Media of mass communication john vivian pdf

The Media of Mass Communication Twelfth Edition

John Vivian

Winona State University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Vivian, John author.

Title: The media of mass communication / John Vivian, Winona State University.

Description: Boston : Pearson, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016025354 | ISBN 9780133931211 | ISBN 0133931218

Subjects: LCSH: Mass media. | Mass media—Technological innovations. | Mass media—Social aspects. | Communication—Technological innovations. | Mass media and culture.

Classification: LCC P90 .V53 2017 | DDC 302.23–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016025354

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Books a la Carte

ISBN-10: 0-13-393121-8

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-393121-1

Brief Contents 1. 1 Mass Media Literacy 1

2. 2 Media Technology 16

3. 3 Media Economics 39

4. 4 Cybermedia 59

5. 5 Legacy Media 75

6. 6 News 98

7. 7 Entertainment 119

8. 8 Public Relations 136

9. 9 Advertising 152

10. 10 Mass Audiences 172

11. 11 Mass Media Effects 190

12. 12 Governance and Mass Media 209

13. 13 Global Mass Media 227

14. 14 Mass Media Law 245

15. 15 Mass Media Ethics 258

Contents 1. Preface xi

2. About the Author xv

1. 1 Mass Media Literacy 1

1. 1.1 Media Exposure 2

1. 1.1.1 Media Usage 3

2. 1.1.2 Concurrent Media Usage 3

3. 1.1.3 Inescapable Symbiosis 3

4. 1.1.4 Being an Empowered Media Consumer 4

2. 1.2 Purposeful Mass Communication 4

1. 1.2.1 To Inform 4

2. 1.2.2 To Persuade 5

3. 1.2.3 To Entertain 5

4. 1.2.4 To Enlighten 6

5. 1.2.5 Overlapping Purposes 6

3. 1.3 Mediated Communication 7

1. 1.3.1 Traditional Forms of Communication 7

2. 1.3.2 Communication Through Mass Media 7

3. 1.3.3 Communication Through Social Media 9

4. 1.4 Literacy for Media Consumers 10

1. 1.4.1 Linguistic Literacy 10

2. 1.4.2 Visual Literacy 11

3. 1.4.3 Film Literacy 12

5. 1.5 Assessing Media Messages 13

1. 1.5.1 Fundamentals of Media Literacy 13

2. 1.5.2 Spheres of Media Literacy 14

1. Summary: Mass Media Literacy 15

2. 2 Media Technology 16

1. 2.1 Media Technology 18

1. 2.1.1 Technology Dependence 18

2. 2.1.2 Evolving Media Landscape 18

2. 2.2 Printing Technology 20

1. 2.2.1 Movable Metal Type 20

2. 2.2.2 Gutenberg’s Impact 21

3. 2.2.3 Industrial Revolution Effects 22

4. 2.2.4 Print–Visual Integration 22

3. 2.3 Chemical Technology 23

1. 2.3.1 Photography 23

2. 2.3.2 Movies 24

4. 2.4 Electrical Technology 25

1. 2.4.1 Electricity as Transformational 25

2. 2.4.2 Recording 26

3. 2.4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum 26

5. 2.5 Current Technologies 28

1. 2.5.1 Orbiting Satellites 28

2. 2.5.2 Back to Wires 29

3. 2.5.3 Semiconductor 30

4. 2.5.4 Internet Originals 30

5. 2.5.5 Media Convergence 31

6. 2.5.6 Media Architecture 33

7. 2.5.7 Internet-Delivered Communication 34

6. 2.6 Technology and Mass Communication 34

1. 2.6.1 Lasswell Model 34

2. 2.6.2 Values and Limitations of Models 35

3. 2.6.3 Concentric Circle Model of Communication 35

4. 2.6.4 21st-Century Models 36

1. Summary: Media Technology 38

3. 3 Media Economics 39

1. 3.1 Financial Foundations 40

1. 3.1.1 Capitalism 40

2. 3.1.2 Revenue Streams 40

3. 3.1.3 Investors 42

2. 3.2 Ownership Structures 43

1. 3.2.1 Conglomerate Dominance 44

2. 3.2.2 Conglomerate Behavior 46

3. 3.2.3 Divestiture 46

3. 3.3 Media Economic Patterns 46

1. 3.3.1 Invention 47

2. 3.3.2 Entrepreneurship 47

3. 3.3.3 Industry 49

4. 3.3.4 Maturation 49

5. 3.3.5 Denial 49

4. 3.4 Rethinking Media Ownership 52

1. 3.4.1 Ownership Alternatives 52

2. 3.4.2 University Media Generators 54

3. 3.4.3 Family Ownership 54

5. 3.5 Funding Alternatives 55

1. 3.5.1 Government Role 55

2. 3.5.2 Government Issues 56

3. 3.5.3 Philanthropy 56

4. 3.5.4 Fund Drives 56

6. 3.6 New Media Funding 57

1. 3.6.1 Advertising and Subscriptions 57

2. 3.6.2 Hybrid Mix 57

1. Summary: Media Economics 57

4. 4 Cybermedia 59

1. 4.1 Changing Media Landscape 60

1. 4.1.1 Media Convergence 60

2. 4.1.2 Delivery Platforms 61

3. 4.1.3 Industry Realignments 61

4. 4.1.4 Age of Pixelation 62

2. 4.2 New Audience Engagement 62

1. 4.2.1 Push–Pull Models 62

2. 4.2.2 Limitless Archiving 63

3. 4.2.3 Interactivity 64

3. 4.3 Jobs’ Historical Model 64

1. 4.3.1 Computer Revolution 65

2. 4.3.2 Internet Revolution 65

3. 4.3.3 Digital Lifestyle 65

4. 4.4 User-Generated Content 66

1. 4.4.1 Blogging 66

2. 4.4.2 Social Networking 67

3. 4.4.3 Messaging 69

4. 4.4.4 Texting 70

5. 4.5 Online Commerce 71

1. 4.5.1 Sales Sites 71

2. 4.5.2 Product Downloads and Streaming 72

6. 4.6 Online Dominance 72

1. 4.6.1 Assessing Target Audiences 73

2. 4.6.2 Behavioral Targeting 73

1. Summary: Cybermedia 74

5. 5 Legacy Media 75

1. 5.1 Mass Media as Industries 76

1. 5.1.1 Legacy Industries 76

2. 5.1.2 Transformation of Print Industries 77

2. 5.2 Business Models 78

1. 5.2.1 The Business of Newspapers 78

2. 5.2.2 Organization of Media Industries 78

3. 5.3 Ink-on-Paper Industries 79

1. 5.3.1 Newspapers 79

2. 5.3.2 Magazines 81

3. 5.3.3 Books 82

4. 5.4 Sound Media Industries 85

1. 5.4.1 Recording 85

2. 5.4.2 Intellectual Property Issues 85

3. 5.4.3 Radio 87

5. 5.5 Motion Media Industries 89

1. 5.5.1 Movies 89

2. 5.5.2 Television 91

3. 5.5.3 Movie–Television Meld 94

4. 5.5.4 Strength through Trade Groups 94

6. 5.6 Platform-Neutral Future 96

1. 5.6.1 Legacy Media under Siege 96

2. 5.6.2 Legacy Media Prospects 96

1. Summary: Legacy Media 97

6. 6 News 98

1. 6.1 Concept of News 99

1. 6.1.1 News as Change 99

2. 6.1.2 Newsworthiness 99

2. 6.2 Bennett News Model 100

1. 6.2.1 James Gordon Bennett 100

2. 6.2.2 Bennett Model Components 101

3. 6.2.3 Bennett Model Flaws 102

3. 6.3 Rethinking News Models 105

1. 6.3.1 Hutchins Model 105

2. 6.3.2 Changing News Dynamics 105

3. 6.3.3 New Platforms and Dynamics 106

4. 6.3.4 Hybrid News Models 106

4. 6.4 Values That Shape News 107

1. 6.4.1 News Judgment 108

2. 6.4.2 Personal Values 108

5. 6.5 Variables Affecting News 109

1. 6.5.1 News Hole 109

2. 6.5.2 News Flow 110

3. 6.5.3 News Staffing 110

4. 6.5.4 Audience Expectations 111

5. 6.5.5 Competition 112

6. 6.6 Journalism Trends 113

1. 6.6.1 Newsrooms in Transition 114

2. 6.6.2 Nonstop Coverage 115

3. 6.6.3 Live News 115

4. 6.6.4 Exploratory Reporting 116

5. 6.6.5 Soft News 117

1. Summary: News 118

7. 7 Entertainment 119

1. 7.1 Mediation of Entertainment 120

1. 7.1.1 Entertainment as Mass Media 120

2. 7.1.2 Technology-Driven Entertainment 121

3. 7.1.3 Authentic and Mediated Performance 122

2. 7.2 Storytelling 123

1. 7.2.1 Genres of Literature 123

2. 7.2.2 Media-Defined Trends 123

3. 7.3 Music 124

1. 7.3.1 Transformative Effect on Culture 124

2. 7.3.2 Rockabilly Revolution 125

3. 7.3.3 Rock ‘n’ Roll 126

4. 7.3.4 Music of Dissent 126

5. 7.3.5 Rise of Rap 127

4. 7.4 Sports as Media Entertainment 127

1. 7.4.1 Mass Audience for Sports 127

2. 7.4.2 Audience and Advertiser Confluence 128

3. 7.4.3 Televised Sports 128

5. 7.5 Sex as Media Content 129

1. 7.5.1 Adult Entertainment 129

2. 7.5.2 Decency Requirements 130

3. 7.5.3 Sexual Content and Children 130

6. 7.6 Artistic Values 131

1. 7.6.1 Media Content as High Art 131

2. 7.6.2 “High,” “Low,” “Greater,” and “Lesser” (Not Really) Art 132

3. 7.6.3 Evaluating a Range of Media Content 133

4. 7.6.4 Pop Art Revisionism 134

1. Summary: Entertainment 134

8. 8 Public Relations 136

1. 8.1 Public Relations Scope 136

1. 8.1.1 Public Relations Industry 137

2. 8.1.2 The Work of Public Relations 137

2. 8.2 Public Relations in Context 138

1. 8.2.1 Public Relations and Advertising 139

2. 8.2.2 Public Relations in News 139

3. 8.3 Roots of Public Relations 140

1. 8.3.1 Social Darwinism 140

2. 8.3.2 Ivy Lee 141

3. 8.3.3 Public Relations on a Massive Scale 142

4. 8.3.4 Corporate Public Relations 143

4. 8.4 Public Relations as Strategy 143

1. 8.4.1 Strategic Communication 144

2. 8.4.2 Integrated Marketing 144

5. 8.5 Public Relations Tactics 144

1. 8.5.1 Promotion 144

2. 8.5.2 Image Management 145

3. 8.5.3 Crisis Management 146

6. 8.6 Contingency Planning 147

1. 8.6.1 Advocacy 147

2. 8.6.2 Tarnished Image 149

3. 8.6.3 Ethics: Standards and Certification 150

1. Summary: Public Relations 151

9. 9 Advertising 152

1. 9.1 Importance of Advertising 153

1. 9.1.1 Consumer Economies 153

2. 9.1.2 Advertising and Prosperity 153

3. 9.1.3 Advertising and Democracy 154

2. 9.2 Origins of Advertising 155

1. 9.2.1 First Advertisements 155

2. 9.2.2 Technology Dependence 155

3. 9.2.3 The Creative Revolution 156

3. 9.3 Advertising Agencies 158

1. 9.3.1 Pioneer Agencies 158

2. 9.3.2 Agency Compensation 158

4. 9.4 Media Plans 159

1. 9.4.1 Campaigns and Placement 159

2. 9.4.2 Online Placement and Virtual Marketing 161

5. 9.5 Brand Strategies 161

1. 9.5.1 Brand Names 162

2. 9.5.2 Brand Images 162

3. 9.5.3 Brand Types 164

6. 9.6 Advertising Tactics 165

1. 9.6.1 Lowest Common Denominator 165

2. 9.6.2 Redundancy Techniques 166

3. 9.6.3 Testimonials 166

4. 9.6.4 Addressing Ad Clutter 167

5. 9.6.5 Buzz Advertising 167

1. Summary: Advertising 171

10. 10 Mass Audiences 172

1. 10.1 Discovering Mass Audiences 173

1. 10.1.1 Audience Research Evolution 173

2. 10.1.2 Survey Industry 173

2. 10.2 Audience Measurement Principles 175

1. 10.2.1 Probability Sampling 175

2. 10.2.2 Quota Sampling 177

3. 10.2.3 Evaluating Surveys 177

4. 10.2.4 Latter-Day Straw Polls 178

3. 10.3 Measuring Audience Size 179

1. 10.3.1 Newspaper and Magazine Audits 179

2. 10.3.2 Broadcast Ratings 179

3. 10.3.3 Criticism of Ratings 180

4. 10.3.4 Engagement Ratings 181

4. 10.4 Audience Measurement Techniques 181

1. 10.4.1 Basic Tools 182

2. 10.4.2 Internet Audience Measures 183

3. 10.4.3 Mobile Audience Measures 184

5. 10.5 Measuring Audience Reaction 185

1. 10.5.1 Focus Groups 185

2. 10.5.2 Galvanic Skin Checks 185

3. 10.5.3 Prototype Research 186

6. 10.6 Audience Analysis 187

1. 10.6.1 Demographics 187

2. 10.6.2 Cohort Analysis 187

3. 10.6.3 Geodemographics 188

4. 10.6.4 Psychographics 188

1. Summary: Media Audiences 189

11. 11 Mass Media Effects 190

1. 11.1 Effects Theories 191

1. 11.1.1 Bullet Model 191

2. 11.1.2 Minimalist Model 191

3. 11.1.3 Cumulative Model 192

2. 11.2 Lifestyle Effects 192

1. 11.2.1 Socialization 193

2. 11.2.2 Living Patterns 193

3. 11.2.3 Intergenerational Eavesdropping 194

3. 11.3 Attitude Effects 194

1. 11.3.1 Influencing Opinion 195

2. 11.3.2 Role Models 195

3. 11.3.3 Stereotypes 196

4. 11.4 Cultural Effects 196

1. 11.4.1 Historical Transmission of Values 197

2. 11.4.2 Contemporary Transmission of Values 197

3. 11.4.3 Cultural Imperialism 198

5. 11.5 Behavioral Effects 201

1. 11.5.1 Motivational Messages 201

2. 11.5.2 Subliminal Messages 201

6. 11.6 Media-Depicted Violence 202

1. 11.6.1 Learning About Violence 202

2. 11.6.2 Media Violence as Positive 203

3. 11.6.3 Media Violence as Negative 203

4. 11.6.4 Catalytic Model 204

5. 11.6.5 Societally Debilitating Effects 205

6. 11.6.6 Media Violence and Youth 205

7. 11.6.7 Tolerance of Violence 206

1. Summary: Mass Media Effects 207

12. 12 Governance and Mass Media 209

1. 12.1 Media-Governance Structure 210

1. 12.1.1 Fourth Estate 210

2. 12.1.2 Watchdog Function 211

2. 12.2 Media–Government Tension 212

1. 12.2.1 Media Influence on Governance 212

2. 12.2.2 News Coverage of Government 214

3. 12.2.3 Media Obsessions 215

3. 12.3 Government Manipulation 217

1. 12.3.1 Influencing Coverage 217

2. 12.3.2 Trial Balloons and Leaks 218

3. 12.3.3 Stonewalling 219

4. 12.4 Political Campaigns 220

1. 12.4.1 Cyclical Coverage 220

2. 12.4.2 Tracking Polls 220

3. 12.4.3 Role of Commentary 220

5. 12.5 Courting Campaign Coverage 221

1. 12.5.1 Campaign Tactics 222

2. 12.5.2 Creating Coverage Opportunities 222

3. 12.5.3 Limiting Access 223

6. 12.6 Campaign Messages 223

1. 12.6.1 Message Strategies 223

2. 12.6.2 Precision Targeting 224

1. Summary: Governance and Mass Media 225

13. 13 Global Mass Media 227

1. 13.1 Mass Media and Nation-States 228

1. 13.1.1 Authoritarianism 228

2. 13.1.2 Libertarianism 230

2. 13.2 War as a Libertarian Test 232

1. 13.2.1 Combat Reporting 233

2. 13.2.2 Embedded Reporters 233

3. 13.3 Online Global Reform 234

1. 13.3.1 Whither Nation-States 234

2. 13.3.2 Whither Mega-Corporations 236

4. 13.4 Trans-Border Soft Diplomacy 237

1. 13.4.1 Afghanistan Media-Building 237

2. 13.4.2 Trans-Border Propaganda 238

3. 13.4.3 Voice of America 239

4. 13.4.4 Trans-Border Blockages 239

5. 13.5 Arab Media Systems 240

1. 13.5.1 Diverse Media Structures 240

2. 13.5.2 Al-Jazeera 240

3. 13.5.3 Media as Totalitarian Tool 241

4. 13.5.4 Dubai Media Incorporated 241

6. 13.6 China Media 242

1. 13.6.1 Chinese Policy 242

2. 13.6.2 Chinese Censorship 243

1. Summary: Global Mass Media 243

14. 14 Mass Media Law 245

1. 14.1 Censorship 246

1. 14.1.1 Free Expression 246

2. 14.1.2 First Amendment in Context 247

3. 14.1.3 Common Sense and First Amendment 247

4. 14.1.4 Incitement Standard 247

2. 14.2 First Amendment Expansionism 249

1. 14.2.1 Literature and First Amendment 249

2. 14.2.2 Amusement and First Amendment 250

3. 14.2.3 Emotive Speech 250

4. 14.2.4 Hate Speech 250

5. 14.2.5 Expressive Speech 250

3. 14.3 Government Regulation 251

1. 14.3.1 Federal Communications Commission 251

2. 14.3.2 Federal Trade Commission 251

4. 14.4 Indecency 252

1. 14.4.1 Pornography Versus Obscenity 252

2. 14.4.2 Protecting Children 252

5. 14.5 Intellectual Property 253

1. 14.5.1 Copyright 253

2. 14.5.2 Consumer Rights 254

6. 14.6 Defamation 255

1. 14.6.1 Libel as a Concept 255

2. 14.6.2 Reckless Disregard 255

3. 14.6.3 Comment and Criticism 256

1. Summary: Mass Media Law 257

15. 15 Mass Media Ethics 258

1. 15.1 The Difficulty of Ethics 259

1. 15.1.1 Prescriptive Ethics 259

2. 15.1.2 Conflict of Duties 260

2. 15.2 Media Ethics 261

1. 15.2.1 Media Commitment 261

2. 15.2.2 Audience Expectations 262

3. 15.3 Moral Principles 262

1. 15.3.1 Golden Mean 262

2. 15.3.2 Reciprocity Principle 263

3. 15.3.3 Utilitarian Ethics 263

4. 15.3.4 Pragmatic Ethics 263

5. 15.3.5 Egalitarian Ethics 264

6. 15.3.6 Social Responsibility 264

4. 15.4 Process Versus Outcome 265

1. 15.4.1 Deontological Ethics 265

2. 15.4.2 Teleological Ethics 265

3. 15.4.3 Situational Ethics 267

5. 15.5 Potter’s Box 267

1. 15.5.1 Four Quadrants 268

2. 15.5.2 Intellectual Satisfaction 269

6. 15.6 Ethics, Law, and Practicality 269

1. 15.6.1 Ethics and Law 270

2. 15.6.2 Accepted Practices 270

3. 15.6.3 Prudence and Ethics 270

4. 15.6.4 Misrepresentation 270

1. Summary: Mass Media Ethics 272

1. Glossary 273

2. References 280

3. Credits 285

4. Index 289

Preface The mass media was in a rapid, dizzying change in 1991 when I first wrote The Media of Mass Communication in an attempt to help college students make sense of it all. Since then, the change has accelerated exponentially. Indeed, newspapers were still a reigning medium back then. Facebook inventor Mark Zuckerberg was a second grader. By the day, it seems, the change is more rapid, more dizzying—and more exciting and fascinating. As an author, my task is greater than ever to make sense of it all.

Through The Media of Mass Communication and a growing network of colleagues who have adopted the book, my reach as a teacher has been extended far, far beyond the confines of my own classroom. There are editions in several countries, including Canada, China, and Indonesia. In all, The Media of Mass Communication has been published in 24 variations over the years, each revised specifically to keep students up-to-speed with ever-changing media dynamics. I am indebted deeply to professors and their students, who pepper me almost daily with their reactions to the book and with news and tidbits to keep the next edition current.

Most gratifying to me is the community that has grown up around The Media of Mass Communication. These are people, many of whom have become valued friends, whose thoughts have made the book an evolving and interactive project. In countless messages, professors have shared what works in their classes and how it might work elsewhere. Students write me the most, sometimes puzzled over something that deserves more clarity, sometimes with examples to illustrate a point. All of the comments, questions, and suggestions help add currency and effectiveness to every new edition.

New to This Edition Updated content on new trends in the Mass Communication fields, which will aid students in understanding the evolution of the Mass Communications and related disciplines.

New content on the impact of social media on Mass Communications, providing students with a greater understanding of how new technologies have influenced the field.

Increased focus on professions within the fields of Mass Communications, including advertising and marketing, enabling students to better explore career options

Updated case studies in each chapter, providing students with real-world examples about a range of dynamics within the discipline of Mass Communications.

Updated photographs and graphs, providing students with better visuals to enhance learning.

Updated writing style, increasing readability.

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REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to a better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

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Acknowledgments I am indebted to my students and colleagues at my academic home, Winona State University, who made contributions in ways beyond what they realize. I am indebted too to many students elsewhere who have written thoughtful suggestions that have shaped this edition. They include Niele Anderson, Grambling State University; Krislynn Barnhart, Green River Community College; Michelle Blackstone, Eckerd College; Mamie Bush, Winthrop University; Lashaunda Carruth, Forest Park Community College; Mike Costache, Pepperdine University; Scott DeWitt, University of Montana; John Dvorak, Bethany Lutheran College; Denise Fredrickson, Mesabi Range Community and Technical College; Judy Gaines, Austin Community College; James Grades, Michigan State University; Dion Hillman, Grambling State University; Rebecca Iserman, Saint Olaf University; Scott Wayne Joyner, Michigan State University; David Keys, Citrus College; Chad Larimer, Winona State University; Amy Lipko, Green River Community College; Christina Mendez, Citrus College; Nicholas Nabokov, University of Montana; Andrew Madsen, University of Central Florida; Scott Phipps, Green River Community College; Colleen Pierce, Green River Community College; June Siple, University of Montana; and Candace Webb, Oxnard College.

I am grateful to reviewers who provided guidance for this new edition of The Media of Mass Communication:

Patricia Cambridge, Ohio University

Michael Cavanagh, University of Illinois at Springfield

Thomas Gardner, Westfield State College

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Nancy Jennings, University of Cincinnati

Eungjun Min, Rhode Island College

Lynn C. Owens, Peace College

I also appreciate the suggestions of other colleagues whose reviews over the years have contributed to the book’s success: Edward Adams, Brigham Young University; Ralph D. Barney, Brigham Young University; Thomas Beell, Iowa State University; Ralph Beliveau, University of Oklahoma; Robert Bellamy, Duquesne University; ElDean Bennett, Arizona State University; Lori Bergen, Wichita State University; Michelle Blackstone, Eckerd College; Bob Bode, Western Washington University; Timothy Boudreau, Central Michigan University; Bryan Brown, Missouri State University Cambridge, Ohio University; Jane Campbell, Columbia State Community College; Dom Caristi, Ball State University; Michael L. Carlebach, University of Miami; Meta Carstarphen, University of North Texas; Michael Cavanagh, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Danae Clark, University of Pittsburgh; Jeremy Cohen, Stanford University; Michael Colgan, University of South Carolina; Ross F. Collins, North Dakota State University; Stephen Corman, Grossmont College; James A. Danowski, University of Illinois, Chicago; David Donnelly, University of Houston; Thomas R. Donohue, Virginia Commonwealth University; John Dvorak, Bethany Lutheran College; Michele Rees Edwards, Robert Morris University; Kathleen A. Endres, University of Akron; Glen Feighery, University of Utah; Celestino Fernández, University of Arizona; Donald Fishman, Boston College; Carl Fletcher, Olivet Nazarene University; Laurie H. Fluker, Southwest Texas State University; Kathy Flynn, Essex County College in Newark, New Jersey; Robert Fordan, Central Washington University; Ralph Frasca, University of Toledo; Judy Gaines, Austin Community College; Mary Lou Galician, Arizona State University; Andy Gallagher, West Virginia State College; Ronald Garay, Louisiana State University; Lisa Byerley Gary, University of Tennessee; Donald Godfrey, Arizona State University; Tom Grier, Winona State University; Neil Gustafson, Eastern Oregon University; Donna Halper, Emerson College; Peggy Holecek, Northern Illinois University; Anita Howard, Austin Community College; Jason Hutchens, University of North Carolina at Pembroke; Elza Ibroscheva, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville; Carl Isaacson, Sterling College; Nancy-Jo Johnson, Henderson State University; Carl Kell, Western Kentucky University; Mark A. Kelley, The University of Maine; Wayne F. Kelly, California State University, Long Beach; Donnell King, Pellissippi State Technical Community College; William L. Knowles, University of Montana; John Knowlton, Green River Community College; Sarah Kohnle, Lincoln Land Community College in Illinois; Jennifer Lemanski, University of Texas-Pan American; Charles Lewis, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Lila Lieberman, Rutgers University; Amy

Lignitz, Johnson County Community College in Kansas; Amy Lipko, Green River Community College; Larry Lorenz, Loyola University; Sandra Lowen, Mildred Elley College; Linda Lumsden, Western Kentucky University; John N. Malala, Cookman College; Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College; Maclyn McClary, Humbolt State University; Daniel G. McDonald, Ohio State University; Denis Mercier, Rowan College of New Jersey; Timothy P. Meyer, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay; Jonathan Millen, Rider University; Bruce Mims, Southeast Missouri State University; Joy Morrison, University of Alaska at Fairbanks; Gene Murray, Grambling State University; Richard Alan Nelson, Kansas State University; Thomas Notton, University of Wisconsin—Superior; Judy Oskam, Texas State University; David J. Paterno, Delaware County Community College; Terri Toles Patkin, Eastern Connecticut State University; Sharri Ann Pentangelo, Purdue University; Deborah Petersen—Perlman, University of Minnesota—Duluth; Tina Pieraccini, State University of New York at Oswego; Leigh Pomeroy, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Mary-Jo Popovici, Monroe Community College; Thom Prentice, Southwest Texas State University; Hoyt Purvis, University of Arkansas; Jack Rang, University of Dayton; John Reffue, Hillsborough Community College; Benjamin H. Resnick, Glassboro State College; Rich Riski, Peninsula College; Ronald Roat, University of Southern Indiana; Patrick Ropple, Nearside Communications; Marshel Rossow, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Julia Ruengert, Pensacola Junior College; Cara L. Schollenberger, Bucks County Community College; Quentin Schultz, Calvin College; Jim Seguin, Robert Morris College; Susan Seibel, Butler County Community College; Todd Simon, Michigan State University; Ray Sinclair, University of Alaska at Fairbanks; J. Steven Smethers, Kansas State University; Karen A. Smith, College of Saint Rose; Mark Smith, Stephens College; Howard L. Snider, Ball State University; Brian Southwell, University of Minnesota; Rob Spicer, DeSales University; Alan G. Stavitsky, University of Oregon; Penelope Summers, Northern Kentucky University; Philip Thompsen, West Chester University; Larry Timbs, Winthrop University; John Tisdale, Baylor University; Edgar D. Trotter, California State University, Fullerton; Carl Tyrie, Appalachian State University; Helen Varner, Hawaii Pacific University; Rafael Vela, Southwest Texas State University; Stephen Venneman, University of Oregon; Kimberly Vos, Southern Illinois University; Michael Warden, Southern Methodist University; Hazel G. Warlaumont, California State University, Fullerton; Ron Weekes, Ricks College; Bill Withers, Wartburg College; Donald K. Wright, University of South Alabama; Alan Zaremba, Northeastern University; and Eugenia Zerbinos, University of Maryland.

About the Author John Vivian’s academic home is Winona State University in Minnesota, where he has taught a wide range of mass communication courses. He holds a Medill journalism degree from Northwestern University and earlier from Gonzaga University. He has done additional work at Marquette University and the University of Minnesota. As an undergraduate, Vivian worked for United Press International. Later, he joined the Associated Press in four Western cities. His work has won numerous professional awards, including Minaret Awards as an Army Reservist. Vivian is a former national president of Text and Academic Authors. His Media of Mass Communication has been the leading textbook in its field since the first edition. Judges for the TAA Texty Award gave MMC the first perfect score in history. Vivian is at home in the scholarly and pedagogical journals of his field. With Alfred Lorenz, he coauthored News Reporting and Writing. Besides journalism, public relations, and advertising, Vivian’s academic focus is media law and history. He invites feedback from students and adopters at jvivian@winona.edu

mailto:jvivian@winona.edu
Chapter 1 Mass Media Literacy

Watch Attacking Uganda Warlord Goes Viral

Going Viral, Maximizing Impact Without much else going on in their lives, three 20-something guys from San Diego decided to pack some video equipment and go to East Africa. They wanted to shoot something about a 17‑year civil war that had killed 20 million people. Inexperienced about war, not even knowing what to look for, the three found nothing worth recording.

After being stranded unexpectedly one night in a northern Uganda town, the three witnessed something shocking. Thousands of children showed up from the countryside at nightfall. Afraid that rebels would capture them in their villages and kidnap them to be soldiers or sex slaves, they walked dozens of miles every evening for the security of the town. They slept in alleys, parking lots, and hospital hallways. At dawn, feeling safety in daylight, the children vanished into the countryside and trekked back to their villages.

Jason Russell, 24, Bobby Bailey, 21, and Laren Poole, 19, shot video. Through interviews, they learned that a ragtag rebel group, the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) had terrorized Northern Uganda for years. Although fewer in number, the rebels were feared for their brutality—rape, murder, mutilation, and cannibalism.

The young filmmakers never found the LRA’s leader, the self-proclaimed prophet Joseph Kony. But they heard chilling stories about him and the atrocities he committed primarily against his own people, the Acholi in Northern Uganda, like cutting people’s faces off and making children eat their friends. The young filmmakers knew that the story, little known outside the region, needed to be told. In 2003 they cobbled together a 55-minute documentary that they hoped would rally global attention to end the scourge of the LRA. Not knowing much about how mass media worked however, they had little idea how to go about it, at least not with maximum impact.

The inaugural screening of Invisible Children occurred a year later at the University of San Diego. Over the next couple years, Russell, Bailey, and Poole took the movie on the road, mostly to high schools, churches, and other colleges.

Incredibly, what was happening in Uganda wasn’t on the radar of mainstream media prior to this documentary. After its release in 2005, Kony was indicted by the International Criminal Court on charges of crimes against humanity, including the abduction of 30,000 children, killing thousands of villagers, some with machetes, and burning some to death in their huts. Despite the indictment, Kony remains at large.

As Russell, Bailey, and Poole booked more screenings, they recognized more needed to be done. They created a nonprofit corporation. Now more organized, the Invisible Children project moved into a higher gear. In time, the organization brought in a New York public relations expert, Ken Sunshine, who had a reputation for promoting celebrities and publicizing events. Once Sunshine was on board, these things then happened:

The film was slickly repackaged and trimmed to 29 minutes as part of a campaign called Kony 2012.

The film was promoted with a poster portraying Kony with Osama bin Laden and Adolph Hitler. The poster became iconic.

Teen heartthrob Justin Bieber, Barbadian singer Rihanna, and rapper P. Diddy tweeted 38 million fans to watch the video on YouTube.

A $30 promotional package went to donors—a T-shirt, bracelet, stickers, and buttons and posters bearing the Kony 2012 logo.

A downside of the viral success was keener media interest and scrutiny in the Invisible Children organization. Questions were raised about the nonprofit organization’s overspending and excessively narrow focus. The film itself was

criticized as simplistic and propagandist. After receiving a dramatic boost in funding after its Kony 2012 campaign ($26.5 million), support for the organization plummeted in 2013, reflected by the fact that it raised only $4.9 million. In December of 2014, Invisible Children announced it would be closing its doors by the end of 2015; despite this unfortunate turn of events, the Invisible Children organization shined a spotlight on a war that most people in the West knew nothing about. by 2014, many Western leaders, including in the United States, increased their focus on ending the LRA’s siege. Although Kony remains free, others in the upper echelon of the powerful rebel group have either been killed or captured. For instance, in January 2015, Uganda confirmed the capture of LRA military senior commander Dominic Ongwen, who was then transferred by American forces to the International Criminal Court in The Hague where he is currently facing charges of crimes against humanity.

Invisible Children clearly accomplished a tremendous amount of good in a relatively short period of time. The fact that this organization rose to just prominence so quickly when it was founded and run by college students is even more impressive. Could a more sophisticated and long-term media strategy have helped Invisible Children to achieve longevity and avoid its dramatic spike in success and subsequent rapid decline? Did the leader’s youth, inexperience, and idealism—characteristics that fueled their passion and success, ultimately lead to their downfall? How did the mass media attention impact the fate of the Invisible Children organization? In this chapter, you will learn techniques to enable you as a media consumer to make your own judgments.

Prior to any discussion about the nature and function of mass communication and mass media, it is important to have a shared understanding of basic terminology, particularly since the terms “communication” and “media” are used in a variety of contexts to refer to a range of activities and concepts. The term “mass communication” refers to messages sent to a large audience by individuals, groups, or organizations. The vehicle through which mass messages are sent is referred to as mass media, such as newspapers, radio, broadcast television, the dramatic arts, books, and more recently the Internet.

The messages that are sent via mass media to large audiences are referred to as mass messages, and can include advertisements, news stories and editorials, books and screenplays, and even Tweets and Facebook statuses. The entity that broadcasts the mass message is referred to as a mass communicator and can include advertising marketers, journalists, bloggers, authors, and actors. The mass audience that receives the mass message includes any large group of people who may or may not have anything in common other than receiving messages from a common source. For instance, these might include readers of the sci-fi novel Hunger Games, viewers of

Anderson Cooper 360, subscribers to Time magazine, followers of George Takei on Twitter and Facebook, and followers of YouTube channels.

We are exposed to so much mass media, including simultaneous messages, that at times we may not be aware of the nature of the messages or how they are affecting or influencing us.

1.1 Media Exposure

Study Preview Many people engage in media for a significant portion of the day—often simultaneously. The output of mass communicators can be overwhelming, but tools are available for making sense of it. To chart a clear course to understand and articulate media issues, a mastery of basic vocabulary is essential. This means differentiating terms like mass media and mass communication.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.1.1 Classify the digital media usage of the consumers of mass media in the United States

2. 1.1.2 Describe concurrent media usage in the United States

3. 1.1.3 Characterize the relationship between the producers and consumers of mass media

4. 1.1.4 Explain how to empower consumers of mass communication

1.1.1 Media Usage 1. Objective: Classify the digital media usage of the consumers of mass media

in the United States

According to research, Americans are prolific consumers of mass media, particularly digital media. In fact, most Americans spend the majority of their waking hours engaging in some form of media, with television watching remaining the top media activity for the majority of Americans (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Media Usage In fact, the media research firm Nielsen reports that television viewing easily leads other media in the average hours of use whether measured by hours per person or hours per household. There is likely considerable overlap though between time spent on the Internet and smartphones and television viewing, such as streaming television content on portable devices via subscription services like Hulu and Netflix, which is why in 2015 Nielson launched the Total it Up campaign to measure live television viewing across all devices.

Figure 1.1 Full Alternative Text

1.1.2 Concurrent Media Usage 1. Objective: Describe concurrent media usage in the United States

People are spending an increasing amount of time engaging in simultaneous digital media usage—viewing more than one device at a time (e.g., watching television while perusing Facebook on their smartphone), as well as media multitasking (e.g., half- watching television while cooking dinner). Between simultaneous media usage and media multitasking, most of us are consuming some type of mass media more than half of our waking hours (see Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Time Spent Media Multitasking with Smartphone Percentage of Smartphone Users Who Multitask on Their Media Devices

Figure 1.2 Full Alternative Text

This is particularly true for tween and teen smartphone users who according to one recent study, spend more time online than sleeping. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center report, since the advent of the smartphone, 92% of teens between the ages of 13 and 17 go online daily, over half go online several times a day, and about one-quarter of all teens are online constantly. Caucasian tweens and teens from families with incomes over $75,000 per year report the highest digital media usage than other teen demographics. This included watching television and using the Internet and mobile media such as watching YouTube videos and using Instagram, Facebook, and other social media sites. Furthermore, African American teens have the highest access to smartphones (85%), followed by Latinos and Caucasian (71%).

1.1.3 Inescapable Symbiosis 1. Objective: Characterize the relationship between the producers and

consumers of mass media

Most of us have symbiotic dependence on mass media. We depend on media for information, and media industries are dependent on us as consumers. What would be the purpose of a news station, for example, if nobody listened?

Personal Dependence. Each of us depends on mass communication delivered via through mass media everyday for important information. For instance, the weather forecast is the most- listened-to item in the morning newscast. Why? Because people want to know how to prepare for the day, how to dress, whether to take an umbrella. Not knowing that rain is expected can mean getting wet on the way home. For most of us, modern life simply wouldn’t be possible without media. We need media for news and information, for entertainment, amusement, diversion, and for the exchange of ideas.

Media Dependence. Not only do people in their contemporary lifestyles need mass media, the industries that have built up around the media need an audience. This interdependence reflects a symbiosis between consumers and media. To survive financially, a publishing house needs readers who will pay for a book. A Hollywood movie studio needs people at the box office. Media companies with television, radio, newspaper, and magazine products cannot survive financially unless they can deliver to an audience that advertisers want to reach. Advertisers will buy time and space from media companies only if potential customers can be delivered.

We live in an environment that interconnects with mass media. The interdependence is generally satisfying although not problem-free fact of modern life.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Media Exposure

Spend one hour directing your awareness to media messages from as many sources as you are able to track (television, radio, social media). Write down what you notice, including what messages you are receiving and how they are impacting you (i.e., excited, sad, frustrated, overwhelmed). Also note how often you are using more than

one device simultaneously, and how this impacts your attention level and ability to receive these messages.

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

1.1.4 Being an Empowered Media Consumer 1. Objective: Explain how to empower consumers of mass communication

Mass communication—mass information relayed through mass media to the general public—can be very overwhelming at times. There is so much media produced on such a grand scale, which people consume on a daily basis, that at times it can be difficult to know how to manage all of the information we are receiving. Many people may just relent and accept the mass production of media rather unconsciously. But it is possible to become personally empowered by developing a greater awareness of the process of mass communication—its purpose, goals, and its impact on consumers. When consumers are aware, they can become empowered, which means they can utilize mass media in a way that benefits them. They can become wise consumers rather than unaware subjects.

Finding tools to navigate through all the mass communication and put media to a use in a way that makes sense for the user is the key to gaining personal empowerment in this regard. The tools of personal empowerment include gaining an understanding of how mass communication works as a process.

Asking the following questions can help with the personal empowerment process:

What motivates people, groups, and organizations to produce mass messages?

Can information be presented in a useful way, without bias?

Can persuasion ever be honest?

Does the process of mass communication distort or otherwise affect a mass message?

Can you trust mass media?

1.2 Purposeful Mass Communication

Study Preview Mass communicators have a purpose with every message they craft. One purpose is informational, which can help people make intelligent decisions in their daily lives and in their participation in society. Persuasion can be a purpose of mass communication. Indeed, people find media essential in making most purchases and even embracing points of view. Another purpose is amusement.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.2.1 Outline the roles of media-delivered information

2. 1.2.2 Compare the ways by which mass media persuades people

3. 1.2.3 Explain how mass media has changed the scope of entertainment

4. 1.2.4 Describe ways that consumers use mass media to learn

5. 1.2.5 Identify forms of media that serve overlapping purposes

1.2.1 To Inform 1. Objective: Outline the roles of media-delivered information

Media-delivered information comes in many forms. Students heading for college, especially if they plan to live in a dorm, receive a brochure about the dreaded disease meningitis. It’s a life-or-death message about reducing the contagion in cramped living quarters. The message “Inoculate Now” is from a mass medium—a printed brochure or a mass-mailed letter or an e-mail attachment from the campus health director.

Digital News Options. Many people now get their news on their tablets or smart phones.

The most visible mass media-delivered information is news. People look to newscasts and news sites—even talk show hosts like Steven Colbert, Bill Maher, and David Letterman—to know what’s going on beyond the horizon. If not for mass media, people would have to rely on word-of-mouth from travelers to know what’s happening in Afghanistan, Hollywood, or their state capital.

Information creates awareness in many forms—not just news and health brochures. For example, advertising offers information to help consumers make intelligent decisions. In a democracy, media comprise an essential forum for news and information and the exchange of ideas that promote intelligent citizen participation.

1.2.2 To Persuade 1. Objective: Compare the ways by which mass media persuades people

The study of mass communication is primarily concerned with how mass media persuades people receiving the information to in some way change their opinions, beliefs, perspectives, attitudes and/or behavior.

Persuasion is defined as causing someone to think or behave in a certain way. Persuasion within the context of mass communication and mass media involves the process of convincing the audience of something, such as swaying their opinion or causing them to act in response to new information. Persuasion can be negative, particularly if the information is shared in propaganda. On the other hand, persuasion can also be good, particularly if the impact on the audience is a positive one, such as persuading the general population to get a flu shot.

Persuasion in the absence of diversity of ideas can be dangerous, such as in a religious cult or political dictatorship. But the use of persuasion in an environment with a free exchange of ideas can be an effective way of gaining a consumers’ attention and articulating an important message, such as how to stop child abuse, or what direction our country should head politically.

People come to conclusions on pressing issues by exposing themselves to competing ideas in what’s called the marketplace of ideas. In 1644 the thinker-novelist John Milton eloquently stated the concept of the value of competing ideas: “Let truth and falsehood grapple; whoever knew truth put to the worse in a free and open encounter.” Today more than ever, people look for truth by exposing their views and values to those of others in a mass media marketplace. Milton’s mind would be boggled by the sheer volume of differing ideas with which to grapple. Consider the diversity of ideas expressed through talk radio, newspaper editorial pages, anti-war lyrics from iTunes, blogs, and tweets, to name a sliver of the array of ideas in the marketplace.

The role of persuasion is especially important in a democratic society, in which public policy bubbles up from the citizenry over time. Consider the debate for decades on limiting young people’s access to alcohol. Should the legal drinking age be 18? 21? No limit at all? Or should booze be banned entirely? As the debate has worn on with both sides making their cases, public policy representing a grassroots majority has evolved. The media have been essential in this process in getting the word out. The same process occurs for all cutting-edge issues across a broad range (e.g., abortion, gay marriage, war, and peace).

The most obvious form of persuasion that the mass media facilitates is advertising. People look to ads to decide among competing products and services. What would you know about Nikes or iPads if it weren’t for advertising?

A major element in persuasion also comes from the public relations industry, which uses media to win people over. General Motors employs a public relations staff to make people feel good about GM. The Republican National Committee wants people to feel good about the GOP (Grand Old Party). The techniques of public relations fall

short of advertising’s pitches to make a sale. nonetheless, public relations people have persuasion as their end goal.

1.2.3 To Entertain 1. Objective: Explain how mass media has changed the scope of entertainment

Before mass media came into existence in the mid-1400s, people created their own diversion, entertainment, and amusement. Villagers got together to sing and swap stories. Traveling jugglers, magicians, and performers dropped by. What a difference mass media have made since then. More than 75 million people in North America alone saw the James Cameron movie Avatar in its first four months. In light of Avatar’s strong message of respecting indigenous cultures and lands, its ability to attract such a large audience is powerful. The long-awaited seventh installment of the Star Wars movie series, The Force Awakens (www.starwars.com), had equal expectations as Avatar, with regard to its opening weekend and longevity, prior to its box office opening in December of 2015. The week before the film was set to open, film critics predicted that The Force Awakens would break all previously set earnings records, perhaps even exceeding 1 billion in total box office sales. Star Wars: The Force Awakens is not only an excellent example of the power of film to entertain mass audiences, but as the first-ever film to feature a woman and an African American as the primary protagonists. It is also a great example of the power of film to both influence and reflect social mores.

In addition, with the advent of the Internet and portable electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones, people can now be entertained by media throughout the day and evening, regardless of their other activities or responsibilities. Just walk into an airport or restaurant and look around—what you’ll likely see is that most people are looking into their smartphone or other portable electronic device watching some form of media for entertainment purposes, perhaps on Hulu.com or Netflix.com, or any number of other streaming services. In fact, streaming media has never been easier, particularly in urban areas where cellular signals are strong and wi-fi is readily available. We can now begin watching our favorite television show or sports team at home on our smart TV, transition to our tablet when traveling, and then when we arrive we can transition to our smartphone if necessary. This is possible not only because of the technology that allows for personal device integration, but also because most cable providers now allow consumers to watch live television on their personal electronic devices.

http://www.starwars.com
1.2.4 To Enlighten 1. Objective: Describe ways that consumers use mass media to learn

Mass media are important in figuring ourselves out. Insights into the human condition come from prose, poetry, fiction, and nonfiction in every medium. Mass media are powerful vehicles for self and other exploration. Think about listening to a moving obituary on a pivotal person in our society, or reading a powerful novel—Dalton Trumbo’s Johnny Got His Gun on the price of war or Alice Walker’s The Color Purple, and imagine how you were changed by content of those media. Ideas that have changed our worldview gained traction and acceptance as mediated messages— Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species, Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, or Betty Friedan’s Feminine Mystique—all were fundamentally transformative in their own way. The whole range of media products, as diverse as sappy television sitcoms, somber radio documentaries, and online brooding anime cartoons, can tell us something about ourselves.

Mass media has such a strong impact on the thoughts, attitudes, opinions, and behavior that people often turn to certain types of media when they want to be enlightened and educated. Consider bibliotherapy—a form of self-therapy involving an individual who is seeking enlightenment and transformative change by reading self-help books or inspirational novels. Many people who saw the movie The Wild, Cheryl Strayed’s memoir of walking the Pacific Crest Trail alone in order to deal with her grief in the wake of her mother’s death, became determined to do something similar to deal with their own heartbreak. Essentially, mass media are an ideal way to gain insights about ourselves and the world around us, to be moved emotionally, to feel connected with something larger than ourselves, to gain new perspectives, and to experience personal growth.

1.2.5 Overlapping Purposes 1. Objective: Identify forms of media that serve overlapping purposes

Dissecting media messages by their purpose is useful; however, the pigeonholing or categorizing media by its purpose is limiting since most media messages have multiple purposes. Social humorist Bill Maher, for example, is a comedian but his intent is not mere amusement. Maher is also a source of information and might lie to persuade you to see things his way. Other examples of media with overlapping

purposes are John Oliver from Last Week Tonight and Stephen Colbert of the Late Show, both of whom deliver political news while entertaining through humor and sarcasm.

Media consumers may not be aware of the overlapping purposes of media, and particularly when persuasive messages are packaged as entertainment, yet with a well- developed sense of awareness and a high level of sophistication, media consumers can become savvy at assessing the true nature of media messages, which renders them less susceptible to media manipulation.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Purposeful Mass Communication

Watch television for one hour, switching channels at least three times. Write down the purpose of the various forms of mass communication you watch, including commercials, and television shows. What did you notice that you wouldn’t have noticed before? How often did you note overlapping purposes? What is the value of becoming more aware of the various purposes of mass media?

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

1.3 Mediated Communication

Study Preview Mass literacy means making distinctions between mass communication and other forms of communication. Mass communication targets technologically amplified messages to massive audiences. Other forms of communication pale in comparison in their ability to reach great numbers of people, and yet can still be effective forms of communication.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.3.1 Analyze the way technology has affected communication

2. 1.3.2 Characterize mass communication

3. 1.3.3 Differentiate industrial and social media

1.3.1 Traditional Forms of Communication 1. Objective: Analyze the way technology has affected communication

Human communication has many forms. Cave dwellers talked to each other. When Tor grunted at his neighbor Oop, it was interpersonal communication—one on one. Around the campfire, when Tor recounted tales from the hunt for the rest of the tribe, he was engaging in group communication. Traditionally, both interpersonal and group communication are face-to-face. Technology has expanded the prehistoric roots of human communication. When lovers purr sweet nothings via text on a smartphone, it’s still interpersonal communication. And even though technology-assisted, a rabble- rouser with a megaphone is engaging in group communication. The lines between

interpersonal and group communication become blurred when using social media as a vehicle. For instance, if two individuals are engaging in an online debate on Twitter, and other Twitter users can observe and chime in if they so choose, is this interpersonal communication or group communication?

Paleolithic humans left images that communicated among selves and later cave visitors.

1.3.2 Communication Through Mass Media 1. Objective: Characterize mass communication

Fundamental to media literacy is recognizing the different forms of communication for what they are. Confusing interpersonal communication and mass communication, for example, only muddles an attempt to sort through important complex issues.

Mass communication is the sending of a message to a great number of people at widely separated points. Mass communication is possible only through technology, whether it be a printing press, a broadcast transmitter, or an Internet server. The massiveness of the audience is a defining characteristic of mass communication.

Characteristics of Mass Communication Audience. The mass audience is eclectic and heterogeneous. With sitcoms, for example, the television networks seek mega-audiences of disparate groups— male and female, young and old, liberal and conservative, devout and nonreligious. Some media products narrow their focus, like a bridal magazine, but a bridal magazine’s intended audience, although primarily young and female, is still diverse in terms of ethnicity, income, education, and other kinds of measures. Its focus is still a mass audience.

Distance. The mass audience is beyond the communicator’s horizon, sometimes thousands of miles away. This is not the case with either interpersonal or group communication. Even technology-assisted group meetings via satellite or videoconferencing, although connecting faraway points, are not mass communication but a form of group communication.

Feedback. The mass audience generally lacks the opportunity for immediate feedback. In interpersonal communication, a chuckle or a punch in the nose right then and there is immediate feedback. With most mass communication, receipt of a consumer’s response—an e-mail to the editor, a canceled subscription, a nasty tweet—is delayed as the recipient (media consumer) doesn’t necessarily read it right away. Even a text message to a reality television show is delayed a bit and is certainly less potent than a more immediate response in interpersonal communication.

As previously referenced, mass communication cannot exist without technology. As such, mass communication was a triumph of the Industrial Age and the rise of machinery. Some people call it industrial communication. The term signifies the significant technological resources that are essential for mass communication to work on a large scale. Ever thought about buying a Goss Metro printing press to start a newspaper? Think in the millions of dollars. The Federal Communications Commission won’t even consider issuing a television broadcast license to anyone without cash upfront to meet six months of expenses. Again, think millions. Mass communication has historically been an industrial-scale undertaking—that is, until the advent of the Internet. For instance, the majority of people now receive the news through the Internet by reading an online newspaper via their personal computer, laptop, tablet, or smartphone. This trend has had a significantly negative effect on the traditional paper newspaper industry but has expanded the reach of the news media allowing for a global audience.

Media Tomorrow Eclipse of the Novel?

Before Gutenberg invented mass production for the printed word in the mid-1400s, lengthy fictional prose was a rarity. Hand-scribed and bound books were terribly expensive, produced manually one copy at a time. Furthermore, with low pre- Gutenberg literacy levels, the market of readers was miniscule. The word “novel” itself didn’t come about until the 1700s. Now after 300 or 400 years, the novel as we know it may be at a crossroads. The question is whether modern technology, with its abbreviated format, has eclipsed the need for longer prose. In other words, has technology, which gave birth to the novel as a high form of literary art, been its comeuppance?

The Digital Revolution and the State of Traditional Literature

Competing Technology.

Newer media technology, particularly digital media, has created potent storytelling forms that encroach on the novel’s once exclusive domain. Movies

have emerged as a powerful vehicle for exploring the human condition and great social issues. Television has potential for serious literary expression as well, making it another competitor with the traditional novel. Competing technologies have both unique attributes and shortcomings, such as the movie’s relative compactness, which can be somewhat limiting in expressing literary nuances.

Ease of Access.

New technologies have made access easier to electronic-based and digital-based media. Going to a movie house for a two-hour experience is far easier than acquiring a book and committing to two weeks of reading. Access could hardly be easier than on-demand movies and television streamed to a mobile tablet.

Time Constraints.

Although novels can be downloaded, the process of consuming long-form literature involves the slow and laborious intellectual process of reading. Most people, when reading for comprehension, move through only 300 words a minute—less than a page. As a learning tool, textbooks are even more labor- intensive. At an extreme, quick reading, like skimming, is typically 600 or 700 words a minute. With easier access to more compact media communication, it seems that people have either shorter attention spans or less patience. Certainly, more is competing for people’s attention than ever before; 24 hours a day is not enough for even a fraction of the media involvement most of us would like.

Will the novel disappear?

Not overnight, but even some champions of long-form story telling, like novelist Philip Roth, see the sun setting. Roth bemoaned to the Daily Beast: “The book can’t compete with the screen. It couldn’t compete beginning with the movie screen. It couldn’t compete with the television screen. And it can’t compete with the computer screen. Now we have all those screens.”

New media forms, such as Twitter, are attracting creative people who in earlier times might have chosen the form of the novel for their artistic explorations and expression. For example, Twitter has become one of the newest media outlets for poetry, with users such as @Poetrytweets whose handle is “exploring the power of 140 characters or less” (a reference to the limit of characters per tweet), and the newly coined term “twaiku” representing the new Twitter haiku movement. Linguist Ben Zimmer notes with interest Twitter’s increasing popularity as a literary source, stating how an author’s use of Twitter to mete out storylines, one tweet at a time, is both novelistic

and intriguing.

Episodic delivery—in chunks—exists in television series and to a greater degree in the edited breakdowns of shows into mini-segments for downloading and consumption on the run. For instance, the trend for shorter content is apparent with the increasing popularity of episodic television series featured solely on YouTube channels, as well as Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon original series, many of which are under 20 minutes.

Writing Prompt Journal: What Do You Think?—Longevity of the Traditional Novel

Do you think that the novel, in its traditional form, is becoming obsolete? What might save its seeming ultimate demise?

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1.3.3 Communication Through Social Media 1. Objective: Differentiate industrial and social media

Perhaps as revolutionary as the addition of mass communication to human communication is the 21st century phenomenon of social media, facilitated through different communication channels, called social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, and Tumblr. With the development of smartphones, reasonably priced mobile phone plans, and readily available wi-fi access, social media is now accessible to almost anybody. You don’t need costly printing presses or broadcast equipment to communicate with a mass audience via social media. In fact, all you really need is a personal electronic device that can access the Internet, an account with one of the many social networking sites, something interesting to say that has the potential to go viral, and mass communication may be only a few keystrokes away.

Mediated forms of communication, whether through mass media or social media, can

reach small or huge audiences, depending on the subject matter, relevance, and methods used for dissemination. A video posted on YouTube can go almost unnoticed, as most do, while others go viral.

Or consider the recent “Ice Bucket Challenge,” the challenge was fundraising campaign for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, also known as Lou Gehrig’s Disease) initiated by a single individual on behalf of a friend whose husband had ALS and involved people posting videos of themselves getting a bucket of ice dumped on their heads, challenging someone else, donating money to the ALS association, and then posting the video on social media with the hashtag #IceBucketChallenge.

While this challenge was initiated by a single individual, it quickly went viral, and within one year over $100 million dollars was raised for the ALS Association by 2.5 million people who took the ice bucket challenge—an increase over the previous year of about 3,500%. Last year when the majority of Facebook users logged on to their account, most likely they would see at least one, but maybe more Ice Bucket Challenge videos, some of which may have even ended with a challenge to them to be the next person to have a bucket of ice dumped on their heads.

Media consumers must be discerning though when evaluating the truthfulness and accuracy of viral posts and videos on social media, since exaggerated claims, propaganda, gossip, and outright falsehoods are common. This is particularly true in response to crises—such as news reports involving crime—when a rush to disseminate news quickly devolves into the spread of gossip involving false or exaggerated attacks against individuals or companies involved in controversial situations. People’s careers can be destroyed when a negative post goes viral, and in some cases, lives may be put in jeopardy when damaging information is disseminated widely via social media and individuals referred to as “Internet trolls” resort to cyberbullying and death threats in response. Thus in order to be a good consumer of mass communication through social media, one should take the time to evaluate the accuracy of the information, as well as the impact of clicking the “share” or “retweet” button.

Although there are similarities between industrial and social media, it is sometimes difficult to discern the difference between the two. Determining the difference can be important as it may impact the veracity and accuracy of the information being disseminated. Review the useful ways to see differences between social media and industrial media.

Differences between Social Media and

Industrial Media Reach. Social and industrial media both use technologies to give scale to communication. Both are capable of reaching a global audience. However, industrial media typically use a centralized framework for organization, production, and dissemination. Social media are more decentralized, less hierarchical, and have many more points of production and access. Social media has increased the reach of many film makers who use crowdfunding sites such as gofundme, Kickstarter, and indigogo. The model for crowdfunding sites is different than traditional funding for films, in that rather than asking a few people for a lot of money, crowdfunding asks a lot of people for a little money. While this is a relatively new movement, the Film & Video section of the Kickstarter website has raised over $200 million for independent films, such as the film Veronica Mars, which raised $5,702,153 from 91,585 people. Crowdfunding sites have had a significant impact on the entire independent filmmaking (Indie) movement, reflected in the dramatic increase in popularity of Indie film festivals, such as the Sundance Film Festival.

Ownership. Because the means of production are complicated and costly, industrial media typically are owned by corporations or government. In contrast, social media’s production tools have low thresholds for entry and are within the economic means of most people.

Access. The complexity of production for industrial media requires specialized skills and training. Social media production requires only commonly held skills, which means that just about anyone with access to an Internet-ready computer can produce messages for potentially wide distribution.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Mediated Communication

Describe the source(s) of most of the mass media you consume. Is it from books, digital new sites, television, or social media? Are there differences in how you evaluate the media you are consuming based on their source?

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1.4 Literacy for Media Consumers

Study Preview Basic components of media literacy are writing and reading skills. But as visuals have become more important in mass communication, visual literacy is needed too. This involves “reading” still and moving images.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.4.1 Relate linguistic literacy to economic prosperity

2. 1.4.2 Assess how visual literacy impacts communication

3. 1.4.3 List the competencies that comprise film literacy

1.4.1 Linguistic Literacy 1. Objective: Relate linguistic literacy to economic prosperity

Mass media once were almost entirely word-centric. The act of creating media messages and deriving meaning from them—media literacy, it’s called—required vocabulary, grammar, and other writing and reading skills. These were acquired skills, both teachable and learnable—not anything innate from birth.

Linguistic literacy today is as much a measure of modern civilization as economic production and prosperity, all of which are interconnected. Although there are exceptions, like Cuba, with a national policy that emphasizes education but which is economically troubled, strong literacy rates correlate roughly to capita income (see Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Literacy Rates v. Income Country Literacy Rates Annual Income per Capita

United States

Total Population: 99.0%

Male: 99%

Women: 99%

$54,629.5

India

Total Population: 74.04%

Male: 82.14%

Female: 65.46%

$1,595.70

Afghanistan

Total Population: 34.0%

Male: 52%

Female: 24.2%

$659.00

Niger

Total Population: 19.1%

Male: 27.3%

Female: 11%

$427.40

1.4.2 Visual Literacy 1. Objective: Assess how visual literacy impacts communication

Symbols of communication predate structured and complex human languages. There were messages in animal drawings in ancient caves, such as the one in Lascaux in southwestern France. More than 17,000 years ago, before structured languages,

Paleolithic cave-dwellers communicated meaning among themselves through images. Probably the messages were augmented by simple uttered indicators. Whether intended or not, the images also conveyed meaning to future generations. Just ask anthropologists who are “translating” the cave paintings today. The images are recognizable through visual literacy. A modern-day version of cave paintings could be considered street art, which is often used as a form of social and political commentary. Consider the work of famous British street artist, Banksy, who used street art to draw attention to various political and social crises. For example, in one of his more recent works in support of Syrian refugees, Banksy painted a mural of the late Apple CEO Steve Jobs carrying an older model Apple computer and a black bag slung over his shoulder on a public wall in a refugee camp in Calais, the temporary home to refugees fleeing war-torn countries in Africa and the Middle-East. Banksy released a statement to the British press about his work, noting that Steve Jobs was the son of a Syrian migrant worker.

Visual images weren’t an integral part of early mass media products. Technology back then was word-centric and didn’t lend itself to visuals. This began changing gradually with the introduction of photography in the mid-1800s and then quickly with improved printing processes by the 1900s. People liked pictures, but the process of deriving messages from images was largely intuitive. Not until the 1960s did anyone think much about whether a systematic intellectual process was at work for interpreting, negotiating, and making meaning from photographs or other visual images. The term visual literacy was the invention of John Debes when he was the education projects coordinator at Eastman Kodak in 1969. In short, visual literacy is using a group of skills through which people simultaneously integrate what they see with other sensory perceptions for a richer overall conscious experience.

With technology making visuals increasingly important to human communication, educators have recognized that learning visual literacy could be indispensable in increasingly visual modern life. But the multiplicity of academic disciplines involved hindered the development of core principles.

Today some of the most coherent definitions of visual literacy are from comics author Scott McCloud. In a 1993 nonfiction book in the graphic novel format, McCloud proved himself a leading theorist of visual literacy.

In Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art McCloud described how artists can control core elements of their work, including form, idiom, and structure, to convey messages with precision.

Savvy media consumers will recognize basic concepts, such as right-facing depictions of movement being upward and positive, at least in Western cultures in which reading is ingrained as left to right. Left-moving depictions suggest obstacles, orneriness, and tension. Colors affect mood and tone, as can the pace and juxtapositioning of words in word-centric communication.

Done well, the intended messages in comics and other visuals don’t require conscious analysis. But a sophisticated media consumer who recognizes the principles employed by an artist is well-positioned to understand and assess the messages. Picking up an author’s intent yields more accuracy and satisfaction from the message.

McCloud and other visual literacy theorists are quick to point out that visual literacy, although necessary to survive and communicate in a highly complex world, cannot be a replacement for linguistic literacy. Rather, visual and linguistic literacies are

interlaced, and a mastery of both is essential to maximize meaning and understanding.

1.4.3 Film Literacy 1. Objective: List the competencies that comprise film literacy

Film literacy refers to ability to critically evaluate all aspects of filmmaking as a consciously articulated art form. More specifically, film literacy involves the ability to apply critical thinking to such aspects of filmmaking as core content, digital storytelling, and a film’s narrative structure. It also includes understanding the various stages of production (preproduction, production, and postproduction), such as the director’s vision, the nature of the screenplay, the roles of actors and cinematographers, the editors’ roles, and even the role of the music director and composer. What is central to film literacy is the understanding that every aspect of filmmaking is conscious and purposeful. Another important component of film literacy is understanding genre from both a contemporary and historic perspective.

The introduction of photography and other still images into mass media content was gradual over decades. Motion pictures dawned explosively in the 1800s and early 1900s, and techniques for creating motion pictures were subject to immediate exploration and critique as an art form. Audiences learned, for example, not to be frightened by bigger-than-life heroes and heroines on screen. It took a while, but audiences eventually overcame confusion about visual clues to flashbacks and symbolism, such as white hats being shorthand for “good guys,” black hats for villains. There are countless other techniques for conveying deep subtleties that aficionados recognize, and film literacy deepens the experience of watching and better understanding the entire process of filmmaking as an art form.

Media Counterpoints Literacy and the Internet

Nicholas Carr, a widely published technical writer, thought maybe he was suffering from “middle-age mind rot.” At 47 he realized he couldn’t pay attention to one thing for more than a couple minutes. Back in college at Dartmouth, Carr loved books and spent hours in the library. So what was happening now, almost 30 years later? Indeed, was it age?

No, Carr says, he doesn’t believe his inability to concentrate is age-related, but rather, how he uses his brain has changed drastically—and not necessarily for the better. He blames the Internet.

In his book The Shallows, Carr notes that the brain is a creature of habit. Just as a rut in a road deepens with traffic, so do the channels of connectivity in the brain. The more he was using the Internet over the years, picking up often fragmentary and scattered bits and pieces of information, the less his brain was working as it once was trained to do. Before the web, he read linearly as the author had intended, going from beginning to end looking for facts and ideas, making connections, following plots, and assessing rationales.

Carr’s history as an Internet junkie goes back to 1995 with Netscape, the first web browser. A dozen years later, he recognized that the Internet had come to exert a strong and broad influence on both his professional habits as a writer and his personal habits. He wanted information in quick, easy chunks, the more the better. It was addictive, he says, and destructive.

Once Carr had enjoyed deep reading. He recalls getting caught up in an author’s prose and thinking about twists in plot lines. He would spend hour after hour immersed in a book. No more. Now, he says, his mind drifts after a page or two. He gets fidgety. Deep reading, he says, has become a struggle.

Even so, Carr acknowledges the wonders and efficiencies of the Internet. As a writer, he has immediate access to unprecedented stores of data. What once took hours in a library now takes seconds or a few minutes—but at what price? The Internet, he says, has been chipping away at his capacity for concentration and contemplation. This worries him.

Carr cites friends who have experienced the same phenomenon. There is also research on brain function that supports his theory, although, as he concedes, much more research is needed.

No shortage of scholarship exists, however, about positive cognitive aspects of Internet use. Katherine Hayles, a postmodern literary scholar, sees less of a threat in the fragmented and nonlinear processes that the Internet encourages. To be sure, Hayles says, this “hyperattention,” hopping around screens and hyperlinking, is far from the traditional approach of cloistering yourself off from the world to concentrate on a written work. As she sees it, switching through information streams quickly and flexibly has its own value. Hayles calls for “new modes of cognition” that bridge traditional deep attention with Internet-age hyperattention.

Point/Counterpoint Point:

With the superficial engagement of the Internet, we are losing our ability to attend deeply. This devaluation of contemplative thought, solitary thought, and concentration is a loss not only for us as individuals but also for our culture.

Counterpoint:

The risk of losing our culture and our abilities to reason are exaggerated. There are things that traditional linear and literary approaches can do that hyperattention cannot do and vice versa.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Literacy for Media Consumers

Consider the past week. List any differences between your ability to understand and retain information based on its source, as well as whether you are focusing solely on one media source versus multitasking.

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1.5 Assessing Media Messages

Study Preview Media literacy is the application of knowledge and critical thinking processes to a range of media formats. Fundamentals of media literacy include recognizing message forms, not confusing messages and messengers, understanding the possibilities and limitations of various media and platforms, and placing media in a framework of history and traditions. Media literacy also requires continued questioning of conventional wisdom with the application of critical thinking to the analysis of the media message being explored.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 1.5.1 Outline elements of media literacy

2. 1.5.2 Compare specialization and generalization in media literacy

1.5.1 Fundamentals of Media Literacy 1. Objective: Outline elements of media literacy

By literacy, people usually mean the ability to read and write. Literacy also can mean command of a specific discipline such as history or physics. Media literacy refers to possessing the knowledge to be competent in assessing messages carried by mass media. Media literacy is essential in this Age of Mass Communication that envelopes our lives dawn to dusk, cradle to grave. Some awareness requires broader and deeper media literacy than others.

Deepening Your Media Literacy

Message form. Fundamental media literacy is the ability to see the difference between a one-on-one message and a mass message. Sometimes it is easy, sometimes it’s not. Consider a mass mailing with a personal salutation: “Hi, Karla.” It would be considered naïve media illiteracy for Karla to infer from the salutation that she’s getting a personal letter.

Message versus Messenger. Once there was a monarch, as the story goes, who would behead the bearer of bad news. The modern-day media equivalent is faulting a news reporter for reporting on a horrible event or criticizing a movie director for rubbing your face in an unpleasant reality. Media literacy requires distinguishing between messages and messengers. A writer who deals with the drug culture is not necessarily an advocate, nor is the author who writes about a domestic batterer’s perspective, an advocate for abuse.

Motivation Awareness. Intelligent use of the mass media requires assessing the motivation for a message. Is a message intended to convey information? To convince people to change brands? To sour the public on one political candidate in favor of another? The answer usually requires one to think beyond the message and evaluate the message’s source. Is the message from a news reporter who is trying to be objective and neutral about the subject? Or is the message from one of the political parties supporting a particular candidate?

Media Limitations. The different technologies on which media are shaped affect the nature of the messages. MP3 downloads, for example, can deliver music superbly but printed books cannot. Both MP3s and books are mass media, but they have vastly different potentials. Novels can be in print form, audio or e- format, but each version affects the message significantly.

The method through which the message is delivered is both limiting and enhancing, depending on the technology and format used. A 100-minute movie cannot possibly be literally true to a 90,000-word novel. Conversely, Matthew Vaughn’s 2011 movie X-Men: First Class did things visually and audiologically that Stan Lee and Jack Kirby could not have accomplished in their Marvel Comics series X-Men back in the 1960s.

Traditions. The past informs our understanding of the present. A longstanding strain in U.S. journalism, for example, was born in the Constitution’s implication that the news media should serve as a watchdog on behalf of the people against government folly and misdeeds. Another tradition is for artistic expression that is free from government restraint. Media literacy is impossible without an appreciation of the historic traditions that have profoundly shaped the parameters

of media performance and also our reasonable expectations.

Media literacy requires an understanding of other cultures and traditions of the particular medium involved. The role of mass media in China, for example, flows from circumstances and traditions radically different from those in Western democracies. Even among democracies, media performance varies. News reporting about criminal prosecutions in Britain, as an example, is much more restrained than in the United States.

Media Myth. There are many myths about the role and impact of media on mass audiences. For example, video games are often scapegoated as being a contributing factor in aggression and violent crime, particularly among youth populations. Despite this strong belief among many in society, numerous research studies exploring this dynamic failed to show any connection. Media literacy helps us separate real phenomena from conjecture and nonsense requires media, which is particularly important in the era of Internet gossip and myth dissemination via social media.

1.5.2 Spheres of Media Literacy 1. Objective: Compare specialization and generalization in media literacy

Media literacy takes many forms. People who craft media messages, for example, need technical competence. Competence at a soundboard is essential for music producers. Mastery of editing software is essential for magazine editors. These are skills that a media consumer doesn’t need. In fact, the more invisible the technical details of media production are to media audiences, the more effective the messages. At the same time, media consumers can have a deeper appreciation of media messages if they have a sense of what went into making the message. In the same sense, anyone can be awed by a Yo-Yo Ma performance, but someone schooled just a little bit on the cello has a greater feel for Ma’s intricacies and range.

Media literacy can be highly specialized. There are so many academic specialties on mass media, for example, that no one can master them all. An award-recognized historian on Federalist Period newspapers may not have the vocabulary to converse with a scholarly theorist on visual communication. We all will have blind spots in our media literacy, which is not a reason to give up or ease off working at improving your media literacy across a broad range of formats. Rather, by becoming more literate in a range of media genres and types, we can better recognize the breadth of mass communication and mass media as a field.

Writing Prompt Journal: Applying Your Media Literacy—Assessing Media Messages

This week note three mass media messages you’ve received in various formats. What was the original message in each? After applying critical thinking, and analyzing the messages, did you note any more subtle messages? If so, what were they and how were they framed?

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Summary: Mass Media Literacy The vocabulary for media literacy begins with knowing terms like mass media and mass communication. Mass media are vehicles that carry messages to large audiences. Major media are print media (primarily books, newspapers, and magazines), sound media (primarily recordings and radio), and motion media (primarily movies and television). The Internet also is a medium but one whose nature blurs earlier distinctions. Mass communication refers to the process of crafting messages and delivering messages.

1.1 Media Exposure Two-thirds of our waking hours are spent consciously or subconsciously consuming mass media. The media is a major part of our environment. Mass media is so pervasive in our lives that most of us engage in media multitasking without even thinking about it. We can be oblivious to the media’s effects on us and those around us, unless we cultivate an understanding of how the media works and why. This understanding is called media literacy.

1.2 Purposeful Mass Communication Mass communicators have a purpose. Sometimes the purpose is to inform, sometimes to amuse, and sometimes to persuade. Media literacy requires understanding of the purpose of a mass message as part of assessing the content.

1.3 Mediated Communication Technology has expanded the original forms of face-to-face human communication. Today, we send amplified messages to great numbers of diverse people in mass communications. This sometimes is called industrial communication because the underlying technology requires large capital investments. Communication by social media, a 21st century invention, offers low-cost entry for both broad and focused communication and potential for immediate feedback.

1.4 Literacy for Media Consumers Media literacy begins with a factual foundation and becomes keener with an understanding of the dynamics that influence media messages. There are degrees of awareness, including abilities to understand and explain media behavior and effects and to identify significant media issues.

1.5 Assessing Media Messages Media messages come in many different forms—sometimes the message is clear and direct and sometimes it is masked, such as a political message that is designed to be persuasive but is framed to be informational or entertainment.

Chapter 2 Media Technology

Watch Google Tensions. When Google’s Gmail system was hacked in 2011 for access to messages among U.S. diplomats and other government officials, Google blamed the Chinese government. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton warned that the United States took the cyber-attack seriously and noted that a new U.S. military doctrine provided for military responses. China denied it had authorized the hacking—a skirmish in a new era of cyber-war.

A Cyber-War Tool As an early hacker, John Draper is legendary, bordering on mythical. Maybe that’s why they call him Cap’n Crunch. His hacking often had an edge of carefree whimsy.

When Richard Nixon was president, a 20-something Draper cracked a White House telephone code and used the password “olympus” for a direct line to the president. Then he proceeded to tell the president about a toilet paper shortage in Los Angeles. Or so goes the story.

With the advent of personal computers, hacking assumed dark proportions—far beyond Draper’s sophomoric pranks. Mass-targeted mini-software programs anonymously destroyed the hard drives of personal computers. These programs, known variously as viruses, worms, and trojans, were more than petty annoyances. Some malware from hackers disdainful of establishment institutions focused on banks and other high-visibility targets like government agencies and caused widespread damage. Foreign criminals with an international reach found ways to infect the average user’s personal computers through e-mailed links and other nefarious tactics. More recently, some hackers from as far away as Nigeria have managed to hack into personal computers in the United States and gain control of victims’ personal documents, demanding payment for their release. Police agencies worldwide have created investigative units to catch hackers, but it’s a challenging endeavor due to the international and covert nature of hacking.

Hacking has also made its way into international politics. For instance, Israel and its ally the United States had long suspected that Iran was trying to build nuclear weapons to attack Tel Aviv. Although not officially confirming it, Israel and U.S. agencies designed a worm, Stuxnet, to infiltrate controls in Iran’s uranium-refining centrifuges. Stuxnet was unleashed secretly in 2010. Within months, 384 of Iran’s 3,900 centrifuges were wiped out. Israel and the United States took comfort in believing that an Iranian weapons development program had been slowed by years.

The Stuxnet virus was hardly an isolated case. Among other recent incidences:

Hackers in Jinan—home to the Chinese military intelligence agency—found a way into Google’s Gmail servers to target the e-mail addresses of senior U.S. government officials, anti-Chinese activists, and journalists. The hackers changed settings on the accounts to tap regularly into other users’ messaging.

Hackers cracked into a network of U.S. military contractor Lockheed Martin that contained sensitive war technology under development. At risk was state-of-the- art technology, possibly even the stealth helicopter technology used in the 2011 raid that killed terrorist Osama bin Laden in Pakistan.

A new type of hacking is called hacktivism—hacking for the purposes of advocacy, social justice, and human rights. Quite likely one of the most well-known hacktivism

collectives is WikiLeaks, the multi-national media organization founded in 2006 by Julian Assange, a Swedish hacker and computer programmer currently seeking asylum in Ecuador. WikiLeaks is known for obtaining highly sensitive government documents from hackers around the world and then making those documents publicly available on its online library.

Other hacktivism collectives, such as Ghost Security and Anonymous, have been increasingly in the news in 2015 and 2016 for their hacking of Islamic terrorist groups, such as the Islamic State (otherwise known as ISIS), Al-Qaeda, Al-Nusra, Boko Haram, and Al-Shabaab, all known for their sophisticated use of social media, such as YouTube and Twitter, for recruiting, mobilizing, and disseminating propaganda. Ghost Security monitors domains and Twitter accounts of various terrorist cells, including members of ISIS, publishes their identifying information online, and forwards suspicious domains, Twitter accounts, and planned terrorist attacks to the U.S. government through a proxy. Anonymous has touted numerous occasions where its members have successfully hacked into and shut down the social media accounts of ISIS members, disrupting their ability to recruit and mobilize members.

Most people agree that hacking ISIS accounts is acceptable, even admirable, but other recent examples of hacktivism tend to be more controversial. Take for instance former National Security Agency employee, Edward Snowden’s hack and subsequent release of sensitive data showing the U.S. government’s alleged overreaching in collecting private information from U.S. citizens. Some people believe Snowden is a hero for protecting American’s privacy and liberty, while others consider him a traitor for releasing highly sensitive information about the U.S. government that could potentially be used against us by another country. Another recent controversial example of hacktivism involved a group called The Impact Team, which in July of 2015 hacked the computer systems of Ashley Madison, a dating website that helps married people have extramarital affairs. The information hacked included customer data, financial information, and internal information, such as documents and employee e-mails. The hackers threatened to release customers’ names, credit card information, and other private profile information, such as sexual desires and fantasies, if the dating site didn’t immediately cease operations. Their motivation? They had hacked into the systems at Ashley Madison and its parent company Avid Life Media a few years back and believed the company was unethical—not only in the services they provided (helping primarily men have extramarital affairs), but they also learned that the parent company engaged in several other unethical business practices, such as promising privacy without using technology with appropriate security measures. When asked directly about their motivation, The Impact Team leaders responded that they had watched Ashley Madison subscriptions grow and

human trafficking increase, and they wanted to stop Avid Life Media’s exploitation of vulnerable people. The Impact Team compared Avid Life Media to drug dealers who abuse addicts.

When The Impact Team’s demands were not met, the hackers kept their promise, and on August 18 and 20, 2015, the group released 30 gigabytes of customer data in two data dumps on what is called the Dark Web. The information eventually made its way to the regular Internet in the form of searchable databases that allowed members of the general public to search by name, e-mail address, and other identifying information. The fallout was relatively significant as data were mined by everyone from journalists to spouses to nosy neighbors. Couples split, some high-profile personalities were found on the site, and two to three suicides were even attributed to the hacking incident. Other fall-out included extortionist attempts by what many called “Internet vigilantes” bent on shaming those who were registered on the site. Although The Impact Team claimed to be hacktivists, others disagreed, citing in particular how the potential damaging consequences to customers whose data were leaked far outweighed their alleged infractions. For instance, there were approximately 1,200 customer e-mails from Saudi Arabia contained in the data dump, which may have put those individuals in grave risk of their lives since adultery is punishable by death in Saudi Arabia. In addition, a detailed data analysis of user information found there were virtually no real women on the site; rather, almost all female customers were computer-generated BOTs apparently intended to dupe unsuspecting men into continuing their subscription, which begs the question: If there were no women on the site, who were the men having affairs with?

Hacktivism creates an ethical dilemma for both consumers and law enforcement because many groups claim their causes are for good. In fact, some of the top Hacktivist causes are domestic violence, climate change, and criminal justice. Many critics point out that everyone has a cause he or she would like to champion, but social media has created an environment where public shaming and humiliation for a range of perceived infractions, some quite minor, are now considered the norm, and far too often, the punishment, ranging from destroyed lives to death threats, far outweighs the nature of the alleged infraction.

The Internet was created in the 1960s when the Pentagon recognized that all-out nuclear war would disrupt their command-and-control networks. Indeed, a first-strike attack could have wiped it all out. Their answer: Build a web of interlinked but independent channels to transport packets of data without central communication hubs that could be targeted. The network went operational in 1969. The network, never tested by all-out nuclear war, grew into today’s Internet—the backbone for e-mail, the web, including social media and all forms of mass communication.

The Internet turned out to be vulnerable too—not to bombs, as was the original plan, but to cyber-attacks. Because the Internet has evolved into more than a military tool and become integrated into everyday life, a cyber-attack could so unwind our Internet- dependent communication system that mass communication as we know it would be in jeopardy. In a 2011 research essay, Chinese scholars Ye Zheng and Zhao Baoxian explained that war has changed. As they see it, nuclear strategies belonged to the industrial era in human history. Cyber-warfare is now the strategic war of the information era. Both can be “massively destructive.” The common denominator: Nations can live and die in both nuclear and cyber war.

The United States has developed military cyber-strategy in response to potential cyber-attacks and computer sabotage from countries and non-state actors (rebel groups, terrorist groups, etc.). One Pentagon official, speaking to the Wall Street Journal on the condition of anonymity, put it this way: “If you shut down our power grid, maybe we will put a missile down one of your smokestacks.” And yet, the U.S. government has been the target of multiple hacking attempts, some of which have been successful, at least to some extent:

In October 2015, the personal e-mail accounts of CIA Director John Brennan and Department of Homeland Security Secretary Jeh Johnson were hacked, allegedly, by a high school student critical of U.S. foreign policy in Palestine. The confidential information and data collected was then posted online by WikiLeaks. This type of activity is called “social engineering.”

In September 2015, hackers targeting the Office of Personnel Management obtained the fingerprints of 9.5 million people who were applying for government security clearance.

In June 2015, hackers targeting government computer systems obtained personal information, including financial information and social security numbers of 21.5 million people who were subject to government background checks.

In January 2015, the Twitter account for U.S. Central Command was hacked and pro-ISIS messages were disseminated.

Clearly, hacking has moved far beyond Jack Draper’s fun-and-games half a century ago. In fact, military and security experts now deem cyber-attacks as a leading threat of nation-state security in the 21st century.

In this chapter, you will examine a range of technologies that underpin all mass communication. These include print, broadcast and film, as well as digital technology

and the Internet, which are quickly subsuming traditional delivery platforms and creating new issues, such as the new cyber-battlefields previously referenced.

2.1 Media Technology

Study Preview Technology is integral and foundational to mass communication. If not for the technology of printing presses, books as we know them wouldn’t exist. New technologies, such as the Internet and communication technologies reliant upon the web for dissemination of mass communication, are changing the way all communication occurs, including mass communication. Some of this change is positive, including extended reach across a broad audience and increased control among users. But new technologies have also ushered in an era of new challenges, such as message distortion and online incivility.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 2.1.1 Differentiate interpersonal communication from mass communication

2. 2.1.2 Summarize the evolution of media technology

2.1.1 Technology Dependence 1. Objective: Differentiate interpersonal communication from mass

communication

One defining characteristic of mass communication is its reliance on technology. People can communicate face-to-face, which is called interpersonal communication, without technological assistance. For centuries, people communicated in large groups, as in town-hall meetings and concert halls, without microphones—just the human voice, albeit sometimes elevated to extraordinary volume. For mass communication, however, with audiences much more wide-ranging than those in the largest auditorium, machinery based on some type of technology is necessary. Technologies such as microphones, overhead projectors, printing presses, and ink have long been

used in mass communication, but increasingly mass communication is taking on a vastly different form, relying on vastly different types of technologies.

2.1.2 Evolving Media Landscape 1. Objective: Summarize the evolution of media technology

Media technology, the product of human invention, exists in several forms, each one distinctive. Specific industries have been built around each of these technologies, and are then eventually replaced when new technologies emerge.

Evolving Media Technology Printing Technology

The printing press, developed in the 1440s, spawned the book, newspaper, and magazine industries. After centuries, these industries still exist largely in specialized niches in the media landscape, despite evidence that they are quickly being overtaken by newer technologies.

Chemical Technology

Photography and movies have relied on chemical technology throughout most of their history. This also is technology that soon may be a thing of the past, with smartphones, Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, and online publication.

Electronic Technology

The first of the electronic media, sound recording, actually preceded the widespread use of electricity. But with the electrical wiring of the United States in the early 1900s, sound recording quickly became an electrically powered medium. Radio was electrical early on. Television was electronic from the very

beginning.

Digital Technology

Traditional mass media adapted to digital technology to varying degrees beginning in the first decade of the 21st century, but the industries built on the original printing, chemical, and electronic forms remain largely distinctive. Book companies like HarperCollins still produce books. CBS is still primarily in the television business. The distinctive newest medium built on digital technology is the Internet, leading to a frenzy of more traditional companies built on older technologies to find ways of capitalizing on the new mediums. Consider how the Internet itself created entirely new categories of media companies. Think Facebook. Think Google. Think Wikipedia.

Meanwhile, printed and bound books are still with us. So too are local television networks, Paramount Pictures, and talk radio, despite a number of competing mediums.

Writing Prompt Applying Your Media Literacy – Media Technology

What do the four primary technologies of mass communication have in common?

The response entered here will appear in the performance dashboard and can be viewed by your instructor.

Submit

2.2 Printing Technology

Study Preview With the invention of movable metal type in the mid-1440s, suddenly the written word could be mass-produced. The effect on human existence was profound. Incorporating photographic technology with printing in the late 1800s added new impact to printed products.

Learning Objectives By the end of this module you will be able to:

1. 2.2.1 Describe the invention of moveable metal type

2. 2.2.2 Outline the ways in which moveable metal type changed communication

3. 2.2.3 Summarize the development of print media after Gutenberg

4. 2.2.4 Relate the invention of halftone to the integration of visual media in print

2.2.1 Movable Metal Type 1. Objective: Describe the invention of moveable metal type

Printing can be traced back a couple thousand years to eastern Asia. An invention in the mid-1440s made mass production of the written word possible for the first time, including the innovation of movable metal type. A tinkerer in what is now the German city of Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg, was obsessed with melting and mixing metals to create new alloys. He came up with the idea to cast the individual letters of the alphabet in metal, and then assemble them one at a time into a page for reproduction by pressing paper onto the raised, inked characters. The metal characters were sturdy enough to survive the repeated pressure of transferring the inked letters to paper—

something not possible with the carved wood letters that had been used in earlier printing.

In time, industries grew up around the technology, each producing print media products that are still with us today—books, newspapers, and magazines. But historically, the impact of Gutenberg’s invention was apparent much earlier. Printing with the new Gutenberg technology took off quickly. By 1500, printing presses were in place throughout Europe. Suddenly civilization had the mass-produced written word.

Media People Dawn of Mass Communication

Johannes Gutenberg. Listen to learn about the Gutenberg’s Printing Press.

Johannes Gutenberg was eccentric—a secretive tinkerer with a passion for beauty, detail, and craftsmanship. By trade he was a metallurgist, but he never made much money at it. Like most of his fellow 15th century Rhinelanders in present-day Germany, he pressed his own grapes for wine. As a businessman, he was not very successful, and he died penniless. Despite his unpromising combination of traits, quirks, and habits—or perhaps because of them—Johannes Gutenberg created the most significant change in history: the mass-produced written word. He invented movable metal type.