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PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE

PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE

SaRaH GRISON Parkland College

TOdd F. HEaTHERTON dartmouth College

MICHaEL S. GazzaNIGa University of California, Santa Barbara

nW. W. NORTON & COMPaNYNEW YORk • LONdON

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Editor: Sheri L. Snavely Electronic Media Editor: Patrick Shriner Developmental Editor for the First Edition: Susan Weisberg Developmental Editor, Project Editor, and Manuscript Editor for the Second Edition: Kurt Wildermuth Assistant Editor: Scott Sugarman Editorial Assistant: Eve Sanoussi Associate Media Editor: Stefani Wallace Media Project Editor: Penelope Lin Media Assistant: Alex Trivilino Marketing Manager: Lauren Winkler Production Manager: Sean Mintus Photo Editor: Patricia Marx Photo Researcher: Elyse Rieder Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Permissions Clearer: Elizabeth Trammell Design Director: Rubina Yeh Designer: Faceout Studio Composition: codeMantra Manufacturing: Transcontinental Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Grison, Sarah, author. | Heatherton, Todd F., author. | Gazzaniga, Michael S., author. Title: Psychology in your life / Sarah Grison, Todd F. Heatherton, Michael S. Gazzaniga. Description: Second edition. | New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015024071 | ISBN 978-0-393-26515-6 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Developmental psychology. | Psychology. Classification: LCC BF713.G75 2017 | DDC 150—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc. gov/2015024071

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For all teachers who inspire

others, especially

Ken Kotovsky and Steve Tipper

With gratitude,

Sarah Heatherton and James Heatherton

Lilli, Emmy, Garth, Dante,

and Rebecca

SaRaH GRISON is Associate Professor of Psychology at Parkland College. She brings more than 20 years of psychology teaching experience to Psychology in Your Life. Sarah exam- ines how psychological research can be applied to teaching and learning. She teaches intro- ductory psychology every term and puts her laboratory and classroom research into practice to improve student learning and actively engage students. She has created and taught courses to support novice teachers in developing their skills. Sarah is a certified Teacher-Scholar who previously was recognized each year on the University of Illinois List of Excellent Teachers. She has won the University of Illinois Provost’s Initiative for Teaching Advancement Award and the Association for Psychological Science Award for Teaching and Public Understand- ing of Psychological Science. She is a member of the Association for Psychological Science; the American Educational Research Association; the International Mind, Brain, and Educa- tion Society; and the American Psychological Association (Division 2, Society for Teaching of Psychology).

TOdd F. HEaTHERTON is the Lincoln Filene Professor in Human Relations in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Dartmouth College. He teaches introductory psychology every year. He is associate editor of the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience and serves on many editorial boards and grant review panels. He received the Award for Distinguished Service on Behalf of Social-Personality Phychology in 2005, was named to Thompson Reuters’ ISI HighlyCited for Social Sciences in 2010, and received the Carol and Ed Diener Award for Outstanding Mid-Career Contributions to Personality Phychology in 2011. He received the Petra Shattuck Award for Teaching Excellence from the Harvard Extension School in 1994, the McLane Fellowship from Dartmouth College in 1997, and the Friedman Family Fellowship from Dartmouth College in 2001. He is a fellow of many scientific societies, including the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science.

MICHaEL S. GazzaNIGa is Distinguished Professor and Director of the Sage Center for the Study of the Mind at the University of California, Santa Barbara. In his career, he has introduced thousands of students to psychology and cognitive neuroscience. He founded and presides over the Cognitive Neuroscience Institute and is founding editor-in-chief of the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. He is past president of the American Psychological Society and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Institute of Medicine, and the National Academy of Sciences. He has held positions at the University of California, Santa Barbara; New York University; the State University of New York, Stony Brook; Cornell Univer- sity Medical College; and the University of California, Davis. He has written many notable books, including, most recently, Tales from Both Sides of the Brain: A Life in Neuroscience.

ABoUT THE AUTHoRS

vii

CoNTENTS IN BRIEF

Preface for Teachers ...................................................................................................viii

Letter to Students ..................................................................................................... xviii

1. Introducing the World of Psychology ................................2 2. The Role of Biology in Psychology .....................................38 3. Consciousness ............................................................................................... 76 4. development across the Life Span ................................... 114 5. Sensation and Perception ............................................................ 154 6. Learning ................................................................................................................ 194 7. Memory ................................................................................................................. 230 8. Thinking and Intelligence ............................................................. 268 9. Motivation and Emotion .................................................................306 10. Sex, Gender, and Sexuality ......................................................... 342 11. Health and Well-Being.......................................................................382 12. Social Psychology ................................................................................... 420 13. Self and Personality ............................................................................. 458 14. Psychological disorders ................................................................496 15. Psychological Treatments ............................................................ 536

appendix a: analyzing data in

Psychological Research ....................................................................................A-1

appendix B: Quizzes ................................................................................................ B-1

Everyone who has taught introductory psychology remembers their “first time.” Most instructors have a humorous story about being handed the textbook just a few days before class began and being pointed in the direction of the classroom. We, the authors of Psychology in Your Life, certainly remem- ber our first experiences. One of us was in a hot and windowless attic teaching discussion sections at Carnegie Mellon University. Another one of us was trying to overcome the imposter syndrome, teaching at Harvard in a building named after William James. And yet another one of us was trying to hold the attention of 800 students at the University of California, Santa Barbara, right before the 1967 Summer of Love. Whether we started teaching as undergraduate students, doctoral students, or faculty, all of us were immediately hooked on the expe- rience. We are passionate about the field and about exposing students to the science of psychology as well as helping them learn just how relevant psychology

is to their everyday lives. Over the years, as we have gained experience as teachers,

researchers, and authors, we have come to realize a key truth about inspiring students to learn. This truth

is that learning is not a unitary process, nor is it an activity conducted alone by students.

Instead, learning results from three inter- connected factors: teachers teaching,

students learning, and continuous efforts to improve the skills of both

teachers and students. We created Psychology in Your

Life because we wanted a textbook and integrated support materials that supported excellence in all three of these aspects of educ ation. Even

more importantly, we wanted to develop tools that would really work.

Accordingly, we designed the book and support materials based on the

latest psychological research about the pedagogical practices that facilitate teach-

ing, learning, and making improvements.

PREFACE FoR TEACHERS

viii    ■    PREFACE

TEACHING LEARNING

IMPROVING

PREFACE    ■    ix

Great Teaching Improves Learning Providing support to both teachers and students is more important than ever because both teachers and students are experiencing a “perfect storm” of chal- lenges. Teachers must teach more students in a wider variety of course formats, support learning in many different students, and figure out how to assess student learning. Often, we must achieve these goals with fewer resources, less support, and little training. While students can sometimes learn without teachers, great teaching improves student learning. All teachers, from the most experienced to the novice, can use a helping hand to support their students’ learning. Psychology in Your Life supports teachers in two main ways.

First, Teachers Have Easy access to Materials that Are Aligned with the 

Learning Goals They Have Chosen for Their Students Teachers’ goals for their students differ, based on the school, the students, and the teachers’ philoso- phies about teaching and learning (Kang, 2008). For example, individual teachers choose which content goals to focus on and which student skills to help develop, including cognitive skills such as application, writing, critical thinking, or scien- tific thinking (American Psychological Association, 2013; Anderson, 2002; Dunn, Halonen, & Smith, 2009). When using the Psychology in Your Life support package, teachers can focus on the learning goals and skills that are most relevant for their students. They can then use the corresponding pedagogical resources. Our rich bank of tools draws on our combined 75 years of teaching introductory psychology, and we know these tools work because we have overseen their development. The resources we offer—Active Learning PowerPoint lecture slides, Demonstration Videos for Students, in-class activities, clicker questions, discussion topics, video clip suggestions, and more—are tagged in the online repository by chapter, section, and learning goal, so teachers can easily search for resources related to specific learning goals and skill development. What’s more, these resources have been designed to be used flexibly in either face-to-face or online learning environments.

Second,  Teachers  Receive  Support  at  All  Levels  of  Experience We remember the dread we felt when we began to teach with few or no support materials. In response, we created Teaching Videos. Filmed in Sarah Grison’s home office, these clips offer brief observations to less experienced teachers about the concepts that students tend to find challenging. In presenting strategies for overcoming these chal- lenges (Buskist & Groccia, 2012), our videos refer to specific pedagogical supports in the textbook as well as to resources in the instructor support materials. Mean- while, even as experienced teachers, we still find ourselves hunting for new ways to engagingly demonstrate concepts. To address this need, we created Demonstration Videos for Teachers. These clips provide step-by-step instructions for doing in-class demonstrations of 30 important concepts found in the textbook. Printed summaries describe the materials, including handouts, needed to perform the demonstrations.

active Engagement Improves Learning Many students face obstacles to learning. They may find it difficult to absorb complex information. They may simply never have been taught how to learn. Students also vary in their desire to learn as well as what motivates them to engage with material. In addition, students often have limited time and money, so they have to strategize about engaging with material effectively and efficiently. Psychology in Your Life encour- ages students in two main ways.

TEACHING

LEARNING

x    ■    PREFACE

First, the Book and Ebook Encourage Students to Engage in Active Reading 

Processes Successful learning is goal-directed (American Psychological Associa- tion, 2013; Toukuhama-Espinosa, 2011). For this reason, each section of each chapter of Psychology in Your Life starts with learning goals that indicate what students should learn in that section. With other textbooks, students may not actually do anything with such goals. Perhaps they highlight key words or reread text passages, but these activi- ties are not effective learning techniques (Dunlosky et al., 2013). To encourage active use of our learning goals, we have paired each learning goal with a reading activity. In writing answers to reading activities associated with learning goals, the students will begin to remember, understand, and apply the concepts. Teachers can collect the students’ answers for a grade or even just check that they are completed, because low- stakes writing assignments like these can help learning (Elbow & Sorcinelli, 2005).

Second,  the  Book  and  Ebook  Give  Students  Many  Different  Ways  to 

Actively  Work  with  the  Material  Learning is enhanced when we relate new information to what we already know and when we ask why a particular thing happens (Dunlosky, et al., 2013; Toukuhama-Espinosa, 2011). Throughout each chapter of Psychology in Your Life, students can engage with activities. These active learning features are the Has It Happened to You?, Try It Yourself, Being a Critical Consumer, Scientific Thinking, and Using Psychology in Your Life boxes. Some of the features reinforce the book’s content, some help foster critical thinking, and others help relate the book’s content and critical thinking to the students’ lives. All of these features will help students learn and apply the material.

Practice Makes Perfect Most students need to work with material to master it and to demonstrate

their learning. Using multiple tools to distribute learning over time will maximize student learning (Cepeda et al., 2006). Accordingly, Psychol- ogy in Your Life includes two main ways for students to practice with the material over time and to get feedback on their performance, which will

improve their learning.

First, Students Can Repeatedly Practice with the Material by Using 

the inQuizitive and ZAPS 2.0 interactive Learning Tools Repeated prac- tice improves learning (Dunlosky et al., 2013; Toukuhama-Espinosa, 2011). When students get rich feedback about their answers, their learning is further enhanced (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). InQuizitive is a formative, adaptive homework tool that provides students with different types of interactive questions so they can work with the concepts and receive feedback about their answers. Students who earn higher scores on homework tools of this kind tend to obtain higher scores on exams (Regan, 2015). In addition, ZAPS 2.0, the online, interactive psychology research labs, allow students to engage in activities that simulate psychological research from the perspective of the participant or the researcher. By using ZAPS 2.0, students will experience the scientific method for themselves and hone their scientific thinking skills. These tools are discussed in further detail below.

Second,  Students  Can  Test  Themselves  on  the  Concepts  in  Several 

Ways Students need fast and simple ways to quiz themselves on their learning immediately after reading material in a textbook. Repeated testing lets students reaccess remembered information. Such reaccessing enhances learning (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) and promotes transfer of the information to new situations using the concepts (Carpenter, 2012). Accordingly, the textbook and the ebook provide an

IMPROVING

PREFACE    ■    xi

appendix of self-quizzes, with one for each chapter. The answers are given for all the questions, and each question is associated with a specific learning goal in the chapter, so students can easily see which goals they have and have not mastered, then return to the appropriate sections of the text to review material. Lastly, teach- ers have the option of providing short pre-lecture and post-lecture quizzes to their students from the Norton Coursepack, a bank of multiple-choice questions that can be easily housed in any learning management system. Indeed, research shows that pre-lecture quizzes have learning benefits, including improved scores on later exams (Narloch, Garbin, & Turnage, 2006).

Introducing the Second Edition of Psychology in Your Life Because Psychology in Your Life is informed by evidence-based principles that help teachers support student learning, we need to continually update the book and the teaching support materials to reflect new research findings. Our pedagogi- cal input comes from psychology teachers who are using the materials, including Sarah Grison and her colleagues at Parkland College. Guided by the latest under- standings of teaching, learning, and improving, the second edition of Psychology in Your Life has been updated in several important ways.

A New Chapter on Sex, Gender, and Sexuality In the past few years, we have seen extraordinary and rapid advances in our psychological understanding of what biological sex is, how we come to understand our gender identity, and how biological sex and gender identity differ from sexual orientation. Accordingly, our new chap- ter—Chapter 10, “Sex, Gender, and Sexuality”—presents the most recent psycho- logical research on these topics, especially with respect to the biological bases of sexual orientation. Our approach is simultaneously informative about concepts that students may be unfamiliar with and sensitive toward people who may personally identify with the material. We also help students connect with the material by relat- ing it to current events. In addition, all of the teaching support materials for the new chapter have been developed by the authors and other experienced teachers who teach this material regularly. After reading this chapter and working with the active learning materials, students should understand, among other things, why biological sex, gender, and sexual orientation are different concepts that exist on a continuum.

Every Chapter Has Been Revised and Updated Comments from review- ers, our teaching colleagues, and our students have helped us ensure that every chapter in the textbook is as accurate and compelling as possible. First, we added information on topics that are important in the field of psychology. Second, we cited the most recent psychological research for the topics discussed in each chap- ter. Third, we added active learning to two of the book’s pedagogical features: The Scientific Thinking and Being a Critical Consumer boxes now include questions for students to think about and answer, either as homework or while in class. Fourth, we worked to enhance student comprehension in some places by reorganizing the content, changing the phrasing, and/or redesigning the graphics. Fifth, we updated the references to popular culture to keep our discussions and images fresh. Finally, we revised the teaching support materials so they align perfectly with the changes in the textbook. As a result of these changes, this new edition of Psychology in Your Life provides both teachers and students with the best, most up-to date informa- tion on psychological research and current events related to psychology, along with excellent new interactive ways for students to engage with the material.

xii    ■    PREFACE

Here is a chapter-by-chapter list of notable changes in this second edition:

1. Introducing the World of Psychology

•  Added humanistic psychology as an influential psychological school of thought

•  Clarified the cycle of the scientific method to include information on how to do a literature review

2. The Role of Biology in Psychology

•  Added information about the electrical properties of the neuron and action potentials

•  Clarified what happens to neurotransmitters that don’t bind to dendritic receptors

•  Included information on hemispheric specialization

3. Consciousness •  Reorganized the information about

consciousness in split-brain patients •  Simplified the graphics related

to electrical activity in the brain during sleep

•  Updated information about the effects of drugs on consciousness to include clinical applications of certain drugs (such as MDMA for treatment of PTSD)

10. Sex, Gender, and Sexuality •  New!

11. Health and Well-Being •  Added new information about

health effects of e-cigarettes •  Added a section on health impacts

of sexually transmitted infections • Added information about positive

impacts of exercising more, quitting smoking, and practicing safer sex

12. Social Psychology •  Explained how group membership

influences competition and cooperation

•  Added new information about modern racism

•  Clarified the information about bystander apathy surrounding the Kitty Genovese story

4. Development Across the Lifespan

•  Made the chapter shorter, more relevant, and easier to digest

•  Created a Being a Critical Consumer feature exploring whether educational media helps infants learn to talk

•  Designed a figure for Kohlberg’s levels of moral development

•  Added new research on how physical exercise can mediate cognitive decline in people as they age

5.  Sensation and Perception •  Changed content to ensure that

students understand wavelengths and how they differ from frequencies

•  Clarified the function of smell receptors in olfaction

•  Added information about the perception of pain according to gate control theory

6. Learning •  Included updated information

about the debate on what happened to “Little Albert,” the infant in John Watson’s classical conditioning research

•  Changed the Try It Yourself feature to help students practice using operant conditioning with a pet

•  Added examples of negative reinforcement that students are likely to have experienced

7. Memory •  Added information about taking

notes on laptops, which affects how students pay attention to and remember information from class

•  Clarified the research on how suggestibility affects memory

•  Included research on false memories to complete the section on memory distortion

8. Thinking and Intelligence •  Streamlined and clarified the

presentation of how we think about concepts

•  Updated the table that presents the various models of how we think about concepts

•  Created a new Using Psychology in Your Life feature about making major decisions

 9. Motivation and Emotion •  Reorganized parts of the chapter so

the first section focuses on theories of motivation and the second focuses on specific motivations

•  Added material on how grit helps people achieve long-term goals

•  Added a new figure on the biological motivations related to hunger

PREFACE    ■    xiii

inquizitive  Homework  Tool Research shows that repeatedly practicing with material promotes learning. As a major step toward helping students practice, we are delighted to offer InQuizitive with the new edition. This formative, adaptive homework tool is designed to motivate students to engage with the concepts in a gamelike environment. In particular, the tool provides interactive questions of many styles (drag and drop, matching, etc.) to encourage students to work with the material. The tool also provides formative feedback not just on the correctness of answers, but also on the thought processes that a student most likely got wrong, and it links students with the concepts in the ebook so they can check their understand- ing of ideas. Finally, the tool is formative because it adapts to any concepts a student got wrong to provide additional questions, and practice, on the topics. InQuizitive was designed based on psychological research about how students learn, and the tool has been tested in the classroom to obtain direct evidence of its impact on learn- ing and indirect evidence about students’ attitudes toward it. Because teachers can easily access the student data from InQuizitive, they can flexibly tailor their classes to provide support for the concepts that students find most challenging. New! ZAPS 2.0 For those teachers who place a priority on helping students under- stand psychology as a science, and the scientific method used in psychological research, we now offer the opportunity to use ZAPS 2.0. This tool gives students a taste of what psychological research is like by letting them engage with interesting online experi- ments in a hands-on fashion. Across over 20 core psychological concepts, students get the opportunity to act as a participant and as a researcher to create and gather data from these labs, explore results, and share their findings. To reach these goals, each interactive lab has four parts: a brief video introduction to a concept presented in the text, an experiment or experience in which the student generates data based on her responses, an analysis of the data generated by the student and peers, and an examination of the theory behind the concept. To support teachers using ZAPS 2.0, each lab includes an instructors’ kit with ideas about how best to align the lab with the content in Psychology in Your Life. The instructor’s kit also offers ideas and materials to help students use and learn from the data produced in the lab.

Using Evidence-Based Teaching and Learning to Improve Educational Experiences Psychology in Your Life provides a unique pedagogical system, supporting teach- ing skills and student learning while providing ways to get evidence about educa- tional outcomes. We have spent several years working hard to make this vision into a reality. Now we give the new and improved Psychology in Your Life to you, so that these tools might help support learning in your students, and so that students can learn from you in the best way possible.

13. Self and Personality •  Clarified the three aspects of the

reciprocal determinism theory of personality

•  Created a new figure showing how traits are best understood as a continuum ranging from very low to very high on certain characteristics

•  Changed the section on objective measures to focus primarily on self-report tools used to investigate personality, such as questionnaires

14. Psychological Disorders • Ensured the chapter is consistent

with changes made in DSM-5 • Clarified the graphics showing

depressed and elevated moods in bipolar disorders

15. Psychological Treatments • Added information about historical

approaches to the treatment of psychological disorders

• Included new approaches to treating bipolar disorders with antipsychotic drugs

• Clarified new research showing that use of higher doses of SSRIs are associated with suicide attempts in adolescents who have depression

xiv    ■    ACKNoWLEDGMENTS

ACKNoWLEDGMENTS

Like teaching and learning, writing a textbook and developing unique and inte- grated educational tools for teachers and students are joint efforts. Our work to support teachers and students in Psychology in Your Life has depended so much on the support that we received in the years we have been engrossed in this proj- ect. First, we wish to thank our families for their unwavering support. Our spouses and significant others have been incredibly understanding and generous when we repeatedly worked through family vacations. And our children and grandchildren have patiently waited for us to finish working on the days when they wanted to spend time with us. We are very grateful to each of you.

It has been our good fortune to have been joined by so many talented individ- uals during the process of developing and revising Psychology in Your Life. We are extremely grateful to our colleagues who lent their expertise in psychology to writing material for the textbook. Carrie V. Smith, at the University of Missis- sippi, wrote the Being a Critical Consumer features. She’s an excellent teacher, and her efforts will help train students to be educated consumers of information. Debra Mashek, at Harvey Mudd College, wrote the Using Psychology in Your Life features. Her engaging and insightful voice will help students use psychology to improve their own lives. We thank Beth Morling, at the University of Delaware, for her expert advice on our research methods coverage. Tasha R. Howe, at Humboldt State University, contributed material to our development chapter. We are very grateful to Ines Segert, at the University of Missouri, for offering advice about each chapter and checking the accuracy of the text, figures, captions, and InQuizitive questions. We are also very grateful to the faculty, graduate students, and under- graduates at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Many of the teaching and learning principles we used in Psychology in Your Life were inspired by the teaching of Dr. Sandra Goss Lucas, who has spent many years training graduate students in pedagogical best practices. In addition, many of the teaching practices used in this book have been empirically tested with the undergraduate students in introductory psychology, who helped us learn more about what helped them learn and what did not.

Most importantly, we wish to thank all of the psychology teachers at Parkland College, and the graduate student teachers and researchers from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, for sharing with us their knowledge of psychological concepts and of evidence-based teaching and learning pedagogies. It is only with their expertise that we have been able to develop and update the materials to support teachers’ skills in the Interactive Instructor’s Guide and student learning in Norton Smartwork and in the Test Bank. In particular, Travis Sola, Crystal Carlson, Gene- vieve Henricks, Rachel Smallman, Angela Isaacs, and Lauren Bohn Gibson, we thank you. Your dedication to our mission, boundless energy, and drive for excellence are truly inspirational. Daniel Kolen, you are a fast learner about psychology, and

ACKNoWLEDGMENTS    ■    xv

your keen eye and production talent have perfected our video materials to support students and teachers. You are a true gem in your profession, and we are grateful to call you one of us—a member of “The Team.”

Reviewers  and  Advisors  for  Our  New  Chapter  on  Sex,  Gender,  and 

 Sexuality Recently there have been vast developments in the psychological understanding of biological sex, gender, and sexuality. In addition, these topics are incredibly relevant to students today. Given both of these facts, we wanted to create a chapter that both reflects the best scientific knowledge and will have a lasting impact on students. In achieving this goal, we worked closely with several research experts in the field and with teachers who have had extraordinary success in engaging students with this complex material. We thank all of these people, listed below, for their excellent guidance, which helped us create a chapter founded in psychological research and representing the most current thinking on the topics.

Paul Abramson, University of California, Los Angeles John H. Bickford Jr., University of Massachusetts Amherst Diana Ciesko, Valencia Community College Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville Sarah Estow, Guilford College Rebecca Gazzaniga, University of California, Santa Barbara Jerry Green, Tarrant County College District Marissa A. Harrison, Pennsylvania State University, Harrisburg Benetha Jackson, Angelina College Tyson Keiger, Utica College Marianne LaFrance, Yale University Sadie Leder-Elder, High Point University

Stefanie Mitchell, San Jacinto College Ronn Newby, Des Moines Area Community College Patricia Schiml, Wright State University Peggy Skinner, South Plains College Margot Underwood, Joliet Junior College Lisa Wade, Occidental College Rebecca Walker-Sands, Central Oregon Community College Christopher Warren, California State University, Long Beach Matthew Webster, Blinn College Glenda Williams, Lone Star College Andrea Zabel, Midland College

Focus Group Participants We were guided and advised by fun, insightful, and committed introductory psychology teachers who attended several focus groups in Chicago; Houston; Washington, D.C.; St. Pete Beach; and Reno. They all read chap- ters, gave advice about level and detail, and helped to hone the look, feel, and content of the book and support program. We extend a special thank you to Laura Hebert, at Angelina College, for consulting her class several times to help us choose the best possible title for the textbook. We also thank Gregg Gold, at Humboldt State, for his excellent accuracy checking of an early version of the learning chapter. And we extend a special thank you to the Washington, D.C., focus group members/Mike Gazzaniga lunch club for the lively discussion on teaching, split-brain research, and life in general.

Reviewers The chapters were thoroughly reviewed as they moved through the editorial and production process over two editions. Reviewers included star teach- ers who checked for issues such as level, detail, pacing, and readability, all of which support student comprehension. Reviewers also included experts who checked for scientific accuracy and helped us find the right balance of correctness, clarity, and conciseness. Our reviewers showed extraordinary attention to detail and under- standing of the student experience. We are grateful to all the reviewers listed here. Their efforts reflect a deep commitment to excellence in psychology and in teaching students about the importance and applicability of our field.

xvi    ■    ACKNoWLEDGMENTS

Paul Abramson, University of California, Los Angeles

Arthur Alguin, Santa Barbara City College

Carol Anderson, Bellevue College

Nicole Arduini–Van Hoose, Hudson Valley Community College

Michelle Bannoura, Hudson Valley Community College

Nicole Barbari, Chaffey College

Holly Beard, Midlands Technical College

Dan Bellack, Trident Technical College

Richard Bernstein, Broward College

John H. Bickford Jr., University of Massachusetts Amherst

David Biek, Middle Georgia State University

Carol Borden, Saint Cloud State University

Allison Burton-Chase, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences

Bernardo Carducci, Indiana University Southeast

Pamela Case, Richmond Community College

Diana Ciesko, Valencia Community College

Scott Cohn, Western State Colorado University Kevin Conner, Liberty University Barbara Corbisier, Blinn College Andrew Corr, Kirkwood Community College, Iowa City Campus Dale Doty, Monroe Community College Gina Dow, Denison College Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville Sarah Estow, Guilford College Laura Flewelling, Johnston Community College Shannon Gadbois, Brandon University Andrew C. Gallup, SUNY, College at Oneonta Rebecca Gazzaniga, University of California, Santa Barbara Gregg Gold, Humboldt State University Jeffrey Green, Virginia Commonwealth University Jerry Green, Tarrant County College District Christine L. Grela, McHenry County College

Christine Harrington, Middlesex County College Marissa A. Harrison, Pennsylvania State University,

Harrisburg

Laura Hebert, Angelina College

Byron Heidenreich, Illinois State University Carmon Hicks, Ivy Tech Community College Northeast

Tasha Howe, Humboldt State University

Karin Hu, City College of San Francisco

Sandra Hunt, College of Staten Island

Malgorzata Ilkowska, Georgia Institute of Technology Benetha Jackson, Angelina College

Mike James, Ivy Tech Community College Northeast

Mary Johannesen-Schmidt, Oakton Community College Jennifer Johnson, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania

Jeffrey Jourdan, Ivy Tech Community College Northeast Tyson Keiger, Utica College Deborah P. Kelley, Tyler Junior College Patricia Kemerer, Ivy Tech Community College Northeast Lynnel Kiely, Harold Washington College Andrew Kim, Citrus College Yuthika Kim, Oklahoma City Community College Karen Kwan, Salt Lake Community College Marianne LaFrance, Yale University Sadie Leder-Elder, High Point University Katie W. Lewis, Pensacola State College Sheryl Leytham, Grand View University Debbie Ma, California State University, Northridge Pam Marek, Kennesaw State University Diane Martichuski, University of Colorado Boulder Randall Martinez, Cypress College Daniel McConnell, University of Central Florida Matthias Mehl, University of Arizona Stefanie Mitchell, San Jacinto College Ronn Newby, Des Moines Area Community College Erikson Neilsan, University at Buffalo Victoria Noriega, University of Miami Arthur Olguin, Santa Barbara City College David Payne, Wallace Community College Jeffrey J. Pedroza, Santa Ana College Carin Rubenstein, Pima Community College Patricia Schiml, Wright State University Randi Shedlosky-Shoemaker, York College of Pennsylvania Aya Shigeto, Nova Southeastern University Matt Shively, Wright State University Staci Simmelink-Johnson, Walla Walla Community College Nancy Simpson, Trident Technical College Peggy Skinner, South Plains College Latishia Smith, Ivy Tech Community College Margot Underwood, Joliet Junior College Lisa Wade, Occidental College Rebecca Walker-Sands, Central Oregon Community College Christopher Warren, California State University, Long Beach Martha Weaver, Dallas Country Community College Marti Weaver, Eastfield College Matthew Webster, Blinn College Nambrath Rajkumari Wesley, Brookdale Community College John William “Jay” Wright, Washington State University Glenda Williams, Lone Star College Keith Williams, Oakland University Andrea Zabel, Midland College Anna Clare Zaborowski, San Jacinto College, Central

ACKNoWLEDGMENTS    ■    xvii

The  Norton  Team  To realize a vision, you must take a first step. For Psychol- ogy in Your Life, the first step was a leap of faith, when W. W. Norton & Co. saw the possibilities of what this project could bring to teachers and students. As the oldest and largest independent publishing company, Norton has created some of the best- respected and iconic books in modern times. The excellence of these works makes Norton stand out as a beacon among publishers. Because the company is wholly owned by its employees, the employees are the heart and soul of this excellence.

Psychology in Your Life exists because of the extraordinary contributions of so many people at Norton. At the top of the list is Sheri Snavely, the editor of Psychology in Your Life. When Sarah and Sheri first discussed this project, many publishing companies were interested in taking a new approach to developing evidence-based educational products. While representatives from many companies wanted to hear about this proj- ect, Sheri wanted to learn about it through experience. She asked to sit in on Sarah’s introductory psychology class. No one from another company had asked to do that, but Sheri needed to see if Sarah was a teacher who actually “walked the walk” of support- ing student learning in class. That hands-on approach enabled Sheri to see the value in the vision. Sheri’s leadership and guidance have provided a constant star to keep us oriented in the right direction. She has our utter gratitude, respect, and admiration.

One of our key goals for this textbook was providing appropriate, accurate, and engaging information about psychology while supporting students’ abilities to understand the material. The developmental editor for the second edition, Kurt Wildermuth, helped us make the text accessible while maintaining the integrity of the content. He then carried the chapters through the many stages from manu- script editing to publication. Kurt mentored us through these processes, and he should be knighted for his sage advice, expertise, and patience.

Most textbooks have media components. The new vision for the electronic media in Psychology in Your Life is the brainchild of Patrick Shriner, electronic media editor extraordinaire. Patrick’s expertise and creativity helped guide us in crafting many new tools to support teachers’ skills, including the development of the Interactive Instructor’s Guide and the creation of original Demonstration Videos for Students, Demonstration Videos for Teachers, and Teaching Videos. Patrick and the amaz- ing associate media editor, Stefani Wallace, worked tirelessly with us to design all aspects of the ebook; Integrated Instructor’s Guide; InQuizitive online formative, adaptive homework tool; and Test Bank around the core learning goals in the text- book. The end result of these long hours of joint work is something remarkable: media that is part of an integrated package, connected to all aspects of Psychology in Your Life. Behind the scenes, editorial assistant Eve Sanoussi, assistant editor Scott Sugarman, and media assistant Alex Trivilino ensured that these many processes went smoothly. Their intelligence and organizational abilities helped guide us through invigorating and informative focus groups with talented teachers, rigorous reviewing and accuracy checking, and assembling the media support package.

One of the greatest joys in developing Psychology in Your Life has been work- ing with Lauren Winkler, our energetic and creative marketing manager. Lauren helped us convert an abstract vision to an easily communicated reality. She has a natural instinct for explaining complex ideas in simple terms, and her attention to detail in pursuing this goal through two editions is unwavering. Norton’s sales managers, representatives, and specialists are truly invested in supporting teachers and students. Their expertise, insight, and mission focus make them extraordinary advocates for excellence in education.

Finally, we want to thank the teachers we have met at conferences and meetings, where we have exchanged ideas about challenges in teaching and how to address those challenges. By contributing to the ideas behind Psychology in Your Life, those teachers have become part of the extended Norton family.

xviii    ■    LETTER To STUDENTS

Welcome to introductory psychology! It seems like just yesterday when we, the authors of this textbook, began studying psychology. Those experiences opened up a whole new world of amazing facts and insights, exciting questions and investiga- tions. We hope that you experience this same excitement during your introduction to psychology. This book will help you along that path.

Psychology is everywhere, affecting every second of your life. Regardless of your goals—whether you plan to be a psychology major, pursue a different bachelor’s degree, get an associate’s degree, or earn a professional certificate—in this book and in your class you can learn information that will change your life for the better.

Learning about psychology can positively affect your life in three main ways. First, if you plan to study psychology, the content that you learn in this book will provide a solid foundation for success in later psychology courses. Second, what you will learn in this book and your class can influence your personal life. The concepts discussed here will help you know yourself better; understand your family members, friends, and people you encounter; and improve your relationships. Third, taking this class will help you develop academic skills. Many topics in psychology directly translate into skills that you can use to improve your studying. Look out especially for the discussions of attention, memory, and learning.

Of course, in order for you to get these benefits from this book and the class, you must engage in the learning process. In short, you need to perform activities that help you practice with the concepts. These simple tips will increase your active learning:

1.  Actively work with your teacher. Read the syllabus for your class. Meet with your teacher. Get to know your teacher’s goals for your learning—what the instructor believes students must do to succeed in the class.

2.  Actively read the textbook. The best time to read the book is a few days before going to class. The best way to read is not by merely taking in the words or highlighting important ones. How many times have you thought, “Wait—what did I just read?” Instead, make reading an active process by writing out answers to the reading activities at the start of each section of the book. Bring your answers to class, and ask questions about any topics that are unclear to you.

3.  Actively participate in class. Merely sitting in class does not ensure that you are learning! Instead, actively pay attention by working with the material. Take notes on what your teacher says, then ask for access to any visual materials the teacher uses (such as PowerPoint slides), and check your notes against your teachers’ materials after class. Always write out your own examples of the major ideas because doing so helps learning.

LETTER To STUDENTS

LETTER To STUDENTS    ■    xix

4.  Repeatedly practice with the material. You can practice with the concepts in several ways. For example, you should take the self-quiz for each chapter in Appendix B at the back of this book and check your answers. Also, view your teachers’ quizzes as opportunities to practice. If your teacher is using InQuizitive—the online formative, adaptive homework tool—then you should complete all the assigned activities. You will be amazed at how much you will learn!

5.  Practice good test-taking skills. Most of us get nervous about taking tests. However, with the right study strategy and a positive attitude, taking tests is not that bad! The most important thing to do is space your learning out through the term. As you read the book, practice with the concepts inside and outside class. This way, you maximize how memory works. Don’t cram your studying into one or two nights before a test. Not only is cramming a bad way to remember things, but it will reduce the amount of sleep you get, and (as you’ll learn later in this book) adequate sleep is vital for remember- ing material you study. In addition, think about each test as a challenge—for example, as a way to show what you know. Thinking of a test as a threat will only stress you out more. Try to get to the test early, relax, and think positive thoughts. As you read the questions carefully, underline the key parts of each one. Read every answer and map each one back onto what you underlined to see if that answer fits or not. By slowly and thoroughly processing informa- tion, you can calmly and clearly make your way through the test.

As writers, we hope that you enjoy reading this book. As researchers, we hope you come to appreciate how fascinating psychology is. And as teachers, we hope you understand how relevant this material is to your daily life. If you come away from this class thinking about psychology in your life, then we will have achieved a great goal. And if you might want to major in psychology, or even look toward a profession in the field, then we will feel lucky to have you among us.

Have fun! Learn things.

Sarah Grison    Todd F. Heatherton    Michael S. Gazzaniga

xx    ■    CoNTENTS

Preface for Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Letter to Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii

1 Introducing the World of Psychology . . . . . . . . . .2 1.1 Why Is Psychology Important to You? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Psychology Explains our Mental Activity and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Psychology Teaches Us to Think Critically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

LEARNiNG TiP:  Developing Critical Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Psychology Helps Us Succeed in School and at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  How Can Psychology Help Me Study? . . . 9

1.2 What do Psychologists Investigate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Psychology originated in Philosophical Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Psychologists Investigate the Conscious and Unconscious Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Psychologists Explore Behavior and Mental Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3 Who are Psychologists Today? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Psychologists Work Across Levels of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Psychologists Investigate Many Different Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Psychologists Today Follow Strict Ethical Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.4 How do Psychologists Conduct Research? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Psychologists Use the Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Descriptive Methods Describe What Is Happening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  The Hawthorne Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Correlational Methods Test Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

LEARNiNG TiP:  Problems Determining Causality in Correlational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Does Spanking Cause Long-Term Harm? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Experimental Methods Test Causation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

LEARNiNG TiP:  Dependent and Independent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

CoNTENTS

CoNTENTS    ■    xxi

2 The Role of Biology in Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.1 How do Our Nervous Systems affect

Thinking and Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Neurons Are the Basic Units of our Nervous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Action Potentials Allow Neurons to Communicate With Each other . . . . . . . . . . . 43

LEARNiNG TiP:  Communication From Presynaptic Neuron to Postsynaptic Neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Neurotransmitters Influence our Mental Activity and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.2 How do the Parts of Our Brains Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Understanding of our Brains Has Developed over Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 The Hindbrain and Midbrain House Basic Programs for our Survival . . . . . . . . . . . 52

LEARNiNG TiP:  Processing in the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Forebrain Subcortical Structures Control our Motivations and Emotions . . . . 54 The Cerebral Cortex of the Forebrain Processes our Complex Mental Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  What Are the Facts About Brains and “Handedness”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

2.3 How do Our Brains Communicate With Our Bodies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 our Somatic Nervous System Detects Sensory Input and Responds . . . . . . . . . . . 63 our Autonomic Nervous System Regulates the Body Automatically . . . . . . . . . . . 64

LEARNiNG TiP:  Remembering the Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 The Endocrine System Affects our Behavior Through Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

2.4 How do Nature and Nurture affect Our Brains? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Genes Affect our Thoughts and Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Genes Interact With Environment to Influence Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Environment Changes our Brains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  How Can I overcome a Learning Disability and Succeed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

3 Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.1 What does It Mean to Be Conscious? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Consciousness Is a Subjective Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 LEARNiNG TiP:  Understanding Subjectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

There Are Different Levels of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Unconscious Processing Sometimes Affects Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Brain Activity Gives Rise to Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  The Relationship Between Consciousness and Brain Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.2 How does Sleep affect Consciousness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Sleep Is Part of the Normal Rhythm of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Consciousness Changes During Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

LEARNiNG TiP:  Understanding Brain Activity During Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 People Dream While Sleeping   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Sleep Is an Adaptive Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Sleep Disorders Are Relatively Common Throughout Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  How Can I Develop Better Sleep Habits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Is the Sleeping Brain Ever Really Asleep? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.3 What Is an altered State of Consciousness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 There Are Different Altered States of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Hypnosis Can Produce Changes in Perception, Memory, and Action . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Meditation Affects Cognitive Processing and Brain Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Flow Activities Can Lead to Altered Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

3.4 How do drugs alter Consciousness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 People Use—and Abuse—Many Psychoactive Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Addiction Has Physical and Psychological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4 development across the Life Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 4.1 How do We develop in the Womb? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Prenatal Development Includes Three Phases of Physical Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Substances Affect Prenatal Development in All Three Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

LEARNiNG TiP:  Types of Teratogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

4.2 How do Infants and Children develop Over Time? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Infants and Children Change Physically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Infants and Children Change Socially and Emotionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Attachment Is Due to Providing Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Infants and Children Change Cognitively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

LEARNiNG TiP:  Assimilation and Accommodation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Language Develops in an orderly Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Can My Baby Learn to Talk by Watching Educational Media? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4.3 How do adolescents develop? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Adolescents Develop Physically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Adolescents Develop Socially and Emotionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Adolescents Develop Cognitively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  Bullying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

LEARNiNG TiP:  Applying Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development . . 144

4.4 How do We develop in adulthood? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 our Bodies Change in Adulthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Adults Develop Lifelong Social and Emotional Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 The Mental Abilities of Adults Begin to Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

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CoNTENTS    ■    xxiii

5 Sensation and Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.1 How do Sensation and Perception affect Us? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

our Senses Detect Physical Stimuli, and our Brains Process Perception . . . . . 157 There Must Be a Certain Amount of a Stimulus for Us to Detect It . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

5.2 How do We See? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Sensory Receptors in our Eyes Detect Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 We Perceive Color Based on Physical Aspects of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 We Perceive objects by organizing Visual Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

LEARNiNG TiP:  Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 When We Perceive Depth, We Can Locate objects in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Cues in our Brains and in the World Allow Us to Perceive Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

5.3 How do We Hear? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Auditory Receptors in our Ears Detect Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  Hearing Deficiencies From Listening to Loud Music With Ear Buds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 We Perceive Sound Based on Physical Aspects of Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

5.4 How Can We Taste and Smell? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Receptors in our Taste Buds Detect Chemical Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Infant Taste Preferences Affected by Mother’s Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 our olfactory Receptors Detect odorants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Sniffing out the Truth About Smell and Memory Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

5.5 How do We Feel Touch and Pain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Receptors in our Skin Detect Temperature and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 We Detect Pain in our Skin and Throughout the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

LEARNiNG TiP:  Fast and Slow Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Internal Sensory Systems Help Us Function in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

6 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 6.1 What are the Three Ways We Learn? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

We Learn From Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 We Learn in Three Ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

LEARNiNG TiP:  Types of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 The Brain Changes During Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

6.2 How do We Learn by Classical Conditioning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related . . . . . . . . . 200

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal Learning by Classical Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

LEARNiNG TiP:  Understanding Classical Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

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6.3 How do We Learn by Operant Conditioning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Animals Learn Through the outcomes of Their Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Learning Varies in operant Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Reinforcement and Punishment Influence operant Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

LEARNiNG TiP:  Four Types of Reinforcement and Punishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 LEARNiNG TiP:  Four Schedules of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

operant Conditioning Affects our Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  Can Behavior Modification Help You Exercise Regularly? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Biology and Cognition Influence operant Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

6.4 How do We Learn by Watching Others? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Three Ways We Learn Through Watching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Bandura’s Bobo Doll Studies Reveal observational Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Watching others Results in Cultural Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Does Watching Violent Media Cause Aggressive Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Biology Influences observational Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

7 Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 7.1 How do We acquire Memories? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

We Acquire Memories by Processing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Attention Allows Us to Encode a Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Selective Attention Allows Us to Filter Unwanted Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Change Blindness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

7.2 How do We Maintain Memories Over Time? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Sensory Storage Allows Us to Maintain Information Very Briefly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Working Memory Allows Us to Actively Maintain Information in Short-Term Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Long-Term Storage Allows Us to Maintain Memories Relatively Permanently . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 our Long-Term Storage Is organized Based on Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

7.3 What are Our different Long-Term Storage Systems? . . . . . . . 247 LEARNiNG TiP:  Remembering the Types of Memory in

Long-Term Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 our Explicit Memories Involve Conscious Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 our Implicit Memories Function Without Conscious Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Prospective Memory Lets Us Remember to Do Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Memory Is Processed by Several Regions of our Brains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Can That Memory Be Erased? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

7.4 How do We access Our Memories? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Retrieval Cues Help Us Access our Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

LEARNiNG TiP:  Remembering the Ways We Access Stored Memories . . . . . . .257 We Forget Some of our Memories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  How Can I Remember Information for Exams? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 our Unwanted Memories May Persist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

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our Memories Can Be Distorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

8 Thinking and Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 8.1 What Is Thinking? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

Thinking Is the Manipulation of Mental Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Thinking Depends on Categorization of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Preschoolers’ Stereotypes About Adult Drinking and Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

8.2 How do We Make decisions and Solve Problems? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277 How We Think Biases Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 We Solve Problems to Achieve Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  How Can I Be Satisfied with Big Decisions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 We overcome obstacles to Solve Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

8.3 What Is Intelligence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 one General Factor May Underlie Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 There May Be Multiple Aspects of Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Are Criminals Less Intelligent Than other People? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Intelligence Is a Result of Genes and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

8.4 How do We Measure Intelligence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Intelligence Is Assessed With Psychometric Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

LEARNiNG TiP:  Validity and Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Intelligence Is Associated With Cognitive Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Many Factors Determine Group Differences in Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

9 Motivation and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 9.1 What Motivates Our Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Many Factors Influence Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Some Behaviors Are Motivated for Their own Sake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

9.2 What Motivates Eating, the Need to Belong, and the Need for achievement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Many Biological Systems Motivate Eating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

LEARNiNG TiP:  Biological Mechanisms That Motivate Eating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Eating Is Influenced by Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 We Have a Need to Belong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 We Have a Need to Achieve Long-Term Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE: How Can You Satisfy a Need to Belong? . . . 321

9.3 How do We Experience Emotions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 There Are Three Major Theories of Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

LEARNiNG TiP:  Three Theories of Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Both Body and Brain Are Important for Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Human Lie Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 We Regulate our Emotional States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

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9.4 How do Emotions affect Us? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 We Interpret Emotions in Facial Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Facial Expressions Across Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 our Display of Emotion Varies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Emotions Influence our Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Emotions Strengthen our Interpersonal Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

10 Sex, Gender, and Sexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 10.1 How does Biology Make Us Male or Female? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Genetics and Hormones Influence Biological Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 LEARNiNG TiP:  Five Aspects of Biological Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Biological Sex Is Also Reflected in our Brains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Biological Sex Is Not Always Clear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

10.2 Why do We act Masculine or Feminine? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 We Create Mental Categories of What Is Masculine and What Is Feminine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Gender Roles Affect our Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Why Are There Blue and Pink Toy Aisles? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Gender Identity Also Affects our Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

LEARNiNG TiP:  Gender Schemas Include Information About Gender Roles and Gender Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 People Vary in Gender Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

10.3 How do We Vary in Sexual Orientation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 We Vary in Sexual orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Biology Seems to Influence the Development of Sexual orientation . . . . . . . . . 365

LEARNiNG TiP:  Four Biological Contributions to Sexual orientation . . . . . . . . . 366   SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Fraternal Birth order Effect May

Explain Why Later-Born Males Are More Likely to Be Gay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

10.4 What Motivates Us to Have Sexual Relations (or Not to)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Biology Influences our Motivation for Sexual Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Environmental Context Influences our Motivation for Sexual Activity . . . . . . . .373 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  Changes in Sexual Desire and Sexual Activity over the Lifespan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374 Individual Differences Influence our Motivation for Sexual Activity . . . . . . . . . . . 376

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

11 Health and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 11.1 What affects Our Health? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Biology, Psychology, and Social Factors Influence Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 obesity Has Many Health Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Sexually Transmitted Infections Can Be Prevented by Practicing Safer Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Smoking Is Dangerous to Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Exercise Has Numerous Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

CoNTENTS    ■    xxvii

11.2 How does Stress affect Our Health? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Stressors Have a Negative Impact on Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

LEARNiNG TiP:  Stressors, Responses, and Mediating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 We Have Several Responses to Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Stress and the Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

11.3 What Changes the Impact of Stressors? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Personality Influences How Stress Affects Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Coping Mediates the Effects of Stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  Reducing Exam Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Can Pets Help Reduce Stress? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

11.4 Can a Positive attitude keep Us Healthy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Positive Psychology Emphasizes Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Social Support Is Associated With Good Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Several Strategies Can Help Us Stay Healthy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

12 Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 12.1 How do We Think about Other People? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

We Make Snap Judgments About People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 We Make Attributions About other People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424

LEARNiNG TiP:  Attributions and the Actor/observer Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 We Tend to Stereotype other People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Stereotypes Can Make Us Feel and Act Certain Ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

12.2 How do Our attitudes affect Us? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Simple and Complex Attitudes Affect our Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 We Form Attitudes Through Experience and Socialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Both Explicit and Implicit Attitudes Affect Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 Discrepancies Between Attitudes and Behavior Lead to Dissonance . . . . . . . . . 433

LEARNiNG TiP:  Cognitive Dissonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 our Attitudes Can Be Changed Through Persuasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

12.3 How do Other People Influence Us?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Groups Affect Individual Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 We Conform to the Expectations of others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 We Comply With the Requests of others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  The Name Remembrance Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 We obey People Who Have Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Milgram’s Shock Experiments on obedience . . . . . . . . 443 We Sometimes Hurt Each other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 We Help Each other . . . Sometimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

12.4 How do We develop Strong Relationships? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Situations and Personalities Affect our Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Love Is a Key Part of Romantic Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  overlooking Flaws to Have a Great Romantic Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

xxviii    ■    CoNTENTS

13 Self and Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 13.1 How do We know Ourselves? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

our Sense of Self Is Who We Believe We Are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 We Try to Maintain a Positive Sense of Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 our Sense of Self Is Influenced by Cultural Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Does My Culture Shape My Self-Esteem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

13.2 How Can We Understand Personality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Psychodynamic Theory Emphasizes Unconscious Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

LEARNiNG TiP:  Id, Ego, and Superego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Humanistic Approaches Emphasize Goodness in People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Social Cognitive Approaches Focus on How Thoughts Shape Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Trait Approaches Describe Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

LEARNiNG TiP:  Remembering the Big Five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478   SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Gosling’s Study of Personality in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

13.3 How does Biology affect Personality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Personality Is Affected by Genes and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 our Temperaments Are Innate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Personality Is Influenced by Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Personality Stability Is Influenced by Biology and Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

13.4 How do We assess Personality? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Several Methods Are Used to Assess Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Behavior Is Influenced by Personality and Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  Do Personalities Matter in Roommate Relationships? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 There Are Cultural and Sex Differences in Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

14 Psychological disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 14.1 What Is a Psychological disorder?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

Disorders Interfere With our Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 LEARNiNG TiP:  Limitations of the Criteria for Disordered

Emotions, Thoughts, and Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 There Are Several Causes of Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Disordered Thoughts and Behavior Can Be Assessed and Categorized . . . . . 502

14.2 How do People Experience disorders of Emotion? . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Anxiety Disorders Make People Fearful and Tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Unwanted Thoughts Create Fear in obsessive-Compulsive Disorder . . . . . . . . . 508

  SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Inhibition and Social Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Results From Trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Depressive Disorders Are Common . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Bipolar Disorders Involve Mania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  What to Do if a Person Might Be Thinking of Suicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

14.3 How do People Experience disorders of Thought? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Schizophrenia Is a Psychotic Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

CoNTENTS    ■    xxix

14.4 How do People Experience disorders of Self? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Personality Disorders Are Maladaptive Ways of Relating to the World . . . . . . 523 Dissociative Disorders Involve Disruptions in one’s Sense of Self. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Do Mental Illness and Violent Crime Go Together?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

14.5 What disorders affect Children? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Autism Spectrum Disorder Involves Social Deficits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Is Common in Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . 532

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

15 Psychological Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 15.1 How are Psychological disorders Treated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

Psychotherapy Is Based on Psychological Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Biological Therapies Are Effective for Certain Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 Scientific Evidence Indicates Which Treatments Are Safe and Effective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Various Providers Assist in Treatment for Psychological Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 USiNG PSyCHOLOGy iN yOUR LiFE:  How Do I Find a Provider Who Can Help Me? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

15.2 What are Effective Treatments for Common disorders? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 Anxiety and obsessive-Compulsive Disorders Are Best Treated With Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Many Effective Treatments Are Available for Depressive Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . 556

  BEiNG A CRiTiCAL CONSUMER:  Consuming Antidepressant Advertising . . . 557   SCiENTiFiC THiNkiNG:  Mayberg’s Study of Deep Brain

Stimulation for Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Psychotropic Medications Are Most Effective for Bipolar Disorders . . . . . . . . . . 560 Antipsychotic Medications Are Superior Treatments for Schizophrenia . . . . . 561

15.3 Can Personality disorders Be Treated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Dialectical Behavior Therapy Is Most Successful for Borderline Personality Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Antisocial Personality Disorder Is Extremely Difficult to Treat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

15.4 How Can disorders Be Treated in Children and adolescents? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Using Medication to Treat Depression in Adolescents Is Controversial . . . . . . 567 Children With ADHD Can Benefit From Various Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder Benefit From Structured Behavior Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

BIG PICTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

Appendix A: Analyzing Data in Psychological Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

Appendix B: Quizzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R-1

Permissions Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .P-1

Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N-1

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S-1

PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE

YOU’RE DRIVING DOWN THE STREET, talking on your cell phone as you negotiate the traffic,

stop signs, and pedestrians. Then the driver in front of you stops suddenly. You frantically drop the

phone and swerve, barely avoiding a collision. Your heart is pounding as you realize what could have

happened.

1 Introducing the World of Psychology

BIG QUESTIONS 1.1 Why Is Psychology Important to You?

1.2  What Do Psychologists Investigate?

1.3  Who Are Psychologists Today?

1.4 How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?

■ 33

4 ■ CHapTER 1 INTrOdUcING ThE WOrld Of PSYchOlOGY

Kelsey raffaele, a 17-year-old high school senior in Michigan, wasn’t so

lucky (Figure 1.1). In January 2010, Kelsey was driving through town after

school and decided to pass a slower vehicle in front of her. When she saw

an oncoming vehicle in the passing lane, she misjudged the distance and

crashed. Kelsey spoke her last words on her cell phone as she talked with her

best friend, Stacey hough: “Oh [no], I’m going to crash.”

If you are like 70 percent of the people in the United States, you talk on

a cell phone every day when you are driving. This habit is so common that

most of us never think twice about it. That’s exactly what Stacey hough

reported. She was driving behind Kelsey at the time of the accident. “[We]

used our phones all the time behind the wheel. We never thought anything

would come of it,” said Stacey. “Until it happen[s], you don’t think it could

happen.”

Statistics contradict people’s intuition that they can drive safely when talk-

ing on the phone. The National highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates

that about 1.4 million car crashes each year, a little less than one-third of all car

crashes, involve drivers who are using cell phones. cell phone use is reported

in about 18 percent of distracted driving fatalities. The common wisdom is that

these accidents happen because the driver has only one hand on the wheel

while holding the phone with the other. Because of this habit, several states

have enacted laws that require the use of hands-free phones while driving. But

even when they have two hands on the steering wheel, can people really drive

safely while talking on the phone?

Unfortunately, we cannot use intuition to answer questions like this one.

Intuition fails here because what seems to be obvious is rarely the whole

story. Behind the “obvious” are mental processes that cause us to think

and act in certain ways. In fact, according to the latest research findings,

a driver’s performance is similar whether he is holding a phone or using a

hands-free device. This finding implies that the absence of one hand on the

steering wheel is not the problem. The distraction of the conversation is the

main reason drivers miss the important visual and audio cues that ordinarily

would help them avoid a crash.

having all the data can help us make informed decisions about what actions

to take. In the case of cell phones and driving, the research suggests that current

legislation is not likely to reduce risk. Instead, we must limit cell phone use while

driving. But how can public policies succeed in getting people not to use cell

phones when driving, if these drivers believe they are not at risk? could manu-

facturers create cell phones and other in-car products that are less distract-

ing when drivers use them? And how might we understand which drivers are

most at risk and provide intervention for them?

When you decided to take a psychology course, you probably did not think

it would deal with issues such as cell phone use. But questions like these are

at the forefront of psychological research. This text introduces you to current

topics and looks at how you can use psychology to think critically and guide

your daily life. Just imagine what this knowledge might have done for Kelsey

raffaele—and for the thousands of other people like her who perish in distracted

driving accidents every year.

Figure 1.1 psychology in Daily Life: The Dangers of Using a Cell phone While Driving Kelsey raffaele took this photo of herself

(photo courtesy of her mother, Bonnie

raffaele). Bonnie raffaele helped get a

new law passed in their state that prevents

novice drivers from using cell phones

while driving. for more information on

the dangers of using a cell phone while

driving, please visit thekdrchallenge.com/

Kelsey_s_Story.html.

http://www.thekdrchallenge.com/Kelsey_s_Story.html
http://www.thekdrchallenge.com/Kelsey_s_Story.html
1.1 Why Is Psychology Important to You?

Understanding and applying the principles of psychology can affect us in criti- cal ways. For example, psychology can help us understand why we should not talk on our cell phones while driving. It can also help us understand other people. Why are some people fascinated by celebrities, such as Kim Kardashian and Justin Bieber, whereas many others try to ignore media coverage of celeb- rities (Figure 1.2)? Or think about the last time a friend or family member did something that really surprised you. You may have wanted to understand that person’s motives, thoughts, desires, intentions, moods, actions, and so on.

All of us want to know whether other people are friends or enemies, leaders or followers, likely to reject us or fall in love with us. We also want to understand ourselves—why we love the people we do, why we get so angry when someone laughs at us, or why we made that “stupid mistake.” Psychology can help us understand other people and ourselves. In turn, this understanding can help us improve our friendships, work more effectively in groups, be better parents, and have more success in our academic work and at our jobs. In short, psychology can help us improve our lives.

Psychology Explains Our Mental Activity and Behavior We saw in this chapter’s opening story that people believe they can talk on a cell phone and still drive safely. This story is important because it shows that we cannot use our intuition to truly understand people or to predict behavior. By contrast, psychology is the systematic, objective study of our mental activity and our behavior.

Mental activity lets us perceive the world. That is, we use our senses—sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch—to take in information from outside ourselves. Through mental activity, we interpret that information—each of us in our own unique ways. These processes of the mind, of receiving and interpreting information, are respon- sible for all of our memories, thoughts, and feelings. By contrast, the term behavior refers to all of our actions that result from sensing and interpreting information. It is important to remember that both our mental activity and our behavior are produced by our brains. In recent years, technology such as brain imaging has provided great

psychology The study of mental activity and behavior,

which are based on brain processes.

WhY IS PSYchOlOGY IMPOrTANT TO YOU? ■ 5

LEaRNING GOaLS REaDING aCTIVITIES

a. remember the key terms about psychology. list all of the boldface words and write down their

definitions.

b. Apply critical thinking to your life. Use the three critical thinking questions to come to an

appropriate conclusion about an issue in your life.

c. Apply psychology to your life. Give three examples of how the material and/or skills you

learn in this course can help you improve your life.

Figure 1.2 Understanding people Psychology can help us understand

ourselves. It also provides insight into

why some people find certain celebrities

fascinating. here, fans pose for selfies

with Kim Kardashian (top, left) and Justin Bieber (bottom, middle).

6 ■ CHapTER 1 INTrOdUcING ThE WOrld Of PSYchOlOGY

TRY IT YOURSELF: What Is Psychology?

Which picture(s) show aspects of psychology? See the answer below.

This woman is

experiencing depression.

These people are friends. This couple enjoys the

thrill of roller coaster

rides.

This is a color

blindness test (see

the 5?).

The design of

this door is

confusing—

push or pull?

Answer: All of these pictures reflect psychology because they suggest the presence

of mental processes and behavior that depend on brain activity.

insight into how our brains process information to let us think about and respond to information in the world around us.

So psychology focuses on mental activity, behavior, and brain processes. The areas of investigation range from the simple to the complex. What are some of the topics of interest in psychology? Using the Try It Yourself feature, see if you can figure out the answer.

Are you getting the impression that every aspect of what we think and do relates to psychology? Then you are right. You might be surprised to know that as you sit reading this textbook, you are experiencing psychology. Your eyes move across the page so you can see the words and understand their meaning. You are thinking about what is written, but maybe you are also feeling hungry. Perhaps you are thinking about someone you just met. You want to do well in this class, so you take notes on what you are reading in order to remember it. Psychology is a part of every moment of your life because everything you are thinking and doing relates to psychology.

Psychology Teaches Us to Think Critically Do you believe in extrasensory perception (ESP)? ESP refers to the supposed ability to receive information directly through the mind, not through the physi- cal senses such as vision or hearing. However, there is no compelling scientific support for ESP or mental telepathy. Yet according to a 2005 survey (Musella, 2005), 41 percent of Americans believe in ESP. What’s more, about 37 percent of people believe in mental telepathy—the idea that one person can read another person’s mind. Before taking a psychology course, many students believe things they’ve heard about the brain, mental activity, and behavior without stopping to think about why they believe what they do. But a main goal of this course is

to teach you to stop and investigate before you believe. In other words, in this course, you will learn to think critically.

STEpS IN CRITICaL THINKING In critical thinking, we systematically evaluate information to reach reasonable conclusions based on the evidence. Three steps are involved in becoming a skilled critical thinker.

The first step in critical thinking is to ask “What am I being asked to believe or accept?” Here we use friendly skepticism: keeping an open mind about a new idea or claim, but being cautious instead of accepting the infor- mation at face value. This combination of openness and caution is easy to achieve when a claim does not fit with our personal views. But we especially need to practice friendly skepticism when we think that we already “know” something.

The second step in critical thinking is to ask “What evidence is provided to support the claim?” Here, we use logic and reasoning to determine whether there are holes in the evidence or whether the information might be biased. For example, does the person presenting the information have a personal or political agenda?

The last step of critical thinking is to ask “What are the most reasonable conclu- sions?” Here, we consider whether there might be alternative explanations for the claim. We also make our final decisions about whether we believe the claim or not.

The Learning Tip explains how this book will help you develop strong critical thinking skills. Essentially, you will practice using these three steps to evaluate claims you see in the popular media. The media love a good story, and they often jump on findings from psycho- logical research. Unfortunately, as you will see, media reports can be distorted or even totally wrong.

EVaLUaTING pSYCHOLOGY IN THE

NEWS One example of new psychology research that was turned into an overblown news report concerns the so-called Mozart effect. According to the original research, research participants showed significant but temporary gains in perfor ming one type of task after listening to a Mozart sonata for 10 minutes, compared with listen- ing to relaxation instructions or silence (Rauscher & Shaw, 1993).

News outlets quickly reported these results, but they misunderstood or misrep- resented the findings with headlines that suggested that listening to Mozart was a way to increase intelligence (Figure 1.3). Even people surrounded by professional advisors can fall prey to such media reports. In this case, the governor of Georgia, Zell Miller, set aside $105,000 of the state budget to provide classical music to each of the approximately 100,000 children born in the state each year. Though the babies and their parents may have enjoyed the music, there is no evidence that listening improved the infants’ intelligence.

WhY IS PSYchOlOGY IMPOrTANT TO YOU? ■ 7

Throughout this textbook, Being a critical consumer

features will help you develop critical thinking skills. These

features present recent news articles from the popular

press that make claims about psychological research. Each

time you read a Being a critical consumer feature, try

to answer the three key questions about the claim being

made:

1. What am I being asked to believe or accept?

2. What evidence is provided to support the claim?

3. What are the most reasonable conclusions?

LEaRNING TIp: Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Recent research in

psychology reveals that

listening to Mozart increases

intelligence. After reading

about the power of the

“Mozart effect,” the governor

of Georgia, Zell Miller, set

aside a chunk of the state

budget to provide classical

music to every child born in

the state each year.

According to Miller, the

“Mozart effect”

Breaking News: Listening to Mozart Makes People Smarter October 14, 1993

Figure 1.3 Thinking Critically about psychology in the News Media reports seek to grab attention. The

claims can be based on psychological

research, but they can also be hype.

consider what happened when research

revealed small gains in one type of

performance task after participants

listened to a Mozart sonata for 10 minutes.

The media dubbed these gains the

Mozart effect and falsely reported that

listening to Mozart could make people

smarter.

critical thinking Systematically evaluating information

to reach reasonable conclusions best

supported by evidence.

Thinking critically about claims in psychology will help you in your daily life. This ability will also help you study successfully in this and other classes. Indeed, one study found that students who use critical thinking skills complete an intro- ductory psychology course with a more accurate understanding of the subject than do students who complete the same course without using critical thinking skills (Kowalski & Taylor, 2004).

Psychology Helps Us Succeed in School and at Work Apart from a good grade, what do you hope to get out of this class? You’ll find this class valuable whether it ends up being the only psychology course you ever take, you become a psychology major, or you plan to pursue a graduate degree and become a psychologist. Studying psychology can pave the way for success both in your schoolwork and in your professional life.