Most people from western cultures tend to ______ when conveying bad news or negative feedback.

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Written in a conversational style that transforms complex ideas into accessible ones, this international best-seller provides an interdisciplinary review of the theories and research in cross‐cultural psychology. The book’s unique critical thinking framework, including Critical Thinking boxes, helps to develop analytical skills. Exercises interspersed throughout promote active learning and encourage class discussion. Case in Point sections review controversial issues and opinions about behavior in different cultural contexts. Cross-Cultural Sensitivity boxes underscore the importance of empathy in communication. Numerous applications better prepare students for working in various multicultural contexts such as teaching, counseling, health care, and social work. The dynamic author team brings a diverse set of experiences in writing this book. Eric Shiraev was raised in the former Soviet Union and David Levy is from Southern California. Sensation, perception, consciousness, intelligence, human development, emotion, motivation, social perception, interaction, psychological disorders, and applied topics are explored from cross‐cultural perspectives.

New to the 6th Edition:

Over 200 recent references, particularly on studies of non-western regions such as the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Latin America as well as the US and Europe. New chapter on personality and the self with an emphasis on gender identity. New or revised chapter opening vignettes that draw upon current events. More examples related to the experiences of international students in the US and indigenous people. Many more figures and tables that appeal to visual learners. New research on gender, race, religious beliefs, parenting styles, sexual orientation, ethnic identity and stereotypes, conflict resolution, immigration, intelligence, physical abuse, states of consciousness, DSM-5, cultural customs, evolutionary psychology, treatment of psychological disorders, and acculturation. Revised methodology chapter with more attention to issues related specifically to cross-cultural research and more on qualitative and mixed methods. A companion website at www.routledge.com/9781138668386 where instructors will find a robust instructor manual containing multiple choice, true and false, short answer, and essay questions and answers for each chapter, and a complete set of tables and figures from the text; and students will find chapter outlines,

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http://www.routledge.com/9781138668386

flashcards of key terms, and links to further resources and the authors’ Facebook page.

Intended as a text for courses on cross-cultural psychology, multicultural psychology, cultural psychology, cultural diversity, and the psychology of ethnic groups and a resource for practitioners, researchers, and educators who work in multicultural environments.

Eric B. Shiraev is a Professor of Psychology at George Mason University.

David A. Levy is a Professor of Psychology at Pepperdine University.

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Cross-Cultural Psychology

Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications

Sixth Edition

Eric B. Shiraev and David A. Levy

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First published 2017 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2017 Taylor & Francis

The right of Eric B. Shiraev and David A. Levy to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Shiraev, Eric, 1960– author. | Levy, David A., 1954– author. Title: Cross-cultural psychology : critical thinking and contemporary applications /  Eric B. Shiraev, David A. Levy. Description: Sixth Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2016. | Revised edition of the authors’  Cross-cultural psychology, 2013. Identifiers: LCCN 2016010827 | ISBN 9781138668379 (hardback : alk. paper) |  ISBN 9781138668386 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315542782 (e-book) Subjects: LCSH: Ethnopsychology—Methodology. Classification: LCC GN502 .S475 2016 | DDC 155.8—dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016010827

ISBN: 978-1-138-66837-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-66838-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-54278-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Minion Pro by Apex Covantage, LLC

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http://lccn.loc.gov/2016010827

To those who speak the truth … especially Briana Avalon, Mary Jane, and Harry Truman D.L.

To those who encouraged us and continue to motivate us by their words and deeds … especially James Sidanius and Vladimir Shlapentokh

E.S.

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Brief Contents

Preface

Author Bios

Chapter 1 Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology

Chapter 2 Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Chapter 3 Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research

Chapter 4 Cognition: Sensation, Perception, and States of Consciousness

Chapter 5 Intelligence

Chapter 6 Emotion

Chapter 7 Motivation and Behavior

Chapter 8 Human Development and Socialization

Chapter 9 Psychological Disorders

Chapter 10 Social Perception, Social Cognition, and Social Interaction

Chapter 11 Personality and the Self

Chapter 12 Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology:

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Some Highlights

References Author Index

Subject Index

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Detailed Contents

Preface

Author Bios

Chapter 1 Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology

What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology?

Basic Definitions Culture

Society, Race, and Ethnicity

Knowledge in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cultural Traditionalism Empirical Examination of Culture Collectivism and Individualism: Further Research Cultural Syndromes

The Natural Science Approach The Social Sciences Approach The Humanities Approach The Ecocultural Approach

The Cultural Mixtures Approach The Integrative Approach: A Summary Indigenous Psychology Ethnocentrism

Multiculturalism A Brief History of the Field

Chapter 2 Critical Thinking in Cross-Cultural Psychology

The Evaluative Bias of Language: To Describe Is to Prescribe Antidotes

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Differentiating Dichotomous Variables and Continuous Variables: Black and White, or Shades of Gray?

Antidotes

The Similarity–Uniqueness Paradox: All Phenomena Are Both Similar and Different

Antidotes

The Barnum Effect: One-Size-Fits-All Descriptions Antidotes

The Assimilation Bias: Viewing the World through Schema- Colored Glasses

Antidotes

The Representativeness Bias: Fits and Misfits of Categorization

Antidotes

The Availability Bias: The Persuasive Power of Vivid Events Antidotes

The Fundamental Attribution Error: Underestimating the Impact of External Influences

Antidotes

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: When Expectations Create Reality

Antidotes

Correlation Does Not Prove Causation: Confusing “What” with “Why”

Antidotes

Bidirectional Causation and Multiple Causation: Causal Loops and Compound Pathways

Bidirectional Causation

Multiple Causation

Antidotes

The Naturalistic Fallacy: Blurring the Line Between “Is” and “Should”

Antidotes

The Belief Perseverance Effect: “Don’t Confuse Me with the Facts!”

Antidotes

Conclusions: “To Metathink or Not to Metathink?”

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Chapter 3 Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research Goals of Cross-Cultural Research Quantitative Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology

Quantitative Approach: Measurement Scales

Quantitative Approach: Looking for Links and Differences

Qualitative Approach in Cross-Cultural Psychology Major Steps for Preparation of a Cross-Cultural Study

Sample Selection Observation in Cross-Cultural Psychology Survey Methods Experimental Studies

Content Analysis Focus Group Methodology Meta-Analysis: Research of Research A Hidden Obstacle of Cross-Cultural Studies: Test Translation

Comparing Two Phenomena: Some Important Principles On Similarities and Differences: Some Critical Thinking Applications Cultural Dichotomies

There Are Fewer Differences Than One Might Think

There Are More Differences Than One Might Expect

Avoiding Bias of Generalizations Know More about the Cultures You Examine

Chapter 4 Cognition: Sensation, Perception, and States of Consciousness

Sensation and Perception: Basic Principles How Culture Influences What We Perceive

How People Perceive Pictures Perception of Depth Are People Commonly Misled by Visual Illusions? Some Cultural Patterns of Drawing

Perception of Color Other Senses

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Hearing

Taste

Smell

Touch and Pain

Perception of Time Perception of the Beautiful

Perception of Music Consciousness and Culture Sleep and the Cultural Significance of Dreams Beyond Altered States of Consciousness

Chapter 5 Intelligence Defining Intelligence

Ethnic Differences in IQ Scores Gender Differences in IQ Scores Explaining Group Differences in Test Scores: Intelligence and Intelligent Behavior Do Biological Factors Contribute to Intelligence?

Incompatibility of Tests: Cultural Biases A Word about “Cultural Literacy” Environment and Intelligence Socioeconomic Factors

The Family Factor “Natural Selection” and IQ Scores Cultural Values of Cognition General Cognition: What Is “Underneath” Intelligence?

Classification

Sorting

Memory

Formal and Mathematical Reasoning

Creativity

Cognitive Skills, School Grades, and Educational Systems Culture, Tests, and Motivation IQ, Culture, and Social Justice

And in the End, Moral Values

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Chapter 6 Emotion When We Laugh We Are Happy: Similarities of Emotional Experience You Cannot Explain Pain If You Have Never Been Hurt: Differences in Emotional Experience

Emotions: Different or Universal? Physiological Arousal The Meaning of Preceding Events Emotion as an Evaluation

We Are Expected to Feel in a Particular Way How People Assess Emotional Experience Expression of Emotion Emotion and Inclination to Act

Emotion and Judgment When Emotions Signal a Challenge: Cross-Cultural Research on Stress and Anxiety When Emotion Hurts: Cross-Cultural Studies of Anger Building Positive Emotions: Cross-Cultural Studies of Happiness

Chapter 7 Motivation and Behavior A Glance into Evolution

Social Science: See the Society First Drive and Arousal: Two Universal Mechanisms of Motivation The Power of the Unconscious: Psychoanalysis Humanistic Theories

Learning and Motivation A Carrot and a Beef Tongue: Hunger and Food Preference When Hunger Causes Distress: Eating Disorders Victory and Harmony: Achievement Motivation

Aggressive Motivation and Violence Culture and Sexuality Sex and Sexuality: Some Cross-Cultural Similarities

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Chapter 8 Human Development and Socialization Development and Socialization Quality of Life and the Child’s Development

Norms, Customs, and Child Care Parental Values and Expectations Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stages of Moral Development According to Kohlberg Developmental Stages Life before Birth: Prenatal Period First Steps: Infancy

Discovering the World: Childhood Major Rehearsal: Adolescence Adulthood Late Adulthood

Chapter 9 Psychological Disorders American Background: DSM-5

Two Views on Culture and Psychopathology Central and Peripheral Symptoms: An Outcome of the Debate between Universalists and Relativists

Cultural Syndromes Anxiety Disorders

Depressive Disorders Schizophrenia Culture and Suicide Personality Disorders

Is Substance Abuse Culturally Bound? Psychodiagnostic Biases Psychotherapy Culture Match?

Chapter 10 Social Perception, Social Cognition, and Social Interaction

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Attitudes and Values Western and Non-Western Values

Striving for Consistency: The Cognitive Balance Theory Avoiding Inconsistency: Cognitive Dissonance Psychological Dogmatism Social Attribution

Attribution of Success and Failure Duty and Fairness in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures Stereotypes and the Power of Generalizations Universal Interaction

Direct Contacts and Body Language Conformity Is Conformity Universal across Cultures? Following Orders

Social Influence Feeling Good about Some Views Is Social Loafing Universal?

Chapter 11 Personality and the Self What Is Personality? Locus of Control

The Autotelic Personality On National Character The Self The Self and Sex-Related Categories

The Sexes and the Intersex

Traditional Cultural Views of the Sexes

Evolving Views of the Sexes

Gender as a Social Construct

Gender Roles Traditional Views of Gender

Evolving Views of Gender

Sexual Orientation: Evolving Perceptions

Religious Identity Seeing One’s Own Body

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Chapter 12 Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology: Some Highlights

Health Spirituality, Science, and Health

Holistic Treatment

Business Decisions Working with Immigrants and Refugees Human Rights

Education Culture, Behavior, and the Law Working and Serving Abroad Religion: A Campus Context

Conclusion

References Author Index

Subject Index

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Preface

We cordially invite you to explore cross-cultural psychology of the twenty-first century. Just over 15 years ago, when we were preparing the first edition of this book, it was our modest hope that a number of students in North America would find it useful. We certainly did not anticipate that the text would soon find a receptive audience not only in the United States and Canada but also in the Netherlands, Russia, Indonesia, China, Turkey, Germany, and many other countries around the globe. A special edition of the book was published in India. Then, our book was translated in China and in Indonesia. Currently, we have the fortune of receiving numerous, frequent e-mails from readers across five continents. The rapidly growing interest in cross-cultural psychology is understandable. This field is new and exciting, fascinating in its content, important in its applications, and challenging in its goals and aspirations. Yet it is sometimes scarcely able to keep pace with the rapidly changing conditions of modern times.

Look at the world around us. Previously invincible barriers—both literal and metaphoric—that have separated people for hundreds, even thousands of years are increasingly cracking, crumbling, and finally collapsing before our eyes. Within a relatively brief period of history, the telephone, radio, television, motion pictures, and, more recently, computers, e-mail, cell phones, the Internet, and social networks are drastically altering our perceptions of time, space, culture, and one another. One key click and, in an instant, you are virtually on the opposite side of the planet or even on a different planet.

We travel and migrate from one place to another on a scale previously unknown— even unimaginable—in human history. The United States alone naturalizes almost 800,000 new citizens every year. More than 1 million foreign students are currently studying at different American universities and colleges. According to the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System, the top ten countries sending these international students to America are China, India, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Mexico, and Brazil. More countries are moving toward economic and political unification. Hong Kong has been reunited with China since 1997. From Northern Ireland to the Basque province in Spain, from Bosnia to El Salvador, dozens of deadly ethnic, social, and religious conflicts have come to an end with former enemies negotiating with one another. Millions of people learn about human rights, recognize them, and practice mutual tolerance. People understand that they share many common customs, ideas, and hopes. The world is indeed becoming a smaller place.

Or is it? Are such optimistic beliefs devoid of factual foundation, resting more on wishful thinking and hope than on empirical evidence? Are we guilty of committing a cognitive error, confusing what is with what ought to be? A pessimist could contend that

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the basic differences between cultural groups are, and always will be, irreconcilable. What appears to be “global civilization,” “cultural enlightenment,” or “social evolution” is largely illusory. Beneath this perilously thin veneer lurks raw human nature: selfish, greedy, and violent. To be sure, some progress has occurred. But many countries remain split and feuding along ethnic and religious lines. International terrorism poses an increasingly treacherous problem. Minority groups around the world continue to be ostracized, threatened, and assaulted. Millions of people belonging to these various ethnic and religious groups continue to be the target of systematic violence. Local politicians and military rulers in many countries reject pleas addressing human rights in their countries and label these appeals cultural “expansionism” of the liberal West. Rather than blending together, diverse groups perpetuate tensions. Consider Syria, Libya, Sierra Leone, Timor, Sudan, Iraq, Kashmir, Afghanistan, Cyprus—is there any valid reason to believe that the list won’t continue to grow? Can psychologists and other educated professionals make a difference in this global but disunited world?

Even if the world is becoming smaller, what does this mean? To some individuals, “smaller” implies a sense of community, connectedness, and camaraderie. Meanwhile to others, it is tantamount to being cramped, crowded, and confined. To some, the phrase “we the people” calls for us to merge together. To others, we are getting more disunited and intolerant of one another than ever. Who is right? Who is wrong? Can we find a middle ground between these two views? Can we use the psychological knowledge gained in one country to understand the people in others?