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The Media of Mass Communication Twelfth Edition

John Vivian

Winona State University

330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Vivian, John author.

Title: The media of mass communication / John Vivian, Winona State University.

Description: Boston : Pearson, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016025354 | ISBN 9780133931211 | ISBN 0133931218

Subjects: LCSH: Mass media. | Mass media—Technological innovations. | Mass media—Social aspects. | Communication—Technological innovations. | Mass media and culture.

Classification: LCC P90 .V53 2017 | DDC 302.23–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016025354

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Books a la Carte

ISBN-10: 0-13-393121-8

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-393121-1

Brief Contents 1. 1 Mass Media Literacy 1

2. 2 Media Technology 16

3. 3 Media Economics 39

4. 4 Cybermedia 59

5. 5 Legacy Media 75

6. 6 News 98

7. 7 Entertainment 119

8. 8 Public Relations 136

9. 9 Advertising 152

10. 10 Mass Audiences 172

11. 11 Mass Media Effects 190

12. 12 Governance and Mass Media 209

13. 13 Global Mass Media 227

14. 14 Mass Media Law 245

15. 15 Mass Media Ethics 258

Contents 1. Preface xi

2. About the Author xv

1. 1 Mass Media Literacy 1

1. 1.1 Media Exposure 2

1. 1.1.1 Media Usage 3

2. 1.1.2 Concurrent Media Usage 3

3. 1.1.3 Inescapable Symbiosis 3

4. 1.1.4 Being an Empowered Media Consumer 4

2. 1.2 Purposeful Mass Communication 4

1. 1.2.1 To Inform 4

2. 1.2.2 To Persuade 5

3. 1.2.3 To Entertain 5

4. 1.2.4 To Enlighten 6

5. 1.2.5 Overlapping Purposes 6

3. 1.3 Mediated Communication 7

1. 1.3.1 Traditional Forms of Communication 7

2. 1.3.2 Communication Through Mass Media 7

3. 1.3.3 Communication Through Social Media 9

4. 1.4 Literacy for Media Consumers 10

1. 1.4.1 Linguistic Literacy 10

2. 1.4.2 Visual Literacy 11

3. 1.4.3 Film Literacy 12

5. 1.5 Assessing Media Messages 13

1. 1.5.1 Fundamentals of Media Literacy 13

2. 1.5.2 Spheres of Media Literacy 14

1. Summary: Mass Media Literacy 15

2. 2 Media Technology 16

1. 2.1 Media Technology 18

1. 2.1.1 Technology Dependence 18

2. 2.1.2 Evolving Media Landscape 18

2. 2.2 Printing Technology 20

1. 2.2.1 Movable Metal Type 20

2. 2.2.2 Gutenberg’s Impact 21

3. 2.2.3 Industrial Revolution Effects 22

4. 2.2.4 Print–Visual Integration 22

3. 2.3 Chemical Technology 23

1. 2.3.1 Photography 23

2. 2.3.2 Movies 24

4. 2.4 Electrical Technology 25

1. 2.4.1 Electricity as Transformational 25

2. 2.4.2 Recording 26

3. 2.4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum 26

5. 2.5 Current Technologies 28

1. 2.5.1 Orbiting Satellites 28

2. 2.5.2 Back to Wires 29

3. 2.5.3 Semiconductor 30

4. 2.5.4 Internet Originals 30

5. 2.5.5 Media Convergence 31

6. 2.5.6 Media Architecture 33

7. 2.5.7 Internet-Delivered Communication 34

6. 2.6 Technology and Mass Communication 34

1. 2.6.1 Lasswell Model 34

2. 2.6.2 Values and Limitations of Models 35

3. 2.6.3 Concentric Circle Model of Communication 35

4. 2.6.4 21st-Century Models 36

1. Summary: Media Technology 38

3. 3 Media Economics 39

1. 3.1 Financial Foundations 40

1. 3.1.1 Capitalism 40

2. 3.1.2 Revenue Streams 40

3. 3.1.3 Investors 42

2. 3.2 Ownership Structures 43

1. 3.2.1 Conglomerate Dominance 44

2. 3.2.2 Conglomerate Behavior 46

3. 3.2.3 Divestiture 46

3. 3.3 Media Economic Patterns 46

1. 3.3.1 Invention 47

2. 3.3.2 Entrepreneurship 47

3. 3.3.3 Industry 49

4. 3.3.4 Maturation 49

5. 3.3.5 Denial 49

4. 3.4 Rethinking Media Ownership 52

1. 3.4.1 Ownership Alternatives 52

2. 3.4.2 University Media Generators 54

3. 3.4.3 Family Ownership 54

5. 3.5 Funding Alternatives 55

1. 3.5.1 Government Role 55

2. 3.5.2 Government Issues 56

3. 3.5.3 Philanthropy 56

4. 3.5.4 Fund Drives 56

6. 3.6 New Media Funding 57

1. 3.6.1 Advertising and Subscriptions 57

2. 3.6.2 Hybrid Mix 57

1. Summary: Media Economics 57

4. 4 Cybermedia 59

1. 4.1 Changing Media Landscape 60

1. 4.1.1 Media Convergence 60

2. 4.1.2 Delivery Platforms 61

3. 4.1.3 Industry Realignments 61

4. 4.1.4 Age of Pixelation 62

2. 4.2 New Audience Engagement 62

1. 4.2.1 Push–Pull Models 62

2. 4.2.2 Limitless Archiving 63

3. 4.2.3 Interactivity 64

3. 4.3 Jobs’ Historical Model 64

1. 4.3.1 Computer Revolution 65

2. 4.3.2 Internet Revolution 65

3. 4.3.3 Digital Lifestyle 65

4. 4.4 User-Generated Content 66

1. 4.4.1 Blogging 66

2. 4.4.2 Social Networking 67

3. 4.4.3 Messaging 69

4. 4.4.4 Texting 70

5. 4.5 Online Commerce 71

1. 4.5.1 Sales Sites 71

2. 4.5.2 Product Downloads and Streaming 72

6. 4.6 Online Dominance 72

1. 4.6.1 Assessing Target Audiences 73

2. 4.6.2 Behavioral Targeting 73

1. Summary: Cybermedia 74

5. 5 Legacy Media 75

1. 5.1 Mass Media as Industries 76

1. 5.1.1 Legacy Industries 76

2. 5.1.2 Transformation of Print Industries 77

2. 5.2 Business Models 78

1. 5.2.1 The Business of Newspapers 78

2. 5.2.2 Organization of Media Industries 78

3. 5.3 Ink-on-Paper Industries 79

1. 5.3.1 Newspapers 79

2. 5.3.2 Magazines 81

3. 5.3.3 Books 82

4. 5.4 Sound Media Industries 85

1. 5.4.1 Recording 85

2. 5.4.2 Intellectual Property Issues 85

3. 5.4.3 Radio 87

5. 5.5 Motion Media Industries 89

1. 5.5.1 Movies 89

2. 5.5.2 Television 91

3. 5.5.3 Movie–Television Meld 94

4. 5.5.4 Strength through Trade Groups 94

6. 5.6 Platform-Neutral Future 96

1. 5.6.1 Legacy Media under Siege 96

2. 5.6.2 Legacy Media Prospects 96

1. Summary: Legacy Media 97

6. 6 News 98

1. 6.1 Concept of News 99

1. 6.1.1 News as Change 99

2. 6.1.2 Newsworthiness 99

2. 6.2 Bennett News Model 100

1. 6.2.1 James Gordon Bennett 100

2. 6.2.2 Bennett Model Components 101

3. 6.2.3 Bennett Model Flaws 102

3. 6.3 Rethinking News Models 105

1. 6.3.1 Hutchins Model 105

2. 6.3.2 Changing News Dynamics 105

3. 6.3.3 New Platforms and Dynamics 106

4. 6.3.4 Hybrid News Models 106

4. 6.4 Values That Shape News 107

1. 6.4.1 News Judgment 108

2. 6.4.2 Personal Values 108

5. 6.5 Variables Affecting News 109

1. 6.5.1 News Hole 109

2. 6.5.2 News Flow 110

3. 6.5.3 News Staffing 110

4. 6.5.4 Audience Expectations 111

5. 6.5.5 Competition 112

6. 6.6 Journalism Trends 113

1. 6.6.1 Newsrooms in Transition 114

2. 6.6.2 Nonstop Coverage 115

3. 6.6.3 Live News 115

4. 6.6.4 Exploratory Reporting 116

5. 6.6.5 Soft News 117

1. Summary: News 118

7. 7 Entertainment 119

1. 7.1 Mediation of Entertainment 120

1. 7.1.1 Entertainment as Mass Media 120

2. 7.1.2 Technology-Driven Entertainment 121

3. 7.1.3 Authentic and Mediated Performance 122

2. 7.2 Storytelling 123

1. 7.2.1 Genres of Literature 123

2. 7.2.2 Media-Defined Trends 123

3. 7.3 Music 124

1. 7.3.1 Transformative Effect on Culture 124

2. 7.3.2 Rockabilly Revolution 125

3. 7.3.3 Rock ‘n’ Roll 126

4. 7.3.4 Music of Dissent 126

5. 7.3.5 Rise of Rap 127

4. 7.4 Sports as Media Entertainment 127

1. 7.4.1 Mass Audience for Sports 127

2. 7.4.2 Audience and Advertiser Confluence 128

3. 7.4.3 Televised Sports 128

5. 7.5 Sex as Media Content 129

1. 7.5.1 Adult Entertainment 129

2. 7.5.2 Decency Requirements 130

3. 7.5.3 Sexual Content and Children 130

6. 7.6 Artistic Values 131

1. 7.6.1 Media Content as High Art 131

2. 7.6.2 “High,” “Low,” “Greater,” and “Lesser” (Not Really) Art 132

3. 7.6.3 Evaluating a Range of Media Content 133

4. 7.6.4 Pop Art Revisionism 134

1. Summary: Entertainment 134

8. 8 Public Relations 136

1. 8.1 Public Relations Scope 136

1. 8.1.1 Public Relations Industry 137

2. 8.1.2 The Work of Public Relations 137

2. 8.2 Public Relations in Context 138

1. 8.2.1 Public Relations and Advertising 139

2. 8.2.2 Public Relations in News 139

3. 8.3 Roots of Public Relations 140

1. 8.3.1 Social Darwinism 140

2. 8.3.2 Ivy Lee 141

3. 8.3.3 Public Relations on a Massive Scale 142

4. 8.3.4 Corporate Public Relations 143

4. 8.4 Public Relations as Strategy 143

1. 8.4.1 Strategic Communication 144

2. 8.4.2 Integrated Marketing 144

5. 8.5 Public Relations Tactics 144

1. 8.5.1 Promotion 144

2. 8.5.2 Image Management 145

3. 8.5.3 Crisis Management 146

6. 8.6 Contingency Planning 147

1. 8.6.1 Advocacy 147

2. 8.6.2 Tarnished Image 149

3. 8.6.3 Ethics: Standards and Certification 150

1. Summary: Public Relations 151

9. 9 Advertising 152

1. 9.1 Importance of Advertising 153

1. 9.1.1 Consumer Economies 153

2. 9.1.2 Advertising and Prosperity 153

3. 9.1.3 Advertising and Democracy 154

2. 9.2 Origins of Advertising 155

1. 9.2.1 First Advertisements 155

2. 9.2.2 Technology Dependence 155

3. 9.2.3 The Creative Revolution 156

3. 9.3 Advertising Agencies 158

1. 9.3.1 Pioneer Agencies 158

2. 9.3.2 Agency Compensation 158

4. 9.4 Media Plans 159

1. 9.4.1 Campaigns and Placement 159

2. 9.4.2 Online Placement and Virtual Marketing 161

5. 9.5 Brand Strategies 161

1. 9.5.1 Brand Names 162

2. 9.5.2 Brand Images 162

3. 9.5.3 Brand Types 164

6. 9.6 Advertising Tactics 165

1. 9.6.1 Lowest Common Denominator 165

2. 9.6.2 Redundancy Techniques 166

3. 9.6.3 Testimonials 166

4. 9.6.4 Addressing Ad Clutter 167

5. 9.6.5 Buzz Advertising 167

1. Summary: Advertising 171

10. 10 Mass Audiences 172

1. 10.1 Discovering Mass Audiences 173

1. 10.1.1 Audience Research Evolution 173

2. 10.1.2 Survey Industry 173

2. 10.2 Audience Measurement Principles 175

1. 10.2.1 Probability Sampling 175

2. 10.2.2 Quota Sampling 177

3. 10.2.3 Evaluating Surveys 177

4. 10.2.4 Latter-Day Straw Polls 178

3. 10.3 Measuring Audience Size 179

1. 10.3.1 Newspaper and Magazine Audits 179

2. 10.3.2 Broadcast Ratings 179

3. 10.3.3 Criticism of Ratings 180

4. 10.3.4 Engagement Ratings 181

4. 10.4 Audience Measurement Techniques 181

1. 10.4.1 Basic Tools 182

2. 10.4.2 Internet Audience Measures 183

3. 10.4.3 Mobile Audience Measures 184

5. 10.5 Measuring Audience Reaction 185

1. 10.5.1 Focus Groups 185

2. 10.5.2 Galvanic Skin Checks 185

3. 10.5.3 Prototype Research 186

6. 10.6 Audience Analysis 187

1. 10.6.1 Demographics 187

2. 10.6.2 Cohort Analysis 187

3. 10.6.3 Geodemographics 188

4. 10.6.4 Psychographics 188

1. Summary: Media Audiences 189

11. 11 Mass Media Effects 190

1. 11.1 Effects Theories 191

1. 11.1.1 Bullet Model 191

2. 11.1.2 Minimalist Model 191

3. 11.1.3 Cumulative Model 192

2. 11.2 Lifestyle Effects 192

1. 11.2.1 Socialization 193

2. 11.2.2 Living Patterns 193

3. 11.2.3 Intergenerational Eavesdropping 194

3. 11.3 Attitude Effects 194

1. 11.3.1 Influencing Opinion 195

2. 11.3.2 Role Models 195

3. 11.3.3 Stereotypes 196

4. 11.4 Cultural Effects 196

1. 11.4.1 Historical Transmission of Values 197

2. 11.4.2 Contemporary Transmission of Values 197

3. 11.4.3 Cultural Imperialism 198

5. 11.5 Behavioral Effects 201

1. 11.5.1 Motivational Messages 201

2. 11.5.2 Subliminal Messages 201

6. 11.6 Media-Depicted Violence 202

1. 11.6.1 Learning About Violence 202

2. 11.6.2 Media Violence as Positive 203

3. 11.6.3 Media Violence as Negative 203

4. 11.6.4 Catalytic Model 204

5. 11.6.5 Societally Debilitating Effects 205

6. 11.6.6 Media Violence and Youth 205

7. 11.6.7 Tolerance of Violence 206

1. Summary: Mass Media Effects 207

12. 12 Governance and Mass Media 209

1. 12.1 Media-Governance Structure 210

1. 12.1.1 Fourth Estate 210

2. 12.1.2 Watchdog Function 211

2. 12.2 Media–Government Tension 212

1. 12.2.1 Media Influence on Governance 212

2. 12.2.2 News Coverage of Government 214

3. 12.2.3 Media Obsessions 215

3. 12.3 Government Manipulation 217

1. 12.3.1 Influencing Coverage 217

2. 12.3.2 Trial Balloons and Leaks 218

3. 12.3.3 Stonewalling 219

4. 12.4 Political Campaigns 220

1. 12.4.1 Cyclical Coverage 220

2. 12.4.2 Tracking Polls 220

3. 12.4.3 Role of Commentary 220

5. 12.5 Courting Campaign Coverage 221

1. 12.5.1 Campaign Tactics 222

2. 12.5.2 Creating Coverage Opportunities 222

3. 12.5.3 Limiting Access 223

6. 12.6 Campaign Messages 223

1. 12.6.1 Message Strategies 223

2. 12.6.2 Precision Targeting 224

1. Summary: Governance and Mass Media 225

13. 13 Global Mass Media 227

1. 13.1 Mass Media and Nation-States 228

1. 13.1.1 Authoritarianism 228

2. 13.1.2 Libertarianism 230

2. 13.2 War as a Libertarian Test 232

1. 13.2.1 Combat Reporting 233

2. 13.2.2 Embedded Reporters 233

3. 13.3 Online Global Reform 234

1. 13.3.1 Whither Nation-States 234

2. 13.3.2 Whither Mega-Corporations 236

4. 13.4 Trans-Border Soft Diplomacy 237

1. 13.4.1 Afghanistan Media-Building 237

2. 13.4.2 Trans-Border Propaganda 238

3. 13.4.3 Voice of America 239

4. 13.4.4 Trans-Border Blockages 239

5. 13.5 Arab Media Systems 240

1. 13.5.1 Diverse Media Structures 240

2. 13.5.2 Al-Jazeera 240

3. 13.5.3 Media as Totalitarian Tool 241

4. 13.5.4 Dubai Media Incorporated 241

6. 13.6 China Media 242

1. 13.6.1 Chinese Policy 242

2. 13.6.2 Chinese Censorship 243

1. Summary: Global Mass Media 243

14. 14 Mass Media Law 245

1. 14.1 Censorship 246

1. 14.1.1 Free Expression 246

2. 14.1.2 First Amendment in Context 247

3. 14.1.3 Common Sense and First Amendment 247

4. 14.1.4 Incitement Standard 247

2. 14.2 First Amendment Expansionism 249

1. 14.2.1 Literature and First Amendment 249

2. 14.2.2 Amusement and First Amendment 250

3. 14.2.3 Emotive Speech 250

4. 14.2.4 Hate Speech 250

5. 14.2.5 Expressive Speech 250

3. 14.3 Government Regulation 251

1. 14.3.1 Federal Communications Commission 251

2. 14.3.2 Federal Trade Commission 251

4. 14.4 Indecency 252

1. 14.4.1 Pornography Versus Obscenity 252

2. 14.4.2 Protecting Children 252

5. 14.5 Intellectual Property 253

1. 14.5.1 Copyright 253

2. 14.5.2 Consumer Rights 254

6. 14.6 Defamation 255

1. 14.6.1 Libel as a Concept 255

2. 14.6.2 Reckless Disregard 255

3. 14.6.3 Comment and Criticism 256

1. Summary: Mass Media Law 257

15. 15 Mass Media Ethics 258

1. 15.1 The Difficulty of Ethics 259

1. 15.1.1 Prescriptive Ethics 259

2. 15.1.2 Conflict of Duties 260

2. 15.2 Media Ethics 261

1. 15.2.1 Media Commitment 261

2. 15.2.2 Audience Expectations 262

3. 15.3 Moral Principles 262

1. 15.3.1 Golden Mean 262

2. 15.3.2 Reciprocity Principle 263

3. 15.3.3 Utilitarian Ethics 263

4. 15.3.4 Pragmatic Ethics 263

5. 15.3.5 Egalitarian Ethics 264

6. 15.3.6 Social Responsibility 264

4. 15.4 Process Versus Outcome 265

1. 15.4.1 Deontological Ethics 265

2. 15.4.2 Teleological Ethics 265

3. 15.4.3 Situational Ethics 267

5. 15.5 Potter’s Box 267

1. 15.5.1 Four Quadrants 268

2. 15.5.2 Intellectual Satisfaction 269

6. 15.6 Ethics, Law, and Practicality 269

1. 15.6.1 Ethics and Law 270

2. 15.6.2 Accepted Practices 270

3. 15.6.3 Prudence and Ethics 270

4. 15.6.4 Misrepresentation 270

1. Summary: Mass Media Ethics 272

1. Glossary 273

2. References 280

3. Credits 285

4. Index 289

Preface The mass media was in a rapid, dizzying change in 1991 when I first wrote The Media of Mass Communication in an attempt to help college students make sense of it all. Since then, the change has accelerated exponentially. Indeed, newspapers were still a reigning medium back then. Facebook inventor Mark Zuckerberg was a second grader. By the day, it seems, the change is more rapid, more dizzying—and more exciting and fascinating. As an author, my task is greater than ever to make sense of it all.

Through The Media of Mass Communication and a growing network of colleagues who have adopted the book, my reach as a teacher has been extended far, far beyond the confines of my own classroom. There are editions in several countries, including Canada, China, and Indonesia. In all, The Media of Mass Communication has been published in 24 variations over the years, each revised specifically to keep students up-to-speed with ever-changing media dynamics. I am indebted deeply to professors and their students, who pepper me almost daily with their reactions to the book and with news and tidbits to keep the next edition current.

Most gratifying to me is the community that has grown up around The Media of Mass Communication. These are people, many of whom have become valued friends, whose thoughts have made the book an evolving and interactive project. In countless messages, professors have shared what works in their classes and how it might work elsewhere. Students write me the most, sometimes puzzled over something that deserves more clarity, sometimes with examples to illustrate a point. All of the comments, questions, and suggestions help add currency and effectiveness to every new edition.

New to This Edition Updated content on new trends in the Mass Communication fields, which will aid students in understanding the evolution of the Mass Communications and related disciplines.

New content on the impact of social media on Mass Communications, providing students with a greater understanding of how new technologies have influenced the field.

Increased focus on professions within the fields of Mass Communications, including advertising and marketing, enabling students to better explore career options

Updated case studies in each chapter, providing students with real-world examples about a range of dynamics within the discipline of Mass Communications.

Updated photographs and graphs, providing students with better visuals to enhance learning.

Updated writing style, increasing readability.

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REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to a better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course.

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Acknowledgments I am indebted to my students and colleagues at my academic home, Winona State University, who made contributions in ways beyond what they realize. I am indebted too to many students elsewhere who have written thoughtful suggestions that have shaped this edition. They include Niele Anderson, Grambling State University; Krislynn Barnhart, Green River Community College; Michelle Blackstone, Eckerd College; Mamie Bush, Winthrop University; Lashaunda Carruth, Forest Park Community College; Mike Costache, Pepperdine University; Scott DeWitt, University of Montana; John Dvorak, Bethany Lutheran College; Denise Fredrickson, Mesabi Range Community and Technical College; Judy Gaines, Austin Community College; James Grades, Michigan State University; Dion Hillman, Grambling State University; Rebecca Iserman, Saint Olaf University; Scott Wayne Joyner, Michigan State University; David Keys, Citrus College; Chad Larimer, Winona State University; Amy Lipko, Green River Community College; Christina Mendez, Citrus College; Nicholas Nabokov, University of Montana; Andrew Madsen, University of Central Florida; Scott Phipps, Green River Community College; Colleen Pierce, Green River Community College; June Siple, University of Montana; and Candace Webb, Oxnard College.

I am grateful to reviewers who provided guidance for this new edition of The Media of Mass Communication:

Patricia Cambridge, Ohio University

Michael Cavanagh, University of Illinois at Springfield

Thomas Gardner, Westfield State College

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Nancy Jennings, University of Cincinnati

Eungjun Min, Rhode Island College

Lynn C. Owens, Peace College

I also appreciate the suggestions of other colleagues whose reviews over the years have contributed to the book’s success: Edward Adams, Brigham Young University; Ralph D. Barney, Brigham Young University; Thomas Beell, Iowa State University; Ralph Beliveau, University of Oklahoma; Robert Bellamy, Duquesne University; ElDean Bennett, Arizona State University; Lori Bergen, Wichita State University; Michelle Blackstone, Eckerd College; Bob Bode, Western Washington University; Timothy Boudreau, Central Michigan University; Bryan Brown, Missouri State University Cambridge, Ohio University; Jane Campbell, Columbia State Community College; Dom Caristi, Ball State University; Michael L. Carlebach, University of Miami; Meta Carstarphen, University of North Texas; Michael Cavanagh, University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Danae Clark, University of Pittsburgh; Jeremy Cohen, Stanford University; Michael Colgan, University of South Carolina; Ross F. Collins, North Dakota State University; Stephen Corman, Grossmont College; James A. Danowski, University of Illinois, Chicago; David Donnelly, University of Houston; Thomas R. Donohue, Virginia Commonwealth University; John Dvorak, Bethany Lutheran College; Michele Rees Edwards, Robert Morris University; Kathleen A. Endres, University of Akron; Glen Feighery, University of Utah; Celestino Fernández, University of Arizona; Donald Fishman, Boston College; Carl Fletcher, Olivet Nazarene University; Laurie H. Fluker, Southwest Texas State University; Kathy Flynn, Essex County College in Newark, New Jersey; Robert Fordan, Central Washington University; Ralph Frasca, University of Toledo; Judy Gaines, Austin Community College; Mary Lou Galician, Arizona State University; Andy Gallagher, West Virginia State College; Ronald Garay, Louisiana State University; Lisa Byerley Gary, University of Tennessee; Donald Godfrey, Arizona State University; Tom Grier, Winona State University; Neil Gustafson, Eastern Oregon University; Donna Halper, Emerson College; Peggy Holecek, Northern Illinois University; Anita Howard, Austin Community College; Jason Hutchens, University of North Carolina at Pembroke; Elza Ibroscheva, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville; Carl Isaacson, Sterling College; Nancy-Jo Johnson, Henderson State University; Carl Kell, Western Kentucky University; Mark A. Kelley, The University of Maine; Wayne F. Kelly, California State University, Long Beach; Donnell King, Pellissippi State Technical Community College; William L. Knowles, University of Montana; John Knowlton, Green River Community College; Sarah Kohnle, Lincoln Land Community College in Illinois; Jennifer Lemanski, University of Texas-Pan American; Charles Lewis, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Lila Lieberman, Rutgers University; Amy

Lignitz, Johnson County Community College in Kansas; Amy Lipko, Green River Community College; Larry Lorenz, Loyola University; Sandra Lowen, Mildred Elley College; Linda Lumsden, Western Kentucky University; John N. Malala, Cookman College; Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College; Maclyn McClary, Humbolt State University; Daniel G. McDonald, Ohio State University; Denis Mercier, Rowan College of New Jersey; Timothy P. Meyer, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay; Jonathan Millen, Rider University; Bruce Mims, Southeast Missouri State University; Joy Morrison, University of Alaska at Fairbanks; Gene Murray, Grambling State University; Richard Alan Nelson, Kansas State University; Thomas Notton, University of Wisconsin—Superior; Judy Oskam, Texas State University; David J. Paterno, Delaware County Community College; Terri Toles Patkin, Eastern Connecticut State University; Sharri Ann Pentangelo, Purdue University; Deborah Petersen—Perlman, University of Minnesota—Duluth; Tina Pieraccini, State University of New York at Oswego; Leigh Pomeroy, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Mary-Jo Popovici, Monroe Community College; Thom Prentice, Southwest Texas State University; Hoyt Purvis, University of Arkansas; Jack Rang, University of Dayton; John Reffue, Hillsborough Community College; Benjamin H. Resnick, Glassboro State College; Rich Riski, Peninsula College; Ronald Roat, University of Southern Indiana; Patrick Ropple, Nearside Communications; Marshel Rossow, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Julia Ruengert, Pensacola Junior College; Cara L. Schollenberger, Bucks County Community College; Quentin Schultz, Calvin College; Jim Seguin, Robert Morris College; Susan Seibel, Butler County Community College; Todd Simon, Michigan State University; Ray Sinclair, University of Alaska at Fairbanks; J. Steven Smethers, Kansas State University; Karen A. Smith, College of Saint Rose; Mark Smith, Stephens College; Howard L. Snider, Ball State University; Brian Southwell, University of Minnesota; Rob Spicer, DeSales University; Alan G. Stavitsky, University of Oregon; Penelope Summers, Northern Kentucky University; Philip Thompsen, West Chester University; Larry Timbs, Winthrop University; John Tisdale, Baylor University; Edgar D. Trotter, California State University, Fullerton; Carl Tyrie, Appalachian State University; Helen Varner, Hawaii Pacific University; Rafael Vela, Southwest Texas State University; Stephen Venneman, University of Oregon; Kimberly Vos, Southern Illinois University; Michael Warden, Southern Methodist University; Hazel G. Warlaumont, California State University, Fullerton; Ron Weekes, Ricks College; Bill Withers, Wartburg College; Donald K. Wright, University of South Alabama; Alan Zaremba, Northeastern University; and Eugenia Zerbinos, University of Maryland.

About the Author John Vivian’s academic home is Winona State University in Minnesota, where he has taught a wide range of mass communication courses. He holds a Medill journalism degree from Northwestern University and earlier from Gonzaga University. He has done additional work at Marquette University and the University of Minnesota. As an undergraduate, Vivian worked for United Press International. Later, he joined the Associated Press in four Western cities. His work has won numerous professional awards, including Minaret Awards as an Army Reservist. Vivian is a former national president of Text and Academic Authors. His Media of Mass Communication has been the leading textbook in its field since the first edition. Judges for the TAA Texty Award gave MMC the first perfect score in history. Vivian is at home in the scholarly and pedagogical journals of his field. With Alfred Lorenz, he coauthored News Reporting and Writing. Besides journalism, public relations, and advertising, Vivian’s academic focus is media law and history. He invites feedback from students and adopters at jvivian@winona.edu

mailto:jvivian@winona.edu
Chapter 1 Mass Media Literacy

Watch Attacking Uganda Warlord Goes Viral

Going Viral, Maximizing Impact Without much else going on in their lives, three 20-something guys from San Diego decided to pack some video equipment and go to East Africa. They wanted to shoot something about a 17‑year civil war that had killed 20 million people. Inexperienced about war, not even knowing what to look for, the three found nothing worth recording.

After being stranded unexpectedly one night in a northern Uganda town, the three witnessed something shocking. Thousands of children showed up from the countryside at nightfall. Afraid that rebels would capture them in their villages and kidnap them to be soldiers or sex slaves, they walked dozens of miles every evening for the security of the town. They slept in alleys, parking lots, and hospital hallways. At dawn, feeling safety in daylight, the children vanished into the countryside and trekked back to their villages.

Jason Russell, 24, Bobby Bailey, 21, and Laren Poole, 19, shot video. Through interviews, they learned that a ragtag rebel group, the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) had terrorized Northern Uganda for years. Although fewer in number, the rebels were feared for their brutality—rape, murder, mutilation, and cannibalism.

The young filmmakers never found the LRA’s leader, the self-proclaimed prophet Joseph Kony. But they heard chilling stories about him and the atrocities he committed primarily against his own people, the Acholi in Northern Uganda, like cutting people’s faces off and making children eat their friends. The young filmmakers knew that the story, little known outside the region, needed to be told. In 2003 they cobbled together a 55-minute documentary that they hoped would rally global attention to end the scourge of the LRA. Not knowing much about how mass media worked however, they had little idea how to go about it, at least not with maximum impact.

The inaugural screening of Invisible Children occurred a year later at the University of San Diego. Over the next couple years, Russell, Bailey, and Poole took the movie on the road, mostly to high schools, churches, and other colleges.

Incredibly, what was happening in Uganda wasn’t on the radar of mainstream media prior to this documentary. After its release in 2005, Kony was indicted by the International Criminal Court on charges of crimes against humanity, including the abduction of 30,000 children, killing thousands of villagers, some with machetes, and burning some to death in their huts. Despite the indictment, Kony remains at large.

As Russell, Bailey, and Poole booked more screenings, they recognized more needed to be done. They created a nonprofit corporation. Now more organized, the Invisible Children project moved into a higher gear. In time, the organization brought in a New York public relations expert, Ken Sunshine, who had a reputation for promoting celebrities and publicizing events. Once Sunshine was on board, these things then happened:

The film was slickly repackaged and trimmed to 29 minutes as part of a campaign called Kony 2012.

The film was promoted with a poster portraying Kony with Osama bin Laden and Adolph Hitler. The poster became iconic.

Teen heartthrob Justin Bieber, Barbadian singer Rihanna, and rapper P. Diddy tweeted 38 million fans to watch the video on YouTube.

A $30 promotional package went to donors—a T-shirt, bracelet, stickers, and buttons and posters bearing the Kony 2012 logo.

A downside of the viral success was keener media interest and scrutiny in the Invisible Children organization. Questions were raised about the nonprofit organization’s overspending and excessively narrow focus. The film itself was

criticized as simplistic and propagandist. After receiving a dramatic boost in funding after its Kony 2012 campaign ($26.5 million), support for the organization plummeted in 2013, reflected by the fact that it raised only $4.9 million. In December of 2014, Invisible Children announced it would be closing its doors by the end of 2015; despite this unfortunate turn of events, the Invisible Children organization shined a spotlight on a war that most people in the West knew nothing about. by 2014, many Western leaders, including in the United States, increased their focus on ending the LRA’s siege. Although Kony remains free, others in the upper echelon of the powerful rebel group have either been killed or captured. For instance, in January 2015, Uganda confirmed the capture of LRA military senior commander Dominic Ongwen, who was then transferred by American forces to the International Criminal Court in The Hague where he is currently facing charges of crimes against humanity.

Invisible Children clearly accomplished a tremendous amount of good in a relatively short period of time. The fact that this organization rose to just prominence so quickly when it was founded and run by college students is even more impressive. Could a more sophisticated and long-term media strategy have helped Invisible Children to achieve longevity and avoid its dramatic spike in success and subsequent rapid decline? Did the leader’s youth, inexperience, and idealism—characteristics that fueled their passion and success, ultimately lead to their downfall? How did the mass media attention impact the fate of the Invisible Children organization? In this chapter, you will learn techniques to enable you as a media consumer to make your own judgments.

Prior to any discussion about the nature and function of mass communication and mass media, it is important to have a shared understanding of basic terminology, particularly since the terms “communication” and “media” are used in a variety of contexts to refer to a range of activities and concepts. The term “mass communication” refers to messages sent to a large audience by individuals, groups, or organizations. The vehicle through which mass messages are sent is referred to as mass media, such as newspapers, radio, broadcast television, the dramatic arts, books, and more recently the Internet.