Mcdonald's global performance management practices

INTRODUCTION

Brain and Language 3

The Human Brain 4 The Localization of Language

in the Brain 5 Aphasia 6 Brain Imaging Technology 12 Brain Plasticity and Lateralization

in Early Life 14 Split Brains 15 Other Experimental Evidence

of Brain Organization 16

PART 1

The Nature of Human Language

Preface xiii

About the Authors xix

Contents

The Autonomy of Language 18 Other Dissociations of Language

and Cognition 19 Laura 20 Christopher 20

Genetic Basis of Language 21

Language and Brain Development 22 The Critical Period 22 A Critical Period for Bird Song 25 The Development of Language

in the Species 26

Summary 28 References for Further Reading 29 Exercises 30

PART 2

Grammatical Aspects of Language

CHAPTER 1

Morphology: The Words of Language 36

Dictionaries 38

Content Words and Function Words 38

Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning 40 Bound and Free Morphemes 43

Prefixes and Suffixes 43 Infixes 45 Circumfixes 45

Roots and Stems 46 Bound Roots 47

Rules of Word Formation 47 Derivational Morphology 48 Inflectional Morphology 50 The Hierarchical Structure of Words 53 Rule Productivity 56

Exceptions and Suppletions 58 Lexical Gaps 59

Other Morphological Processes 60 Back-Formations 60 Compounds 60

“Pullet Surprises” 63

Sign Language Morphology 63

viii CONTENTS

Morphological Analysis: Identifying Morphemes 64

Summary 67 References for Further Reading 68 Exercises 68

CHAPTER 2

Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language 77

What the Syntax Rules Do 78 What Grammaticality Is Not Based On 82

Sentence Structure 83 Constituents and Constituency Tests 84

Syntactic Categories 86 Phrase Structure Trees and Rules 89

Heads and Complements 102 Selection 103 What Heads the Sentence 105

Structural Ambiguities 109 More Structures 111

Sentence Relatedness 115 Transformational Rules 115

The Structural Dependency of Rules 117

Further Syntactic Dependencies 120

UG Principles and Parameters 124

Sign Language Syntax 127

Summary 128 References for Further Reading 129 Exercises 130

CHAPTER 3

The Meaning of Language 139

What Speakers Know about Sentence Meaning 140

Truth 140 Entailment and Related Notions 141 Ambiguity 142

Compositional Semantics 144 Semantic Rules 144

Semantic Rule I 145

Semantic Rule II 145 When Compositionality Goes Awry 146

Anomaly 147 Metaphor 149 Idioms 150

Lexical Semantics (Word Meanings) 152 Theories of Word Meaning 153

Reference 154 Sense 155

Lexical Relations 156 Semantic Features 159

Evidence for Semantic Features 160 Semantic Features and Grammar 160

Argument Structure 163 Thematic Roles 164

Pragmatics 167 Pronouns 167

Pronouns and Syntax 168 Pronouns and Discourse 169 Pronouns and Situational Context 169

Deixis 170 More on Situational Context 172

Maxims of Conversation 172 Implicatures 174 Speech Acts 175

Summary 176 References for Further Reading 178 Exercises 178

CHAPTER 4

Phonetics: The Sounds of Language 189

Sound Segments 190 Identity of Speech Sounds 191 The Phonetic Alphabet 192

Articulatory Phonetics 195 Consonants 195

Place of Articulation 195 Manner of Articulation 197 Phonetic Symbols for American

English Consonants 204 Vowels 206

Tongue Position 206 Lip Rounding 208

Contents ix

Distinctive Features of Phonemes 238 Feature Values 238 Nondistinctive Features 239 Phonemic Patterns May Vary across

Languages 241 ASL Phonology 242 Natural Classes of Speech Sounds 242 Feature Specifications for American

English Consonants and Vowels 243

The Rules of Phonology 244 Assimilation Rules 244 Dissimilation Rules 248 Feature-Changing Rules 249 Segment Insertion and Deletion Rules 250 Movement (Metathesis) Rules 252 From One to Many and from Many

to One 253 The Function of Phonological Rules 255 Slips of the Tongue: Evidence for

Phonological Rules 255

Prosodic Phonology 256 Syllable Structure 256 Word Stress 257 Sentence and Phrase Stress 258 Intonation 259

Sequential Constraints of Phonemes 260 Lexical Gaps 262

Why Do Phonological Rules Exist? 262

Phonological Analysis 264

Summary 268 References for Further Reading 269 Exercises 270

Diphthongs 208 Nasalization of Vowels 209 Tense and Lax Vowels 209 Different (Tongue) Strokes

for Different Folks 210 Major Phonetic Classes 210

Noncontinuants and Continuants 210 Obstruents and Sonorants 210 Consonantal 211 Syllabic Sounds 211

Prosodic Features 212 Tone and Intonation 213

Phonetic Symbols and Spelling Correspondences 215

The “Phonetics” of Signed Languages 217

Summary 219 References for Further Reading 220 Exercises 221

CHAPTER 5

Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language 226

The Pronunciation of Morphemes 227 The Pronunciation of Plurals 227 Additional Examples of Allomorphs 230

Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language 232

Vowel Nasalization in English as an Illustration of Allophones 232

Allophones of /t/ 234 Complementary Distribution 235

PART 3

The Biology and Psychology of Language

The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge 289

Knowledge of Sentences and Nonsentences 291

Linguistic Knowledge and Performance 292

What Is Grammar? 294 Descriptive Grammars 294

CHAPTER 6

What Is Language? 284

Linguistic Knowledge 284 Knowledge of the Sound System 285 Knowledge of Words 286

Arbitrary Relation of Form and Meaning 286

x CONTENTS

The Acquisition of Signed Languages 355

Knowing More Than One Language 357 Childhood Bilingualism 357

Theories of Bilingual Development 358

Two Monolinguals in One Head 360 The Role of Input 360 Cognitive Effects of Bilingualism 361

Second Language Acquisition 361 Is L2 Acquisition the Same as L1

Acquisition? 361 Native Language Influence in L2

Acquisition 363 The Creative Component of L2

Acquisition 364 Is There a Critical Period for L2

Acquisition? 365

Summary 366 References for Further Reading 368 Exercises 369

CHAPTER 8

Language Processing: Humans and Computers 375

The Human Mind at Work: Human Language Processing 375

Comprehension 377 The Speech Signal 378 Speech Perception and

Comprehension 379 Bottom-up and Top-down

Models 381 Lexical Access and Word

Recognition 383 Syntactic Processing 384 Speech Production 387

Planning Units 387 Lexical Selection 389 Application and Misapplication

of Rules 389 Nonlinguistic Influences 390

Computer Processing of Human Language 391 Computers That Talk and Listen 391

Prescriptive Grammars 295 Teaching Grammars 297

Language Universals 298 The Development of Grammar 299 Sign Languages: Evidence for the Innateness

of Language 300 American Sign Language 301

Animal “Languages” 302 “Talking” Parrots 303 The Birds and the Bees 304 Can Chimps Learn Human Language? 306

In the Beginning: The Origin of Language 308 Divine Gift 309 The First Language 309 Human Invention or the Cries

of Nature? 310

Language and Thought 310

What We Know about Human Language 315

Summary 317 References for Further Reading 318 Exercises 319

CHAPTER 7

Language Acquisition 324

Mechanisms of Language Acquisition 325 Do Children Learn through Imitation? 325 Do Children Learn through Correction

and Reinforcement? 326 Do Children Learn Language through

Analogy? 327 Do Children Learn through Structured

Input? 329 Children Construct Grammars 330 The Innateness Hypothesis 330 Stages in Language Acquisition 332

The Perception and Production of Speech Sounds 333

Babbling 334 First Words 335 Segmenting the Speech Stream 336 The Development of Grammar 339 Setting Parameters 354

Contents xi

Computational Lexicography 409 Information Retrieval and

Summarization 410 Spell Checkers 411 Machine Translation 412 Computational Forensic

Linguistics 414

Summary 418 References for Further Reading 420 Exercises 421

Computational Phonetics and Phonology 391

Computational Morphology 396 Computational Syntax 397 Computational Semantics 402 Computational Pragmatics 404 Computational Sign Language 405

Applications of Computational Linguistics 406 Computer Models of Grammar 406 Frequency Analysis, Concordances,

and Collocations 407

PART 4

Language and Society

CHAPTER 9

Language in Society 430

Dialects 430 Regional Dialects 432

Phonological Differences 434 Lexical Differences 435 Dialect Atlases 436 Syntactic Differences 436

Social Dialects 439 The “Standard” 439 African American English 442 Latino (Hispanic) English 446 Genderlects 448 Sociolinguistic Analysis 451

Languages in Contact 452 Lingua Francas 453 Contact Languages: Pidgins

and Creoles 454 Creoles and Creolization 457 Bilingualism 460

Codeswitching 461

Language and Education 463 Second-Language Teaching Methods 463 Teaching Reading 465 Bilingual Education 467 “Ebonics” 468

Language in Use 469 Styles 469 Slang 470

Jargon and Argot 470 Taboo or Not Taboo? 471

Euphemisms 473 Racial and National Epithets 474 Language and Sexism 474

Marked and Unmarked Forms 475 Secret Languages and Language

Games 476

Summary 477 References for Further Reading 479 Exercises 480

CHAPTER 10

Language Change: The Syllables of Time 488

The Regularity of Sound Change 489 Sound Correspondences 490 Ancestral Protolanguages 490

Phonological Change 491 Phonological Rules 492 The Great Vowel Shift 493

Morphological Change 494

Syntactic Change 496

Lexical Change 500 Change in Category 500 Addition of New Words 500

Word Coinage 501

xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11

Writing: The ABCs of Language 540

The History of Writing 541 Pictograms and Ideograms 541 Cuneiform Writing 543 The Rebus Principle 545 From Hieroglyphics to the Alphabet 546

Modern Writing Systems 547 Word Writing 548 Syllabic Writing 549 Consonantal Alphabet Writing 551 Alphabetic Writing 551