to know which features of a person are characteristic of males versus females. If I lacked this knowledge, I would not have been able to list the 4th bullet point above. I also wouldn’t have been able to note that a female voice was singing (as per the 7th bullet point above). Linking the physical characteristics of the auditory and visual streams you processed to knowledge stored in your memory was thus necessary for you to create a meaningful interpretation of the video.

Attentional processes also contributed to my interpretation, and thus experience, of the video. Do you think that I remembered every detail of the video well enough to be able to precisely describe it? Probably not. I had to perceive and interpret information from the environment (the video) on a very fast timescale. Under such time pressure, I had to strategically allocate my attention to elements and events occurring in the video that seemed most relevant and important. I also noted that I heard someone in a room next to me cough. This cough had nothing to do with the video I was watching, and yet I still processed it (enough to report my perception of the cough after the video was complete . . . it was part of my experience watching the video).

And, in order to type the list of bullet points, I had to access my stored memories about the video, trans- form those memories into a linguistic code, and then move my fingers around a keyboard in order to type linguistic descriptions of my memories.

After thinking about your experience with this demonstration, do you have a stronger sense of what is meant by the term “cognition?” Information from the environment was taken in through sensory systems, and it was linked to knowledge that you possess. New memories (of your experiences while watching and interpreting the video) were created. And, they were accessed at a later point in time in order for you to write out descriptions of your interpretation of the video. In this sense, you acquired, stored, transformed, and used knowledge that you gleaned from experience.

Why should you and other students learn about cognition? One reason is that the cognitive approach has widespread influence on other areas of psychology, such as clinical psychology and psychotherapy (e.g., Erdelyi & Goldberg, 2014; Gu, Strauss, Bond, & Cavanagh, 2015; Snyder, Miyake, & Hankin, 2015), educational psychology (O’Donnell & King, 2014; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015), and social psychol- ogy (e.g., Seyfarth & Cheney, 2015; Srull & Wyer, 2015; Todd, Thiem, & Neel, 2016). Let’s consider an example from clinical psychology. One cognitive task asks people to recall a specific memory from their past. People who are depressed tend to provide a general summary, such as “visiting my grandmother.” In contrast, people who are not depressed tend to describe an extended memory that lasts more than one day, such as “the summer I drove across the country” (Wenzel, 2005). Whether a person is depressed or not thus influences an individual’s ability to access and report experiences from their memories. Relatedly, cogni- tive psychology also influences interdisciplinary areas. A journal called Cognitive Neuropsychology, for example, publishes research that examines specific neurological problems—such as an extreme difficulty in recognizing people’s faces—when other cognitive skills are normal (e.g., Wilson et al., 2010).

Another reason to study cognitive psychology is that cognition occupies a major portion of human psychology as it relates to your daily life experiences. In fact, almost everything you have done in the past hour required you to perceive, remember, use language, or think. As you’ll soon see, psychologists have discovered some impressive information about every topic in cognitive psychology. Even though cognitive psychology is extraordinarily central in every human’s daily life, many college students cannot define this term accurately (Maynard, 2006; Maynard et al., 2004). For a demonstration of this point, try Demonstration 1.1.

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY4

The final reason for studying cognition is more personal. Your mind is an impressively sophisticated piece of equipment, and you use this equipment every minute of the day. If you purchase a new cellphone, you typically receive a brochure that describes its functions (or nowadays, at least a link to a website with this information). No one ever issued, however, a brochure for your mind when you were born. In a sense, this textbook is like a brochure or owner’s manual, describing information about how your mind works. Understanding cognition = understanding the abilities that provide you with the experience of a rich inter- nal mental life.

Historical Perspective on the Field The cognitive approach to psychology traces its origins to the classical Greek philosophers and to devel- opments that began in the 19th century. As we will also see in this section, however, the contemporary version of cognitive psychology emerged within the last 60–70 years. In this section, we first consider a set of historical developments that led to the emergence of the field of experimental psychology. We then focus briefly on a series of events that contributed to the emergence of cognitive psychology—a field that is widely viewed as a key subdiscipline of psychology. To conclude this section, we consider the nature of cognitive psychology as it exists in present times.

Origins of Cognitive Psychology Philosophers and other theorists have speculated about human thought processes for more than 23 centu- ries. For example, the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) examined topics such as perception, memory, and mental imagery. He also discussed how humans acquire knowledge through experience and observation (Barnes, 2004; Sternberg, 1999). Aristotle emphasized the importance of empirical evidence, or scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation. His emphasis on empirical evidence and many of the topics he studied are consistent with 21st-century cognitive psychology. In fact, Aristotle can reasonably be called the first cognitive psychologist (Leahey, 2003). Psychology as a disci- pline in and of itself did not emerge, however, until the late 1800s.

Wilhelm Wundt Most scholars who study the history of psychology believe that Wilhelm Wundt (pronounced “Voont”) should be considered the founder of experimental psychology (Benjamin, 2009; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010). Wundt lived in Leipzig, Germany, between 1832 and 1920. Students traveled from around the world to study with Wundt, who taught about 28,000 students during the course of his lifetime (Bechtel et al., 1998; Benjamin, 2009; Fuchs & Milar, 2003).

Wundt proposed that psychology should study mental processes, and advocated the use of a technique called introspection in order to do so. In this case, introspection meant that carefully trained observ- ers would systematically analyze their own sensations and report them as objectively as possible, under standardized conditions (Blumenthal, 2009; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010; Zangwill, 2004b). For example, observers might be asked to objectively report their reactions to a specific musical chord, and to do so without relying on their previous knowledge about music.

Wundt’s introspection technique sounds subjective, not objective, to most current cognitive psycholo- gists. As you’ll see throughout this textbook, our introspections are sometimes inaccurate (Wilson, 2009;

Locate several friends at your university or college who have not enrolled in any psychology courses. Ask each person the following questions:

1. How would you define the term “cognitive psychology”?

2. Can you list some of the topics that would be included in a course in cognitive psychology?

When Amanda Maynard and her coauthors (2004) asked intro- ductory psychologists to define “cognitive psychology,” only 29% provided appropriate definitions. How adequate were the responses that your own friends provided?

Awareness About Cognitive PsychologyDemonstration 1.1

Historical Perspective on the Field 5

Zangwill, 2004b). For example, you may introspect that your eyes are moving smoothly across this page of your textbook. As we will discuss in Chapter 3, however, cognitive psychologists have determined that your eyes actually move in small jumps while you are reading.

Early Memory Researchers One of the earliest (1850–1909) systematic investigations of a cognitive process came from the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (Baddeley et al., 2009; Schwartz, 2011). Ebbinghaus was interested in human memory. He examined a variety of factors that might influence performance on memory tasks, such as the amount of time between two presentations of a list of items. He frequently chose nonsense syl- lables (e.g., DAX), rather than actual words. This precaution reduced the potentially confounding effects of people’s previous experience with language on their ability to recall information from their memories (Fuchs & Milar, 2003; Zangwill, 2004a).

Meanwhile, in the United States, similar research was being conducted by psychologists such as Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930). Calkins reported a memory phenomenon called the recency effect (Schwartz, 2011). The recency effect refers to the observation that our recall is especially accurate for the final items in a series of stimuli (such as a list of words or numbers). In addition, Calkins emphasized that psychologists should study how real people use their cognitive processes in the real world, as opposed to in artificial laboratory tasks (Samelson, 2009). Calkins was also the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association. In connection with that role, she developed guidelines for teach- ing college courses in introductory psychology (Calkins, 1910; McGovern & Brewer, 2003). During her career, Calkins also published four books and more than 100 scholarly papers (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010).

William James Another central figure in the history of cognitive psychology was an American named William James (1842–1910). James was not impressed with Wundt’s introspection technique or Ebbinghaus’s research with nonsense syllables. Instead, James preferred to theorize about our everyday psychological experi- ences (Benjamin, 2009; Hunter, 2004a; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010). He is best known for his textbook Principles of Psychology, published in 1890.

Principles of Psychology provides clear, detailed descriptions about people’s everyday experiences (Benjamin, 2009). It also emphasizes that the human mind is active and inquiring. James’s book fore- shadows numerous topics that fascinate 21st-century cognitive psychologists, such as perception, atten- tion, memory, understanding, reasoning, and the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (Leary, 2009; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010). Consider, for example, James’s vivid description of the tip-of-the-tongue experience:

Suppose we try to recall a forgotten name. The state of our consciousness is peculiar. There is a gap therein but no mere gap. It is a gap that is intensely active. A sort of wraith of the name is in it, beckoning us in a given direction, making us at moments tingle with the sense of our closeness and then letting us sink back without the longed-for term.

(James, 1890, p. 251)

Behaviorism The work of early memory researchers such as Ebbinghaus and Calkins appealed to the notion that information is somehow stored in the mind. Their work suggested that internally stored knowledge about words or objects was one important component of cognitive processing. During the first half of the 20th century, however, behaviorism became the most prominent theoretical perspective in the United States. According to the principles of behaviorism, psychology must focus on objective, observable reactions to stimuli in the environment, rather than on subjective processes such as introspection (Benjamin, 2009; O’Boyle, 2006).

The most prominent early behaviorist was the U.S. psychologist John B. Watson (1913), who lived from 1878 to 1958. Watson and other behaviorists emphasized observable behavior, and they typically studied nonhuman animals (Benjamin, 2009). Most behaviorists believed that it was inappropriate to theo- rize and speculate about unobservable components of mental life. As a result, the behaviorists did not study concepts such as a mental image, an idea, or a thought (Epstein, 2004; Skinner, 2004). Instead, the

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY6

behaviorists focused heavily on learning. That is, they were particularly interested in quantifying the man- ner in which changes in an organism’s environment produced changes in its behavior.

It is possible to objectively quantify how well an organism has learned about properties of its environ- ment. For example, consider placing a rat in a complicated maze—the end of which contains a piece of cheese for the rat to enjoy as a reward for making it through the maze. Rewarding rats for successfully navigating to the end of a maze provides researchers with an opportunity to objectively measure learning. For example, researchers may choose to count the number of errors made by the rat (such as a turn down a dead-end path) while completing the maze on each of 30 consecutive days. A decrease in error rate over time, in this case, is interpretable as representing an increase in learning. Because researchers can quantify learning over time, they also have the ability to systematically manipulate properties of the learning task, such as maze complexity, in order to determine what factors influence the speed of learning. Note here, however, that in behaviorist experiments, clear and quantifiable manipulations of the learning environment were implemented in order to examine how they influenced a quantifiable metric of learning. The behav- iorists never argued or otherwise appealed to the notion that a rat may be storing information about the spatial layout of the maze (and thus, internally representing visual and spatial components of the maze) as they learned about its layout over time.

The lack of a willingness to acknowledge that information about one’s environment is stored and can be accessed at some later point in time led to a reaction against strong versions of behaviorist doctrine. In fact, examples of “pure behaviorism” are now difficult to locate. For instance, the Association of Behav- ioral Therapy is now known as the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. Recent articles in their journal, Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, have focused on using cognitive behavioral therapy for a variety of clients, including people with eating disorders, elderly adults with posttraumatic stress disorder, and severely depressed adolescents.

Although the behaviorists did not conduct research in cognitive psychology, they did contribute sig- nificantly to contemporary research methods. For example, behaviorists emphasized the importance of the operational definition, a precise definition that specifies exactly how a concept is to be measured. Similarly, cognitive psychologists in the 21st century need to specify exactly how memory, perception, and other cognitive processes will be measured in an experiment. Behaviorists also valued carefully con- trolled research, a tradition that is maintained in current cognitive research (Fuchs & Milar, 2003). We must also acknowledge the important contribution of behaviorists to applied psychology. Their learning principles have been used extensively in psychotherapy, business, organizations, and education (Craske, 2010; O’Boyle, 2006; Rutherford, 2009).

Try Demonstration 1.2 before you read further.

The Gestalt Approach Behaviorism thrived in the United States for several decades, although it had less influence on European psychology (G. Mandler, 2002). An important development in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century was gestalt (pronounced “geh-shtahlt”) psychology. Gestalt psychology emphasizes that we humans have basic tendencies to actively organize what we see, and furthermore, that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (Benjamin, 2009).

Quickly look at the figure below and describe what you see. Keep your answer in mind until the next page, when we will discuss this figure.

An Example of Gestalt PsychologyDemonstration 1.2

Historical Perspective on the Field 7

Consider, for example, the figure represented in Demonstration 1.2. You probably saw a human face, rather than simply an oval and two straight lines. This figure seems to have unity and organization. It has a gestalt, or overall quality that transcends the individual elements (Fuchs & Milar, 2003).

Gestalt psychologists valued the unity of psychological phenomena. As a result, they strongly objected to Wundt’s introspective technique of analyzing experiences into separate components (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010). They also criticized the behaviorists’ emphasis on breaking behavior into observable stimulus–response units and ignoring the context of behavior (Baddeley et al., 2009; Benjamin, 2009). Gestalt psychologists constructed a number of laws that explain why certain components of a pattern seem to belong together. In Chapter 2, we’ll consider some of these laws, which help us to quickly recognize visual objects.

Gestalt psychologists also emphasized the importance of insight in problem solving (Fuchs & Milar, 2003; Viney & King, 2003). When you are trying to solve a problem, the parts of the problem may initially seem unrelated to each other. However, with a sudden flash of insight, the parts fit together into a solu- tion. Gestalt psychologists conducted most of the early research in problem solving. In Chapter 11 of this textbook, we will examine their concept of insight, as well as more recent developments.

Frederic Bartlett In the early 1900s, the behaviorists were dominant in the United States, and the gestalt psychologists were influential in continental Europe. Meanwhile in England, a British psychologist named Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969) conducted his research on human memory. His important book Remembering: An Experimental and Social Study (Bartlett, 1932) is considered one of the most influential books in the history of cognitive psychology (Benjamin, 2009). Bartlett rejected the carefully controlled research of Ebbinghaus (Pickford & Gregory, 2004). Instead, he used meaningful materials, such as lengthy stories.

Bartlett discovered that people made systematic errors when trying to recall these stories. He proposed that human memory is an active, constructive process, in which we interpret and transform the information we encounter. We search for meaning, trying to integrate this new information so that it is more consistent with our own personal experiences (Benjamin, 2009; Pickford & Gregory, 2004; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010).

Bartlett’s work was largely ignored in the United States during the 1930s, because most U.S. research psychologists were committed to behaviorism. However, about half a century later, U.S. cognitive psychologists discovered Bartlett’s work and admired his use of naturalistic material, in contrast to Ebbinghaus’s artificial nonsense syllables. Bartlett’s emphasis on a schema-based approach to memory foreshadowed some of the research we will explore in Chapters 5 and 8 (Benjamin, 2009; Pickford & Gregory, 2004).

Cognitive Revolution By the late 1930s and throughout the 1940s, psychologists were becoming increasingly disappointed with the behaviorist outlook that had dominated U.S. psychology in previous decades. It was diffi- cult to explain complex human behavior using only behaviorist concepts such as observable stimuli, responses, and reinforcement (G. Mandler, 2002; Neisser, 1967). Research in human memory began to blossom at the end of the 1950s, further increasing the disenchantment with behaviorism. Psy- chologists proposed models of human memory instead of focusing only on models of animal learning (Baddeley et al., 2009; Bower, 2008). The behaviorist approach tells us little about numerous psycho- logically interesting processes, such as the thoughts and strategies that people use when they try to solve a problem (Bechtel et al., 1998), or how people access their stored knowledge about language in order to produce a sentence.

Another influential force came from research on children’s thought processes. Jean Piaget (pronounced “Pea-ah-zhay”) was a Swiss theorist who lived from 1896 to 1980. Piaget’s books began to attract the attention of U.S. psychologists and educators toward the end of the 1950s, and his perspectives continue to shape developmental psychology (Feist, 2006; Hopkins, 2011; Pickren & Rutherford, 2010). According to Piaget, children actively explore their world in order to understand important concepts (Gregory, 2004b). Children’s cognitive strategies change as they mature, and adolescents often use sophisticated strategies in order to conduct their own personal experiments about how the world works.

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY8

Research and theory from other academic and intellectual fields also increased the emerging popular- ity of the study of human cognition (Bermudez, 2014). For example, new developments in linguistics increased psychologists’ dissatisfaction with behaviorism (Bargh & Ferguson, 2000; Bower, 2008). The most important contributions came from the linguist Noam Chomsky (1957), who emphasized that the structure of language was too complex to be explained in behaviorist terms (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010; Pinker, 2002). Chomsky and other linguists argued that humans have an inborn ability to master all the complicated and varied aspects of language (Chomsky, 2004). This perspective clearly contradicted the behaviorist perspective that language acquisition can be entirely explained by the same kinds of learning principles that apply to laboratory animals.

The growing support for the cognitive approach is often referred to as the “cognitive revolution” (Bruner, 1997; Shiraev, 2011). This term refers to a strong shift away from behaviorist approaches to the study of human behavior. Instead, experimental psychologists began to focus on how organism-internal processes, such as memory, attention, and language, work together to give rise to the human ability to consciously perceive, interpret, and act in the world around them.

We have traced the historical roots of cognitive psychology and provided a brief overview of reasons that psychologists became disenchanted with the behaviorist worldview. But, when was the field of cog- nitive psychology actually “born”? Cognitive psychologists generally agree that the birth of cognitive psychology can be listed as 1956 (Eysenck & Keane, 2010; G. Mandler, 2002; Thagard, 2005). During this prolific year, researchers published numerous influential books and articles on attention, memory, lan- guage, concept formation, and problem solving. In 1967, an influential psychologist named Ulric Neisser (1928–2012) published a booked called Cognitive Psychology. The publication of this book served as one of the first comprehensive treatments of cognitive processing. It is seen as one of the most important fac- tors contributing to the emergence of cognitive psychology as a field. In fact, because Neisser was the first person to use the term “Cognitive Psychology,” he has often been called “the father of cognitive psychol- ogy” (e.g., American Psychological Science, n.d.).

Cognitive Psychology in Present Times Since the cognitive revolution and the onset of cognitive psychology as a field, cognitive psychology has had an enormous influence on the discipline of psychology. For example, almost all psychologists now recognize the importance of mental representations, a term that behaviorists would have rejected in the 1950s. Indeed, all areas of psychology incorporate key principles from cognitive psychology in their models of human development and behavior. For instance, psychologists are also studying how cognitive pro- cesses operate in our everyday social interactions (e.g., Cacioppo & Berntson, 2005a; Cameron, Payne, & Doris, 2013; Critcher, Inbar, & Pizzaro, 2013; Easton & Emery, 2005; Neel, Neufeld, & Neuberg, 2013; Todd & Burgmer, 2013). Demonstration 1.3 illustrates the important influence of cognitive psychology in many other areas of psychological inquiry.

Cognitive psychology has its critics, however. One common complaint concerns the issue of ecological validity. Studies are high in ecological validity if the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting where the results will be applied.

In contrast, consider an experiment in which participants must memorize a list of unrelated English words, presented at 5-second intervals on a white screen in a barren laboratory room. Half of the people are instructed to create a vivid mental image of each word; the other half receive no instructions. The experi- ment is carefully controlled. The results of this experiment would tell us something about the way memory operates. However, this task is probably low in ecological validity because it cannot be applied to the way people learn in the real world (Sharps & Wertheimer, 2000). How often do you try to memorize a list of unrelated words in this fashion?

Locate a psychology textbook used in some other class. An intro- ductory textbook is ideal, but textbooks in developmental psy- chology, social psychology, abnormal psychology, etc., are all suitable. Glance through the subject index for terms beginning with

cognition or cognitive, and locate the relevant pages. Depending on the nature of the textbook, you may also find entries under terms such as memory, language, and perception.

The Widespread Influence of Cognitive PsychologyDemonstration 1.3

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Most cognitive psychologists prior to the 1980s did indeed conduct research in artificial laboratory environments, often using tasks that differed from daily cognitive activities. However, current researchers frequently study real-life issues. For example, Chapter 3 describes how people are much more likely to make driving errors if they are talking on a handheld cell phone (Folk, 2010). Furthermore, Chapters 5 and 6 discuss numerous methods for improving your memory (e.g., Davies & Wright, 2010a). Chapter 12 provides many suggestions about how to improve your decision-making ability (Kahneman, 2011). In general, most cognitive psychologists acknowledge that the discipline must advance by conducting both ecologically valid and laboratory-based research.

Mind, Brain, and Behavior By the mid-1970s, the cognitive approach had replaced the behaviorist approach as the dominant theory in psychological research (Robins et al., 1999). But, cognitive psychology as it exists today has become an increasingly interdisciplinary pursuit. The rigorous experimental approach to psychological research that is characteristic of cognitive psychology has become increasingly supplemented by theories and method- ologies borrowed from other fields. In this section, we first consider the interdisciplinary field of cognitive science. Indeed, researchers from many different fields have interests in how the human mind works. As we will see, cross-disciplinary research can produce synthetic contributions to our understanding of the human mind that transcend the contributions from any individual discipline. Next, we touch on theoretical questions concerning how the concept of “the mind” relates to the human brain. To conclude, we will pro- vide an overview of cognitive neuroscience methodologies. These methodologies allow us to gain insight into how our neural hardware supports different cognitive processes.

Cognitive Science Cognitive psychology is part of a broad field known as cognitive science. Cognitive science is an inter- disciplinary field that tries to answer questions about the mind. Cognitive science includes contributions from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, computer science, philosophy, and linguistics. In some cases, researchers in the fields of sociology, anthropology, and economics also make contributions to the field of cognitive science. This field emerged when researchers began to notice connections among a variety of disciplines, and thus began to collaborate with one another (Bermúdez, 2010; Sobel, 2001; Thagard, 2005).

According to cognitive scientists, thinking requires us to manipulate our internal representations of the external world. Cognitive scientists focus on these internal representations. Cognitive scientists value interdisciplinary studies, and they try to build bridges among the academic areas. Both the theory and the research in cognitive science are so extensive that no one person can possibly master everything (Bermúdez, 2010; Sobel, 2001; Thagard, 2005). However, if all these different fields remain separate, then cognitive scientists won’t achieve important insights and identify relevant connections. Therefore, cogni- tive science tries to coordinate the information that researchers have gathered throughout each relevant discipline.

Below, we examine just one of many examples that highlight the value of interdisciplinary communica- tion when trying to understand the inner workings of the human mind. More specifically, we look at how interactions between cognitive psychologists and computer scientists have produced deeper insight into cognition than would otherwise be possible.

Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science. It seeks to explore human cognitive processes by creating computer models that show “intelligent behavior” and also accomplish the same tasks that humans do (Bermúdez, 2010; Boden, 2004; Chrisley, 2004). Researchers in artificial intelligence have tried to explain how humans recognize a face, create a mental image, and write a poem, as well as hundreds of additional cognitive accomplishments (Boden, 2004; Farah, 2004; Thagard, 2005).

We need to draw a distinction between “pure AI” and computer simulation. Pure artificial intelligence is an approach that designs a program to accomplish a cognitive task as efficiently as possible, even if the computer’s processes are completely different from the processes used by humans. For example, the most

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high-powered computer programs for chess will evaluate as many potential moves as possible in as little time as possible (Michie, 2004). Chess is an extremely complex game, in which both players together can make about 10128 possible different moves. Consider a computer chess program named “Hydra.” The top chess players in the world make a slight error about every 10 moves. Hydra can identify this error—even though chess experts cannot—and it therefore wins the game (Mueller, 2005). Researchers have designed pure AI systems that can play chess, speak English, or diagnose an illness. However, as one researcher points out, “I wouldn’t want a chess-playing program speculating as to the cause of my chest pain” (Franklin, 1995, p. 11).

As we have seen, pure AI tries to achieve the best possible performance. In contrast, computer simula- tion or computer modeling attempts to take human limitations into account. The goal of computer simu- lation is to program a computer to perform a specific cognitive task in the same way that humans actually perform this task. A computer simulation must produce the same number of errors—as well as correct responses—that a human produces (Carpenter & Just, 1999; Thagard, 2005).

Computer simulation research has been most active in such areas as memory, language processing, problem solving, and logical reasoning (Bower, 2008; Eysenck & Keane, 2010; Thagard, 2005). For exam- ple, Carpenter and Just (1999) created a classic computer-simulation model for reading sentences. This model was based on the assumption that humans have a limited capacity to process information. As a result, humans will read a difficult section of a sentence more slowly. Consider the following sentence:

The reporter that the senator attacked admitted the error.

Carpenter and Just (1999) designed their computer simulation so that it took into account the relevant linguistic information contained in sentences like this one. The model predicted that processing speed should be fast for the words at the beginning and the end of the sentence. However, the processing should be slow for the awkward two-verb section, “attacked admitted.” In fact, Carpenter and Just demonstrated that the human data matched the computer simulation quite accurately.

Surprisingly, people can accomplish some tasks quite easily, even though these tasks are beyond the capacity of computer simulations. For example, a 10-year-old girl can search a messy bedroom for her watch, find it in her sweatshirt pocket, read the pattern on the face of the watch, and then announce the time. However, no current computer can simulate this task. Computers also cannot match humans’ sophistication in learning language, identifying objects in everyday scenes, or solving problems creatively (Jackendoff, 1997; Sobel, 2001).

Computer Metaphor of the Mind During the 1970s–1990s (and even still today), the computer has been a popular metaphor for the human mind. According to the computer metaphor, our cognitive processes work like a computer. That is, computers and human minds are both examples of complex, multipurpose machinery (Clark, 2013). Researchers acknowledge the obvious differences in physical structure between the computer and the human brain. Both human brains and computers may operate, however, according to similar general prin- ciples. For example, both humans and computers can compare symbols and can make choices according to the results of the comparison. Furthermore, computers have a processing mechanism with a limited capacity. Humans also have limited attention and short-term memory capacities. Chapter 3 details research clearly demonstrating that humans cannot pay attention to numerous tasks at the same time.

Computer models need to describe both the structures and the processes that operate on these structures. Thagard (2005) suggests that a computer model resembles a recipe in cooking. A recipe has two parts: (1) the ingredients, which are somewhat like the structures; and (2) the cooking instructions for working with those ingredients, which are somewhat like the processes. Researchers who favor the computer approach try to design the appropriate “software.” With the right computer program and sufficient mathe- matical detail, researchers hope to imitate the flexibility and the efficiency of human cognitive processes (Boden, 2004).

Beginning in the 1960s, psychologists began to create models of how information flows through cogni- tive systems. This information-processing approach argued that (a) our mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer, and (b) information progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time (Gallistel & King, 2009; Leahey, 2003; MacKay, 2004). Information processing

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models of cognitive processes such as memory, visual object recognition, or language comprehension, share a series of general assumptions detailed below.

1. Stimuli (maybe a visual object such as a chair or a word from a sentence) occur or are present in one’s environment. Information about those stimuli is transported to your sensory receptors (your eyes, your ears, etc.) through a physical medium (light, sound waves). Your sensory receptors process that information, and are responsible for making sure that it gets to your brain. Note that taking in information about your environment through your senses is similar to inputting information into a computer (e.g., by typing a word and pressing the “Enter” key).

2. The information that is provided to your brain via your senses is processed and decoded over the course of multiple processing stages. For example, upon seeing a chair, your visual system seems to first process different features of the chair such as its color, its edges, and its size. After those features are recognized, information progresses to other parts of the visual object recognition system in order for the features to get bound together. Eventually, the visual information reaches a stage at which it has been processed enough in order for you to match it to your stored knowledge about objects in the world. At this stage, you have recognized the object in your environment as a chair. Notice here that under these types of approaches, information is processed in incremental stages. This stage-like processing is similar to how older computers worked. Specific sub- systems process input based on rules (or algorithms). After the information gets processed in that subsystem, it is sent to another subsystem so that it can be further processed and interpreted.

3. Eventually, after a stimulus has been processed enough in order for it to be identified and interpreted, a decision must be made about how to respond to the stimulus.

4. If you decide to respond to the stimulus, a motor command is sent to the parts of the system that are responsible for telling your body how to move. You then initiate an action that allows you to respond as strategically as possible to the stimulus that you had just finished processing. This action component is akin to a computer responding to some input (e.g., by displaying a word that you had typed onto your monitor).

Many versions of this classical approach viewed processing as a series of separate operations; in other words, information processing was considered to be serial. During serial processing, the system must complete one step or processing stage before information can proceed to the next step in the flowchart (Fodor, 1983).

A great appreciation for the analogy between the human mind and the computer arose because computer programs must be detailed, precise, unambiguous, and logical (Boden, 2004). Researchers can represent the functions of a computer with a flowchart that shows the sequence of stages in processing information. Throughout the remainder of this book, you will see some examples of these flowcharts.

Every metaphor, however, has its limitations. The computer metaphor of the mind, and of information processing more generally, was never intended to be a model of how the brain processes information. Back in the 1960s and up until the early 1980s, the scientific community had a very limited sense of how the brain processed and interpreted complex stimuli in the environment. Most of the neuroimaging equipment that we discuss at the end of this section was still in the early phases of development. As a result, these models were designed to capture regularities in how people processed information about different classes of stimuli, such as linguistic, visual, and auditory information. Cognitive psychologists conducted many experiments that served to illuminate the types of environmental information that could be processed by the mind, what types of information seemed to be processed before other types of information, and what factors influenced the ease with which information could be processed. These data were used to create models of information flow through cognitive systems, although they were not intended to serve as models of how the physical brain actually processed information (see Marr, 1982, for an extended discussion of these distinctions).

The Connectionist Approach Many of the classical information-processing models have a difficult time accounting for the kinds of cognitive tasks that humans do very quickly, accurately, and without conscious thought. For example, AI models cannot explain how you can instantly perceive a visual scene (Bermúdez, 2010; Leahey, 2003). Glance up from your book, and then immediately return to this paragraph. When you looked at this visual

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scene, your retina presented about one million signals to your cortex—all at the same time. If your visual system had used serial processing in order to interpret these one million signals, you would still be pro- cessing that visual scene, rather than reading this sentence!

In 1986, James McClelland, David Rumelhart, and their colleagues at the University of California, San Diego, published an influential two-volume book entitled Parallel Distributed Processing (McClel- land & Rumelhart, 1986; Rumelhart et al., 1986). This approach contrasted sharply with the traditional information-processing approach. As previously noted, the classical computer metaphor approach was never intended to appeal to how the brain processed information. Classic information-processing models were only meant to serve as abstract flowcharts that captured what we knew at the time about people’s performance on cognitive tasks.

In contrast, the connectionist approach argues that cognitive processes can be understood in terms of networks that link together neuron-like processing units; in addition, many operations can proceed simultaneously—rather than one step at a time. In other words, human cognition is often parallel, not strictly serial (Barrett, 2009; Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Two other names that are often used interchangeably with connectionism are the parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach and the neural-network approach.

During the 1970s, neuroscientists developed research techniques that could explore the structure of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain that is essential for your cognitive pro- cesses. One important discovery in this research was the numerous connections among neurons, a pattern that resembles many elaborate networks (Bermúdez, 2014; Rolls, 2004; Thagard, 2005).

This network pattern suggests that an item stored in your brain cannot be localized in a specific pinpoint-sized location of your cortex (Barrett, 2009; Fuster, 2003; Woll, 2002). Instead, the neural activ- ity for that item seems to be distributed throughout a section of the brain. For example, researchers can- not pinpoint one small portion of your brain that stores the name of your cognitive psychology professor. Instead, that information is probably distributed throughout numerous neurons in a region of your cerebral cortex. Notice that the term “parallel distributed processing” captures the distributed nature of the neurons in your brain.

The researchers who developed the connectionist approach proposed a model that simulates many important features of the brain (Bermúdez, 2010; Levine, 2002; Woll, 2002). Most importantly, these networks are designed based on the basic principles associated with how neurons pass electrical signals to each other. Naturally, the model captures only a fraction of the brain’s complexity. However, like the brain, the model includes simplified neuron-like units, numerous interconnections, and neural activity distributed throughout the system.

Many psychologists welcomed the connectionist approach as a groundbreaking new framework. It was groundbreaking in that it provided a way to understand how populations of neurons worked together in order to represent knowledge. Thus, unlike the classic information-processing perspective, research- ers who operate under a connectionist modeling approach create computational models of neural processing that do appeal to how the brain actually works. They have developed models in areas as unrelated to one another as college students’ stereotypes about a group of people and children’s mastery of irregular verbs (Bermúdez, 2014; Christiansen & Chater, 2001). Researchers continue to explore whether the PDP approach can adequately account for the broad range of skills demonstrated by our cognitive processes.

Keep in mind that the connectionist approach uses the human brain—rather than the serial-computer—as the basic model (Woll, 2002). This more sophisticated design allows the connectionist approach to achieve greater complexity, flexibility, and accuracy as it attempts to account for human cognitive processes.

Cognitive Neuroscience The sophistication of neuroimaging technology has increased in recent times. Additionally, given advances in computer hardware, we have an ever-increasing ability to process large datasets more quickly than ever before. As a result, data collected from cognitive neuroscientific methodologies are becom- ing a substantially more valuable tool in understanding how multiple neural systems contribute to our processing and interpretation of the world around us. Cognitive neuroscience combines the research techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure and function of the brain (Marshall, 2009).

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In recent decades, researchers have examined which structures in the brain are activated when people perform a variety of cognitive tasks (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Furthermore, psychologists now use neu- roscience techniques to explore the kind of cognitive processes that we use in our interactions with other people; this new discipline is called social cognitive neuroscience (Cacioppo, 2007; Cacioppo & Berntson, 2005a; Easton & Emery, 2005). For example, researchers have identified a variety of brain structures that are active when people look at a photograph of a face and judge whether the person is trustwor- thy (Winston et al., 2005). However, neurological explanations for some cognitive processes are elusive. For example, take several seconds to stand up and walk around the room in which you are reading. As you walk, notice what you see in your environment. This visual activity is actually extremely com- plicated, requiring billions of neurons and more than 50 regions of the surface of your brain (Emery & Easton, 2005).

Because the brain is so complex, we need to be very cautious when we read summaries of cognitive neuroscience research in the popular media. For example, I discovered a newspaper article that claimed, “Scientists Find Humor Spot in the Brain.” In reality, numerous parts of the brain work together to master the complicated task of appreciating humor. This observation is not unique to humor. Instead, just about all naturalistic cognitive processing tasks that we face on a daily basis are complex, such that multiple neural systems work together to provide us with the ability to process that information.

Let’s examine several neuroscience techniques that provide particularly useful information for cogni- tive psychologists. We discuss these methodologies up front because they are used in many of the experi- ments detailed throughout the remainder of this book.

Brain Lesions In humans, the term brain lesions refers to the destruction of an area in the brain, most often by strokes, tumors, blows to the head, and accidents. The formal research on lesions began in the 1860s, but major advances came after World War II, when researchers examined the relationship between damaged regions of the brain and cognitive deficits (Farah, 2004; Kolb & Whishaw, 2009). Tragically, neurologists continue to learn more about specific cognitive deficits from the thousands of U.S. soldiers with brain lesions from the Iraq and Afghanistan wars (e.g., Department of Veterans Affairs, 2010; Oakie, 2005).

The study of brain lesions has definitely helped us understand the organization of the brain. However, the results are often difficult to interpret. For example, a brain lesion is not limited to just one specific area. As a result, researchers typically cannot associate a cognitive deficit with a specific brain structure (Gazzaniga et al., 2009; Kalat, 2009). In this textbook, we will occasionally discuss research on people with brain lesions. However, other neuroscience techniques provide better-controlled information about the neural structures involved in cognitive processing (Hernandez-García et al., 2002).

Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) When you perform a cognitive task, your brain needs chemicals such as oxygen to support neural activity. The brain does not store oxygen. Instead, blood flow increases in the activated part of the brain in order to carry oxygen to that site. Brain-imaging techniques measure brain activity indirectly. These techniques are based on the following logic: By measuring certain properties of the blood in different regions of the brain while people perform a cognitive task, we can determine which brain regions contribute to performance on that cognitive task (Coren et al., 2004; Szpunar, 2010).

In a positron emission tomography (PET) scan, researchers measure blood flow in the brain by injecting the participant with a low dose of a radioactive chemical just before this person works on a cogni- tive task. This chemical travels through the bloodstream to the parts of the brain that are activated during the tasks. While the person works on the task, a special camera makes an image of the accumulated radio- active chemical in various regions of the brain. For example, the participant might perform two slightly different cognitive tasks. By comparing the two brain images, researchers can determine which parts of the brain are activated when the participant works on each task (Kolb & Whishaw, 2011; Szpunar, 2010). PET scans can be used to study such cognitive processes as attention, memory, and language.

PET scans require several seconds to produce data, so this method does not provide useful information about the time course of processing a stimulus in the environment. If the activity in a specific brain region increases and then decreases within this brief period, the PET scan will record an average of this activity level (Hernandez-García et al., 2002). For example, you can scan an entire room in 2 or 3 seconds, so an average activity level for this entire scene would not be meaningful. Furthermore, in the current era, PET

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scans are used less often than some other imaging techniques because they are expensive and they expose people to radioactive chemicals (Kalat, 2009).

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is based on the principle that oxygen-rich blood is an index of brain activity (Cacioppo & Berntson, 2005b; Kalat, 2009; Szpunar, 2010). The research partici- pant reclines with his or her head surrounded by a large, doughnut-shaped magnet. This magnetic field produces changes in the oxygen atoms. A scanning device takes a “photo” of these oxygen atoms while the participant performs a cognitive task.

The fMRI technique was developed during the 1990s, based on the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is used in medical settings. In general, an fMRI is preferable to a PET scan because it is less inva- sive, with no injections and no radioactive material (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). In addition, an fMRI can measure brain activity that occurs fairly quickly—in about one second (Frith & Rees, 2004; Huettel et al., 2004; Kalat, 2009).

The fMRI technique is more precise than a PET scan in that it provides a more detailed image of an individual’s brain. It also produces more robust illustrations of the parts of the brain that are involved in processing a stimulus. The fMRI technique can also detect subtle differences in the way that the brain processes language. For example, Gernsbacher and Robertson (2005) used this technique to discover a different pattern of brain activation when students read sentences like, “The young child played in a backyard,” as opposed to “A young child played in a backyard.” Notice the subtle difference in meaning between “A child” and “The child.” Would you have thought that your brain responded differently to these almost identical phrases?

PET scans and functional magnetic resonance imaging provide information about location. That is, they provide information about which parts of the brain contribute to processing a certain type of stimuli. fMRIs are much more common today than PET scans because fMRIs do not use radioactive material, and because they provide better resolution (Bermúdez, 2010; Bernstein & Loftus, 2009). Neither of these techniques, however, provides insight into questions associated with time course. fMRI and PET are not able to provide information about when, or how quickly, certain processes occur. In addition, neither PET scans nor fMRIs can tell us precisely what a person is thinking. For instance, some news commentators have suggested using brain scans to identify terrorists. The current technology for this precise kind of identification is clearly inadequate.

Event-Related Potential Technique As we’ve seen, PET scans and the fMRI technique are too slow to provide precise information about the timing of brain activity. In contrast, the event-related potential (ERP) technique records the very brief fluctuations in the brain’s electrical activity, in response to a stimulus such as an auditory tone or a visual word (e.g., Bernstein & Loftus, 2009; DeLong, Urbach, & Kutas, 2005; Gazzaniga et al., 2009; Kolb & Whishaw, 2011; Molinaro, Barraza, & Carreiras, 2013).

To use the event-related potential technique, researchers place electrodes on a person’s scalp (usually 32 or 64 electrodes, depending on the system). Each electrode records the electrical activity generated by populations of neurons located in the brain. The ERP technique cannot identify the response of a single neuron. However, it can identify electrical changes over a very brief period produced by populations of neurons in some region of the brain (Kutas & Federmeier, 2011).

For example, suppose that you are participating in a study that examines how humans respond to facial movement. Specifically, you have been instructed to watch a video that lasts one second. One video shows a woman opening her mouth; a second video shows her closing her mouth. The electrodes are fastened to your scalp, and you watch numerous presentations of both the mouth-opening and the mouth-closing videos. Later, the researchers will average the signal for each of the two conditions, to eliminate random activity in the brain waves (Puce & Perrett, 2005).

The ERP technique provides a reasonably precise picture of changes in the brain’s electrical potential while people perform a cognitive task. Consider the research on mouth movement, for example. If you were to participate in this study, your brain would show a change in electrical potential about half of a second after you saw each mouth movement. However, your brain would respond more dramatically when you watch her mouth open than when you watch a mouth close (Puce & Perrett, 2005).

Textbook Overview 15

Why does this fine-grained ERP analysis show that your brain responds differently to these two situa- tions? Puce and Perrett propose that a mouth-opening movement is more important, because it signals that a person is about to say something. You, therefore, need to be attentive, and this exaggerated ERP reflects this attentiveness. In contrast, it’s less important to notice that someone has finished talking.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) PET scans and fMRI provide compelling information about the brain regions involved in the cognitive processing of some stimulus, although they do not provide clear information about the time course of processing. ERP, on the other hand, provides precise information about the time course underlying cog- nitive processing, but does not offer reliable information about the neural substrates that contribute to such processing. As a result of these complementary methodological strengths and limitations, cognitive neuroscientific researchers often examine effects of interest using different methodologies. This endeavor involves piecing together information about time course and (neural substrate) localization in order to develop models and theories of cognitive processing.

Newer methodological advances, however, may be able to provide more direct information about which parts of the brain contribute to the elicitation of some effect, while simultaneously illuminating the time course of processing events that contribute to it. Although a handful of recent methodological advances can simultaneously produce time course and localization information (see, most notably, information about the Optical Imaging technique, Gratton & Fabiani, 2010; Tse et al., 2007), we focus here on the magnetoencephalography (MEG) technique.

Whereas the ERP technique records fluctuations in neuronally produced electrical activity, the magnetoencephalography (MEG) technique records magnetic field fluctuations produced by neu- ral activity during the processing of stimuli presented to participants (Hämäläinen, Hari, Ilmoniemi, Knuutila, & Lounasmaa, 1993). In this sense, it provides time-course information roughly identical to the ERP technique. Unlike the EEG/ERP technique, however, it also provides some coarse-grained information about the neural sources responsible for the observed fluctuations. MEG-based investiga- tions into cognitive processing have become increasingly frequent over the past 15 years (although they have been hampered by the high costs associated with maintaining an MEG facility, thus limiting accessibility).

During an MEG experiment, a participant is placed in an electromagnetically shielded room, and large numbers (up to 300) of magnetically sensitive sensors are placed on their scalp. As with the ERP tech- nique, a stimulus is presented for some amount of time, and the physical properties of waveforms are continuously recorded from each sensor. Average time-locked fluctuations in the waveforms recorded by groups of sensors during stimulus processing provide researchers with information about when, after the onset of a stimulus, neural activity was engaged. The magnetic signals recorded during processing are more robust to distortion as they pass through the skull than are the electrical signals recorded by the ERP technique. This property of magnetic signals allows for substantially more reliable inferences about the neural sources of observed effects in MEG than can be made from ERP data. This spatial localization information is not as precise as the information provided by PET and fMRI techniques. It can, however, provide rough estimates of the spatial location of neural tissue that contributed to fluctuations in magnetic field activity at some point during stimulus processing.

A detailed investigation of cognitive neuroscience techniques is beyond the scope of this book. You can also obtain more information from other resources (e.g., Gazzaniga et al., 2009; Kalat, 2009; Kolb & Whishaw, 2011; Luck, 2014). It’s important to point out, however, that neuroscientists have not developed a detailed explanation for any human cognitive process, despite the claims in the popular media (Gallistel & King, 2009). In any event, the increased ease and accessibility of these cognitive neuroscientific tech- niques means that more integrative and neurally grounded theories of mind and brain are on the horizon.

Textbook Overview In this textbook, we examine many different kinds of mental processes. We’ll begin with perception, atten- tion, and memory—three processes that contribute to all other cognitive tasks. We’ll then consider lan- guage, which is probably the most challenging cognitive task that humans need to master. Later chapters

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discuss “higher-order” processes. As the name suggests, these higher-order cognitive processes depend upon the more basic processes introduced in earlier chapters. The final chapter examines cognition across the life span, from infancy to old age. Let’s preview Chapters 2 through 13. Then, we’ll explore five themes that can help you appreciate some general characteristics of cognitive processes. Our final section provides hints on how you can use your book more effectively.

Chapter Preview Chapter 2: Visual and auditory recognition. These perceptual processes require linking the stimuli that are registered by your senses to the stored knowledge that you have about the world. For example, visual recognition allows you to recognize each letter on this page, whereas auditory recognition allows you to recognize the words you hear when a friend is talking to you.

Chapter 3: Attention. Attention is a process that helps you determine which stimuli in the environment you choose to focus on at some point in time. The last time you tried to follow a friend’s story while also reading your biology textbook, you probably noticed the limits of your attention. This chapter also exam- ines a related topic called consciousness. Consciousness is your awareness of the external world, as well as your thoughts and emotions about your internal world.

Chapter 4: Working memory. Memory is the process of maintaining information over time. Memory is such an important part of cognition that it requires several chapters. Chapter 4 describes working memory (short-term memory). You’re certainly aware of the limits of working memory when you forget some- one’s name that you heard less than a minute earlier.

Chapter 5: Long-term memory. The second of our memory chapters focuses on long-term memory. We’ll explore the factors that influence your ability to recall information stored in your long-term memory. We’ll also investigate the factors, such as mood, that can influence your ability to remember information. We’ll then explore memory for everyday life events, as well as people’s accuracy during eyewitness testimony.

Chapter 6: Strategies for memory improvement. The last of the general memory chapters provides suggestions for how to improve your memory. In particular, we focus on cognitive strategies that you can use in order to improve exam performance. This chapter also considers metacognition, which is your knowledge about your own cognitive processes. For instance, do you know whether you could remember the definition for metacognition if you were to be tested tomorrow?

Chapter 7: Mental imagery. Here, we focus on imagery, which is the mental representation of things that are not physically present. One important controversy in the research on imagery is whether your men- tal images truly resemble perceptual images. Another important topic concerns the mental images we have for physical settings. For example, the cognitive map you have developed for your college campus may show several buildings lined up in a straight row, even though their actual positions are much more random.

Chapter 8: General Knowledge. In this chapter, we focus on issues related to how we store and organ- ize our general knowledge. One area of general knowledge is semantic memory, which includes factual knowledge about the world as well as knowledge about word meanings. General knowledge also includes schemas (pronounced “skee-mahz”). Schemas are generalized kinds of information about situations. For example, you have a schema for the typical sequence of events that happen when you enter a restaurant.

Chapter 9: Language I. Introduction to language and language comprehension. Research on language processes is vast, such that we cover it in two chapters. In this first chapter, we discuss the properties of human language before examining language comprehension. For example, you may hear someone that you have never met before mumble a sentence, and yet you can easily arrive at the intended message. Reading is the second topic covered in Chapter 9; you’ll see that reading is much more complex than you might think! We’ll also explore how people process discourse, which refers to a long passage of spoken or written language.

Chapter 10: Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism. In this second of the language chapters, we examine language production. One component of speaking is its social context. For exam- ple, when you describe an event to friends, you probably check to make certain that they possess the background knowledge necessary to understand the message you intend to convey. Writing requires some cognitive processes that are different from those necessary for speaking, but both of them require working memory and long-term memory. Our final language topic is bilingualism. Even though learning a single language is challenging, many people can speak two or more languages fluently.

Chapter 11: Problem solving and creativity. Here, we consider problem solving. Suppose that you want to solve a problem, such as how to complete a course assignment if you do not understand the

Textbook Overview 17

instructions. You may solve the problem by using a strategy such as dividing the problem into several smaller problems. Chapter 11 also explores creativity. As you’ll see, people are often less creative if they have been told that they will be rewarded for their creative efforts.

Chapter 12: Deductive reasoning and decision making. In this chapter, we address deductive reasoning and decision making. Reasoning tasks require you to draw conclusions from several known facts. In many cases, your background knowledge interferes with drawing accurate conclusions. In decision making, you make a judgment about uncertain events. For example, people often cancel an airplane trip after reading about a recent plane accident, even though statistics clearly show that driving is more dangerous.

Chapter 13: Cognitive development throughout the lifespan. This chapter examines cognitive pro- cesses in infants, children, and elderly adults. People in these three age groups are more competent than you might guess. For example, 6-month-old infants can recall an event that occurred two weeks earlier. Young children are also very accurate in remembering events from a medical procedure in a doctor’s office. Furthermore, elderly people are competent on many memory tasks, and they actually perform better than younger adults on some tasks, such as crossword puzzles (Salthouse, 2012).

Themes in the Book This book repeatedly emphasizes certain themes that are designed to guide you and to offer you a frame- work for understanding many of the complexities of our mental abilities. We introduce these themes below:

Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive. Classical behaviorists viewed humans as passive organisms. Under such a theoretical worldview, humans were thought to wait for a stimulus to arrive from the environment before executing a response. In contrast, the cognitive approach proposes that people can willfully seek out information. Attentional and perceptual systems work together to facilitate your ability to strategically seek out and process information that is most relevant for your current goals. In addition, memory is a lively process that requires you to continu- ally synthesize and transform information. When you read, you actively draw inferences that were never directly stated. In summary, your mind is not a sponge that passively absorbs information leaking out from the environment. Instead, you continually search, process, and synthesize.

Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate. The amount of material in your memory is astonishing. Just think about all the facts, names, and phone numbers that you know. And consider language comprehension. Speech unfolds at an extremely fast rate determined by a speaker, and yet most of the time, your interpretation of the speech signal is highly accurate.

Furthermore, your cognitive systems are designed such that they can limit the amount of information to which you have access. Although at face value these limitations may sound like a bad thing, they may be helpful sometimes. Consider a situation in which you are eating lunch with friends at a busy restaurant. Your attentional abilities allow you to direct your attention to the speech of your friends. At the same time, they also provide you with the ability to filter out all of the background noise in the restaurant. Imagine how difficult life would be if you had to process every bit of information about every environmental stimu- lus at the same point in time. It would be overwhelming.

Before you read further, try Demonstration 1.4, which is based on a Demonstration by Hearst (1991).

How fast can you spot what is unusual about this paragraph? It looks so ordinary that you might think nothing is wrong with it at all, and, in fact, nothing is. But it is atypical. Why? Study its various parts, think about its curious wording, and you may hit upon a solu- tion. But you must do it without aid; my plan is not to allow any scandalous misconduct in this psychological study. No doubt, if you work hard on this possibly frustrating task, its abnormality will soon

dawn upon you. You cannot know until you try. But it is commonly a hard nut to crack. So, good luck!

I trust a solution is conspicuous now. Was it dramatic and fair, although odd? Author’s hint: I cannot add my autograph to this com- munication and maintain its basic harmony.

Looking at Unusual ParagraphsDemonstration 1.4

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY18

Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information. We understand sentences better if they are worded in the affirmative—for example, “Mary is honest,” rather than the negative wording, “Mary is not dishonest.” In addition, we have trouble noticing when something is missing, as illustrated in Demonstration 1.4 (Hearst, 1991). (The answer to this demonstra- tion appears at the end of this chapter, as does the credit for this quotation.) We also tend to perform bet- ter on a variety of different tasks if the information is emotionally positive (that is, pleasant), rather than emotionally negative (unpleasant). In short, our cognitive processes are designed to handle what is, rather than what is not (Hearst, 1991; Matlin, 2004).

Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation. This textbook discusses each cognitive process in one or more separate chapters. However, this organi- zational plan does not imply that every process can function by itself, without interfacing with other processes. For example, decision making typically requires perception, memory, general knowledge, and language. In fact, all higher mental processes require careful integration of our more basic cognitive processes.

Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing emphasizes the importance of information from the stimuli registered on your sen- sory receptors. Bottom-up processing uses only a low-level sensory analysis of the stimulus. In contrast, top-down processing emphasizes how our concepts, expectations, and memory influence our cognitive processes. Top-down processing requires higher-level cognition, including the processes emphasized in Chapters 5 and 8 of this textbook. Both bottom-up processing and top-down processing work simultane- ously to ensure that our cognitive processes are typically fast and accurate.

Consider pattern recognition. You recognize your aunt partly because of information available from the stimulus—information about your aunt’s face, height, shape, and so forth. This bottom-up processing is important. At the same time, however, you must possess stored knowledge about the physical charac- teristics of your aunt, or if you saw her, she would seem like an ordinary person. The reliance on stored knowledge about her physical identity—knowledge necessary to recognize a person as your aunt and not as a stranger—is an example of the top-down knowledge-driven component of visual recognition. Further- more, consider the role of context. There may be a higher likelihood of seeing your aunt in her own house than seeing your best friend from college in the same location. This top-down knowledge may speed up the visual recognition of your aunt in her house. As we’ll see throughout this book, knowledge and context work together to shape the way that we access and process information in our physical environments.

How to Use Your Book Effectively Your textbook includes several features that are specifically designed to help you understand and remem- ber the material. As you read the list that follows, figure out how to use each feature most effectively.

Chapter Outline Notice that each chapter begins with an outline. When you start to read a new chapter, first examine the outline so that you can appreciate the general structure of a topic. For example, notice that Chapter 1 has four main topics, each appearing in large boldface print, starting with What Is Cognitive Psychology? The second-level headings are smaller, such as Origins of Cognitive Psychology here in Chapter 1. The third-level headings are the smallest and appear in text at the beginning of relevant subsections in italics.

Chapter Introductions Each chapter begins with an introductory section that encourages you to think about how your own cog- nitive experiences are related to the material in the chapter. They are designed to emphasize the central components of the cognitive process discussed in each chapter. By combining the material from the outline and the opening paragraph, you’ll be better prepared for the specific information about the research and

Textbook Overview 19

theories presented in each chapter. You may be tempted to skip the chapter outline and the chapter intro- ductions. This organizational structure will, however, help you understand the major groupings of topics throughout the chapter before you begin to read.

Demonstrations I designed the demonstrations in this book to make the research more meaningful. The informal experi- ments in these demonstrations require little or no equipment, and you can perform most of them by your- self. Students have told me that these demonstrations help make the material more memorable, especially when they try to picture themselves performing the tasks in a research setting. As you will see in our discussions of memory systems, we remember information more accurately when we try to relate the material to ourselves.

Individual Differences Focus The term individual differences refers to variation in the way that groups of people perform on the same cognitive task. Prior to roughly 1995, cognitive psychologists rarely investigated how individual differences could influence people’s thought processes. Instead, they focused strongly on measuring the behavior of multiple participants in an experiment, and then calculating the statistical mean (average) per- formance per each condition of an experiment. But, should you have taken a statistics course already, you likely learned that average estimates of performance do not provide information about variability in indi- vidual subject performance. Some participants may have performed really well on a task whereas others may have exhibited more difficulty. And, in many cases, understanding why certain individuals performed better or worse on a task can provide deeper insight into the cognitive process under investigation.

The exploration of individual differences in cognitive performance is consistent with a relatively new approach that makes connections among the various disciplines within psychology. John T. Cacioppo (2007) wrote about this important issue when he was the president of the Association for Psychological Science. APS is an organization that focuses on psychology research in areas such as cognitive psychology, social psychology, and biopsychology. Cacioppo emphasized that psychology can make major advances by combining each of these areas with one of three specific perspectives. These three perspectives are abnor- mal psychology, individual differences, and developmental psychology. For instance, a group of researchers could combine one area (e.g., cognitive psychology) with a perspective (e.g., abnormal psychology).

Consider individuals who have major depression. Major depression is a psychological disorder in which feelings of sadness, discouragement, and hopelessness interfere with the ability to perform daily mental and physical functions. In an earlier era, psychologists seldom studied whether depressed individu- als might differ from other people when performing cognitive tasks. This situation is puzzling, because therapists—and the individuals themselves—frequently noticed these problems on cognitive tasks. Fortu- nately, many contemporary psychologists now conduct research on the relationship between psychological disorders and cognitive performance (e.g., Hertel & Matthews, 2011). Such a pursuit can provide novel insight, for example, into the ways in which cognitive processes may be impaired or otherwise influenced by the presence of psychopathology.

This kind of interdisciplinary research is important from both practical and theoretical standpoints. As you know, Theme 4 emphasizes that our cognitive processes are interrelated. Therefore, cognitive aspects of psychological problems—such as major depression—could certainly be related to attention, memory, and other cognitive processes. And, if depressed individuals underperform compared to nondepressed individuals on a memory task, the next most reasonable question to ask is “Why?” Perhaps individuals with depression do not encode information into memory in the same way as those without depression. Or, perhaps attentional differences between the two groups explain why they differed in memory perfor- mance. Notice here that pursuing either of these two potential explanations for the group difference will likely yield more information not only about cognitive processing in depressed individuals, but also about memory systems more generally.

Other researchers who investigate individual differences choose to compare groups of people who dif- fer on a demographic characteristic. For example, you may have heard from someone at some point in your life that men and women differ in their language- or spatial abilities. In Chapter 7, however, we’ll see that women and men are actually similar in most kinds of spatial abilities. Indeed, although gender differences may be an important area of inquiry in some other areas of psychology, men and women tend to demon- strate extremely similar patterns of performance in most cognitive psychology experiments.

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY20

In order to increase your awareness of the emerging focus on individual differences research in cogni- tive psychology, each chapter contains research that illuminates some type of individual differences effect. For example, Chapter 2 contains a discussion of how individuals with a schizophrenia diagnosis perform more slowly than a control group (without schizophrenia or other significant mental health problems) on facial recognition tasks. Chapter 5 contains a discussion of the manner in which the presence of an anxiety disorder can influence performance on different types of memory tasks.

Application As you read each chapter, notice the numerous applications of cognitive psychology. Indeed, research in cognition has important applications to areas such as education, medicine, business, and clinical psychol- ogy. For example, understanding the factors that can increase the accurate retrieval of information from memory is not only interesting for theoretical reasons. People recall information better if it is concrete, rather than abstract, and if they try to determine whether the information applies to themselves (Paivio, 1995; Rogers et al., 1977; Symons & Johnson, 1997). Each time that you take an exam, you must access information that is stored in your memory. As a result, the scientific study of memory can provide valuable information that you can apply to your own study strategies and test-taking behaviors in order to increase your exam performance.

Section Summaries As we will discuss in the chapters on memory, repeated exposures to information increases accurate mem- ory for that information. In order to provide you with another opportunity to think about key concepts in each chapter, section summaries appear for each section at the end of the chapter. When you reach the end of the chapter, cover the summary points provided for each section and see which important points you remember. Then, read the section summary and notice which items you remembered incorrectly or incom- pletely. Take extra care to revisit the text associated with the points on which you experienced difficulty.

End of Chapter Review Questions At the end of each chapter, you will find a set of essay-style review questions. These questions provide you with yet another opportunity to quiz yourself, in a different format, on the material contained in the chapter. Many review questions ask you to apply your knowledge to an everyday problem. Other review questions encourage you to integrate information from several parts of the chapter. Thinking about each question will provide you with another opportunity to identify the areas in which you may have difficulty with the material.

Keywords Notice that each new term in this book appears in boldface type (for example, cognition) when it is first discussed. I have included the definition in the same sentence as the term, so you do not need to search an entire paragraph to discover the term’s meaning. Also notice that phonetic pronunciation is provided for a small number of words that are often mispronounced. Students tell me that they feel more comfort- able using a word during class discussion if they are confident that their pronunciation is correct. (I also included pronunciation guides for the names of several prominent theorists and researchers, such as Wundt and Piaget.)

Keywords List & Glossary At the end of each chapter, a new term list shows these terms in order of their appearance in the chapter. Check each item to see whether you can supply a definition and an example. You can consult the chapter for a discussion of the term. Your textbook also includes a glossary at the end of the book. The glossary will be helpful when you need a precise definition for a technical term. It will also be useful when you want to check your accuracy while reviewing the list of new terms in each chapter.

Recommended Readings Each chapter features a list of recommended readings. This list can supply you with resources if you want to write a paper on a particular topic or if an area is personally interesting. In general, I tried to locate books, chapters, and articles that provide more than an overview of the subject but are not overly technical.

Textbook Overview 21

S E C T I O N S U M M A R Y P O I N T S

What Is Cognitive Psychology?

1. The term cognition refers to the acquisition, storage, transforma- tion, and use of knowledge; cognitive psychology is sometimes used as a synonym for cognition, and sometimes it refers to a theoretical approach to psychology.

2. Multiple systems and processes contribute to your conscious interpretation of the world around you.

3. It’s useful to study cognitive psychology because (a) cognitive activities are a major part of human psychology, (b) the cogni- tive approach influences other important areas of psychology, and (c) you can learn how to use your cognitive processes more effectively.

Historical Perspective on the Field

1. Many historians maintain that Wilhelm Wundt is responsible for creating the discipline of psychology; Wundt also developed the introspection technique.

2. Hermann Ebbinghaus and Mary Whiton Calkins conducted early research on human memory.

3. William James examined numerous everyday psychological processes, and he emphasized the active nature of the human mind.

4. Gestalt psychology emphasized that people use organization to perceive patterns, and they often solve problems by using insight.

5. Beginning in the early 20th century, behaviorists such as John B. Watson rejected the study of mental processes; the behaviorists helped to develop the research methods used by current cognitive psychologists.

6. Cognitive psychology began to emerge in the mid-1950s. This new approach was stimulated by disenchantment with behavior- ism, as well as a growing interest in linguistics, human memory, and developmental psychology.

Mind, Brain, and Behavior

1. Cognitive science examines questions about the mind; it includes disciplines such as cognitive psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and economics.

2. Theorists who are interested in artificial intelligence (AI) approaches to cognition typically try to design computer models that accomplish the same cognitive tasks that humans do.

3. The approach called “pure artificial intelligence” attempts to design programs that can accomplish cognitive tasks as effi- ciently as possible.

4. The approach called “computer simulation” attempts to design programs that accomplish cognitive tasks the way that humans do.

5. According to the computer metaphor, human cognitive processes work like a computer that can process information quickly and accurately.

6. According to the information-processing approach, mental pro- cesses operate like a computer, with information flowing through a series of storage areas.

7. Enthusiasm for the classic information-processing approach has declined, because cognitive psychologists now realize that human thinking requires more complex models.

8. Cognitive psychology has had a major influence on the field of psychology. In the current era, cognitive psychologists are more concerned about ecological validity than in previous decades.

9. According to the connectionist approach, cognitive processes can be represented in terms of networks of neurons; furthermore, many operations can proceed at the same time, in parallel, rather than one step at a time.

10. The area of cognitive neuroscience combines the research tech- niques of cognitive psychology with a variety of methods for assessing the brain’s structure and function.

11. Brain lesions, PET scans, and the Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are cognitive neuroscientific methodologies that provide information about which brain structures are involved in cognitive processing; fMRI is now more commonly used than PET scans.

12. The event-related potential technique uses electrodes to track the very brief changes in the brain’s electrical activity, in response to specific stimuli. It does not provide information about where in the brain the processing occurred, but it gives very precise esti- mates of the time course of cognitive processing.

C H A P T E R R E V I E W Q U E S T I O N S

1. Define the terms cognition and cognitive psychology. Now think about your ideal career, and suggest several ways in which the information from cognitive psychology would be relevant to this career.

2. Compare the following approaches to psychology, with respect to their specific emphasis on human thinking: (a) William James’s approach, (b) behaviorism, (c) gestalt psychology, and (d) the cognitive approach.

3. This chapter addresses the trade-off between ecological valid- ity and carefully controlled research. Define these two con- cepts. Then compare the following approaches in terms of their emphasis on each concept: (a) Ebbinghaus’s approach to mem- ory, (b) James’s approach to psychological processes, (c) the behaviorist approach, (d) the cognitive psychology approach from several decades ago, and (e) current cognitive psychology research.

AN INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY22

4. List several reasons for the increased interest in cognitive psy- chology and the decline of the behaviorist approach. In addition, describe the field of cognitive science, noting the disciplines that are included in this field.

5. The section on cognitive neuroscience described five different research techniques. Answer the following questions for each technique: (a) What are its strengths? (b) What are its weak- nesses? (c) What kind of research questions can it answer?

6. What is artificial intelligence, and how is the information- processing approach relevant to this topic? Select three specific cognitive processes that might interest researchers in artificial intelligence. Then provide examples of how pure AI and the computer-simulation investigations of these cognitive processes would differ in their focus.

7. How does connectionism differ from the classical artificial- intelligence approach? List three characteristics of the PDP

approach. In what way is this approach based on discoveries in cognitive neuroscience?

8. Theme 4 emphasizes that your cognitive processes are interre- lated. Think about a problem you have solved recently, and point out how the solution to this problem depended upon perceptual processes, memory, and other cognitive activities.

9. As you’ll see in Chapters 5 and 6, your long-term memory is more accurate if you carefully think about the material you are reading; it is especially accurate if you try to relate the material to your own life. Review the section called “How to Use Your Book” and describe how you can use each feature to increase your memory for the material in the remaining chapters of this book.

10. Review each of the five themes of this book. Which of them seem consistent with your own experiences, and which seem surpris- ing? From your own life, think of an example of each theme.

K E Y W O R D S

cognition cognitive psychology cognitive approach empirical evidence introspection recency effect behaviorism operational definition gestalt psychology gestalt information-processing approach sensory memory

short-term memory working memory long-term memory ecological validity cognitive neuroscience social cognitive

neuroscience brain lesions positron emission

tomography (PET scan)

functional magnetic resonance

imaging (fMRI) event-related potential

(ERP) technique magnetoencephalography

(MEG) technique artificial intelligence

(AI) computer metaphor pure AI computer simulation computer modeling connectionist approach

parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach

neural-network approach cerebral cortex serial processing parallel processing cognitive science consciousness memory metacognition imagery semantic memory

schemas discourse Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3 Theme 4 Theme 5 bottom-up processing top-down processing individual differences major depression

R E C O M M E N D E D R E A D I N G S

Bermúdez, J. L. (2014). Cognitive science: An introduction to the science of the mind. New York: Cambridge University Press. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary area, and this textbook does a good job of explaining how multiple fields, including psychology, contributed to a more interdisciplinary understanding of how the mind works.

Clark, A. (2013). Mindware: An introduction to the philosophy of cognitive sci- ence. Oxford University Press, Inc. Written by a leading philosopher in the field of cognitive science, this book provides a very accessible overview of multiple approaches to modeling the complexities of the human mind.

Pickren, W. E., & Rutherford, A. (2010). A history of modern psychology in context. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. I highly recommend this clearly written, well- organized overview of the history of psychology.

Spivey, M. (2007). The continuity of mind. Oxford University Press. Although this book is a bit advanced, it provides a clear and concise critique of the classical information processing approach to cognitive psychology. The author then argues for a newer, more interactive perspective on the relation- ship between perception, cognition, and action.

A N S W E R T O D E M O N S T R AT I O N 1 . 4

The letter e is missing from this entire passage. The letter e is the most fre- quent letter in the English language. Therefore, a long passage—without any use of the letter e—is highly unusual. The exercise demonstrates the difficulty of searching for something that is not there (Theme 3).

Quotation on page 25 from: Hearst, E. (1991). Psychology and nothing. American Scientist, 79, 432–443.

23

2

Chapter Introduction Hold your hand directly in front of your eyes. It is likely that you perceive a solid object that includes distinctive characteristics. For example, you can easily identify its size, shape, and color. You also notice that your hand is a unified object, clearly located in front of a more distant and less clearly defined back- ground. Shifting your gaze back to the text in this textbook, your eyes perceive a series of squiggles on this page. You can instantly, however, identify each squiggle as a letter of the alphabet. And, you can recognize combinations of letters as entire words. Your visual system perceives more than just one shape at a time. In fact, you can quickly and effortlessly identify hundreds of shapes in any natural scene (Geisler, 2008).

Your auditory abilities are equally impressive. You can, for example, recognize the words spoken by your friend, as well as music, squeaking chairs, and footsteps.

As you’ll see in this chapter, our visual and auditory achievements are impressively efficient and accu- rate (Grill-Spector & Kanwisher, 2005; Lappin & Craft, 2000). Did you know, for example, that you can identify a complex scene—such as a baseball game or a wedding—within about one-tenth of a second (Gallistel & King, 2009)?

This chapter explores several aspects of perceptual processing. We begin with some background information on recognizing visual objects. We next examine two important topics in vision: top-down

Visual and Auditory Recognition

Chapter Introduction Overview of Visual Object Recognition

The Visual System Organization in Visual Perception Theories of Visual Object Recognition

Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing Top-Down Processing and Reading “Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition

Specialized Visual Recognition Processes Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition Applied Research on Face Recognition

Speech Perception Characteristics of Speech Perception Theories of Speech Perception

VISUAL AND AUDITORY RECOGNITION24

processing and specialized recognition processes. Finally, we shift to the perceptual world of audition as we consider speech perception. These perceptual processes are vitally important because they prepare the “raw” sensory information so that it can be used in the more complex mental processes—such as reading—which we discuss here and in later chapters of this book.

Overview of Visual Object Recognition Perception uses previous knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses. For example, you use perception to interpret each of the letters on this page. Consider how you managed to perceive the letter at the end of the word perception. You combined (1) information registered by your eyes, (2) your previous knowledge about the shape of the letters of the alphabet, and (3) your previous knowledge about what to expect when your visual system has already processed the fragment percep- tio-. Notice that perception combines aspects of both the outside world (the visual stimuli) and your own inner world (your previous knowledge). This observation provides a good example of Theme 5 of this book. In order to make sense of the world around you, perception combines bottom-up and top-down processing.

When someone speaks, they are creating a physical signal in the form of sound waves. Those sound waves travel to your ear, and portions of your auditory system are responsible for analyzing the physical properties (such as amplitude and frequency) of the sound waves. The analysis of the physical properties of input occurring early after it makes contact with your sensory receptors constitutes the “bottom-up” part of perception. After early sensory processing, additional higher-level processing of the input occurs. As an internal representation of the stimulus is constructed, it is matched to information stored in your long-term memory. An object (in this case, a linguistic sound received through the auditory modality) is recognized once bottom-up information has been processed enough for this matching process to occur. Any guiding role that your stored knowledge plays in facilitating your ability to recognize an object (either one intercepted in the visual or auditory modality) constitutes the “top-down” portion of the rec- ognition process.

Many colleges offer an entire course on the topic of perception, so we cannot do justice to this discipline in just one chapter. Other resources can provide information about sensory processes such as the nature of the receptors in the eye and the ear, as well as more details about other areas of perception (Foley & Matlin, 2010; Goldstein, 2010a; Wolfe et al., 2009). These books examine how we perceive important characteris- tics of visual objects, such as shape, size, color, texture, and depth. These resources also investigate other perceptual systems—audition, touch, taste, and smell. Additionally, understanding how the stored knowl- edge that you possess interacts with, and fundamentally shapes, lower-level sensory processing is a current hot topic in many areas of the cognitive sciences (e.g., Bar et al., 2006; Chang et al., 2006; Clark, 2013a; Dikker et al., 2010; Noë, 2004; Pickering & Clark, 2014; Pickering & Garrod, 2013). Because perception contributes to just about every other cognitive process in some way or another, it’s one of the most heavily researched topics in the cognitive sciences.

As a result of the limited room that we have to discuss perceptual processes, this chapter focuses most heavily on object recognition. During object recognition or pattern recognition, you identify a com- plex arrangement of sensory stimuli, and you perceive that this pattern is separate from its background. When you recognize an object, your sensory processes transform and organize the raw information provided by your sensory receptors. You also compare the sensory stimuli with information that you have stored in your memory.

In this first section of the chapter, we focus on visual processing. During visual processing, light bounces off surfaces in the environment, thus carrying information about the contents of your external visual world to your visual sensory receptors (your eyes). We consider three topics: (a) the visual system, (b) how organization operates in visual perception, and (c) three theories about object recognition.

The Visual System Psychologists have developed two terms to refer to perceptual stimuli. The distal stimulus is the actual object that is “out there” in the environment—for example, the pen on your desk. The proximal stimulus is the information registered on your sensory receptors—for example, the image that your pen creates on

Overview of Visual Object Recognition 25

your retina. Your retina covers the inside back portion of your eye; it contains millions of neurons that register and transmit visual information from the outside world.

When we recognize an object, we manage to figure out the identity of the distal stimulus, even when the information available in the proximal stimulus is far from perfect (Kersten et al., 2004; Palmer, 2003; Pasternak et al., 2003). For example, you recognized the human face in Demonstration 1.2 even though the face lacks a nose, mouth, and ears. Gazzaniga and his colleagues (2009) point out that object recognition depends primarily on shape, rather than on color or texture. You recognized this human face, even though it was blue.

Try Demonstration 2.1 to illustrate your skill in identifying the distal stimulus. As this demonstration emphasizes, you can recognize objects in a new scene that has been presented for about one-tenth of a second (Biederman, 1995). Does this mean that your visual system manages to take the proximal stimulus, representing perhaps a dozen objects, and recognize all of these objects within one-tenth of a second?

Fortunately, your visual system has some assistance from one of its other components—your sensory memory (Gregory, 2004a). Sensory memory is a large-capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy. In relation to vision, iconic memory, or visual sensory memory, preserves an image of a visual stimulus for a brief period after the stimulus has disappeared (Hollingworth, 2006b; Parks, 2004; Sperling, 1960).

Visual information that is registered on the retina (the proximal stimulus) must make its way through the visual pathway, a set of neurons between the retina and the primary visual cortex. The primary visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe of the brain; it is the portion of your cerebral cortex that is concerned with basic processing of visual stimuli. (See Figure 2.1.) It is also the first place where information from

Turn on a television set and adjust the sound to “mute.” Now change the channel with your eyes closed. Open your eyes and then imme- diately shut them. Repeat this exercise several times. Notice how you can instantly identify and interpret the image on the TV screen, even though you did not expect that image and have never previ- ously seen it in that exact form. In less than a second—and without

major effort—you can identify colors, textures, contours, objects, and people. This demonstration was originally suggested by Irving Biederman (1995), who noted that people can usually interpret the meaning of a new scene in one-tenth of a second. Consistent with Theme 2, humans are impressively efficient in recognizing patterns.

The Immediate Recognition of ObjectsDemonstration 2.1

Temporal lobe

Frontal lobe Parietal lobe

Primary visual cortex

Inferotemporal cortex

Occipital lobe

FIGURE 2.1 A schematic drawing of the cerebral cortex, as seen from the left side, showing the four lobes of the brain. Notice the primary visual cortex (discussed in this section). The inferotemporal cortex plays an important role in recognizing complex objects such as faces.

VISUAL AND AUDITORY RECOGNITION26

your two eyes is combined (Briggs & Usrey, 2010). If you place your hand at the back of your head, just above your neck, the primary visual cortex lies just beneath your skull at that location.

Visual information can travel from your retina to your primary visual cortex extremely quickly (~50–80 milliseconds; Nowak, Munk et al., 1995). The primary visual cortex is only the first stop within the cortex. For instance, researchers have identified at least 30 additional areas of the cortex that play a role in visual perception (Bruce et al., 2003; Felleman & Van Essen, 1991; Frishman, 2001; Sillito, 2004). These regions beyond the primary visual cortex are activated during object recognition. Researchers are currently study- ing the functions of these regions. For example, your ability to recognize a tool—such as a fork or scis- sors—depends partly on your parietal lobe (Almeida et al., 2010; Mahon et al., 2010). It is important to note, however, that researchers have not yet discovered which brain regions are paired with each compo- nent of the object recognition process (Pasternak et al., 2003; Purves & Lotto, 2003).

Organization in Visual Perception Our visual system is designed to impose organization on the richly complicated visual world (Geisler & Super, 2000; Palmer, 2003).

In Chapter 1, we introduced a historical approach to psychology called “gestalt psychology.” One important principle in gestalt psychology is that humans have basic tendencies to organize what they see; without any effort, we see patterns rather than random arrangements (Gordon, 2004; Schirillo, 2010). For example, when two areas share a common boundary, the figure has a distinct shape with clearly defined edges. In contrast, the ground is the region that is “left over,” forming the background. As gestalt psy- chologists pointed out, the figure has a definite shape, whereas the ground simply continues behind the figure. The figure also seems closer to us and more dominant than the ground (Kelly & Grossberg, 2000; Palmer, 2003; Rubin, 1915). Even young infants demonstrate some of the gestalt principles of organization (Quinn et al., 2002).

In an ambiguous figure–ground relationship, the figure and the ground reverse from time to time, so that the figure becomes the ground and then becomes the figure again. Figure 2.2 illustrates the well- known vase–faces effect. At first, you see a white vase against a dark grey background, but a moment later, you see two dark grey faces against a white background. Even in this ambiguous situation, our perceptual system imposes organization on a stimulus, so that one portion stands out and the remainder recedes into the background. We are so accustomed to the certainty of the figure–ground relationship that we are sur- prised when we encounter a situation where the figure and the ground exchange places (Wolfe et al., 2009).

The explanation for these figure–ground reversals seems to have two components: (1) The neurons in the visual cortex become adapted to one figure, such as the “faces” version of Figure 2.2, so you are more likely to see the alternative or “vase” version; and (2) furthermore, people try to solve the visual paradox by alternating between two reasonable solutions (Gregory, 2004a; Long & Toppino, 2004; Toppino & Long, 2005).

FIGURE 2.2 The vase–faces effect: An example of an ambiguous figure– ground relationship.

Overview of Visual Object Recognition 27

Surprisingly, we can even perceive a figure–ground relationship when a scene has no clear-cut bound- ary between the figure and the ground. One category of visual illusions is known as illusory contours. In illusory contours (also called subjective contours), we see edges even though they are not physically present in the stimulus. In the illusory contour in Figure 2.3, for example, people report that an inverted white triangle seems to loom in front of the outline of a second triangle and three small dark grey circles. Furthermore, the triangle appears to be brighter than any other part of the stimulus (Grossberg, 2000; Palmer, 2002).