Neruda's writing was limited mainly to romantic poetry

Instructor’s Manual to accompany

The Longman Anthology of World Literature

SECOND EDITION

VOLUME II VOLUME D: THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

VOLUME E: THE NINETEENTH CENTURY VOLUME F: THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

David Damrosch David L. Pike General Editors

April Alliston Marshall Brown

Page duBois Sabry Hafez

Ursula K. Heise Djelal Kadir

Sheldon Pollock Bruce Robbins Haruo Shirane

Jane Tylus Pauline Yu

Longman

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London Toronto Sydney Tokyo Singapore Madrid

Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town Hong Kong Montreal

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Vice President and Editor-in-Chief: Joseph Terry Senior Supplements Editor: Donna Campion Text Design, Project Manager, and Electronic Page Makeup: Grapevine Publishing

Services, Inc.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany The Longman Anthology of World Literature, Second Edition, Volume II, by David Damrosch et al.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Instructors may reproduce portions of this book for classroom use only. All other reproductions are strictly prohibited without prior permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

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ISBN 10: 0-205-64606-9 ISBN 13: 978-0-205-64606-7

Longman is an imprint of

www.pearsonhighered.com

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CONTENTS

General Editors’ Preface ix Guide to MyLiteratureLab xv

VOLUME D: The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

The World the Mughals Made 1 Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur 2 Jahangir 4 Mirza Muhammad Rafi “Sauda” and Mir Muhammad Taqi “Mir” 6 Banarasidas 10

Chikamatsu Mon’zaemon 12

Cao Xueqin 16 RESONANCE: Shen Fu 21

The Ottoman Empire 23 Mihri Khatun 23 Fuzuli 23 Nedîm 24 Lady Mary Wortley Montagu 25

The Age of the Enlightenment

Jean-Baptiste Poquelin [Molière] 27

PERSPECTIVES: Court Culture and Female Authorship 30

Aphra Behn 42 RESONANCE: George Warren 51

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Jonathan Swift 52

PERSPECTIVES: Journeys in Search of the Self 58

François-Marie Arouet [Voltaire] 71

Alexander Pope 79

PERSPECTIVES: Liberty and Libertines 88

VOLUME E: The Nineteenth Century

Teaching Romanticism Today 95

William Wordsworth 101

PERSPECTIVES: Romantic Nature 107 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 107

Immanuel Kant 108

William Blake 108

John Keats 109

Annette von Droste-Hülshoff 109

Giacomo Leopardi 110

Ralph Waldo Emerson 110

Henry David Thoreau 111

Johann Wolfgang Goethe 112

George Gordon, Lord Byron 124

Ghalib 125

Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin 126

PERSPECTIVES: The National Poet 128 Nguyen Du 129

Anna Letitia Barbauld 130

Adam Mickiewicz 131

Dionysios Solomos 132

Walt Whitman 132

PERSPECTIVES: On the Colonial Frontier 135 Mikhail Lermontov and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 136

Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa) 140

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Hawaiian Songs 141

José Rizal 141

The Romantic Fantastic 142

Samuel Taylor Coleridge 143

Ludwig Tieck 145

Honoré de Balzac 146

Edgar Allan Poe 148

Gustave Flaubert 149

PERSPECTIVES: Occidentalism—Europe Through Foreign Eyes 152

Elizabeth Barrett Browning 155

Charles Baudelaire 157

Leo Tolstoy 160

Fyodor Dostoevsky 162 RESONANCES: Friedrich Nietzsche and Ishikawa Takuboku 165

Other Americas 166

Hathali Nez and Washington Matthews 166

Herman Melville 168

Frederick Douglass 171

Harriet Jacobs 173

Emily Dickinson 175

Joaquim María Machado de Assis 178

Charlotte Perkins Gilman 180

Rubén Darío 181

Henrik Ibsen 182

Higuchi Ichiyo 185

Anton Chekhov 185

Rabindranath Tagore 187

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VOLUME F: The Twentieth Century

PERSPECTIVES: The Art of the Manifesto 190 Filippo Tommaso Marinetti 191

Tristan Tzara 192

André Breton 194

Mina Loy 195

Yokomitsu Riichi 197

Oswald de Andrade 198

André Breton, Leon Trotsky, and Diego Rivera 199

Joseph Conrad 200

Premchand 202

Lu Xun 205

James Joyce 207

Virginia Woolf 208

Akutagawa Ryunosuke 211

PERSPECTIVES: Modernist Memory 213 T. S. Eliot 213

Constantine Cavafy 214

Claude McKay 215

Federico García Lorca 216

Carlos Drummond de Andrade 216

Emile Habiby 217

Octavio Paz 219

Franz Kafka 220

Anna Akhmatova 223 RESONANCE: Osip Mandelstam 224

William Butler Yeats 225

PERSPECTIVES: Poetry About Poetry 226 Eugenio Montale 228

Fernando Pessoa 229

Pablo Neruda 230

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Wallace Stevens 231

Nazim Hikmet 232

Bei Dao 232

Bertolt Brecht 233

PERSPECTIVES: Echoes of War 237

Samuel Beckett 243

PERSPECTIVES: Cosmopolitan Exiles 246 César Vallejo 247

Vladimir Nabokov 248

Czeslaw Milosz 249

V. S. Naipaul 250

Adonis (Ali Ahmad Sa’id) 252

Jorge Luis Borges 252 RESONANCE: Gabriel García Márquez 255

Naguib Mahfouz 255

PERSPECTIVES: The 1001 Nights in the Twentieth Century 258 Güneli Gün 259

John Barth 259

Italo Calvino 259

Assia Djebar 260

Léopold Sédar Senghor 261

Aimé Césaire 264

James Baldwin 268

Gerald Vizenor 269

PERSPECTIVES: Indigenous Cultures in the Twentieth Century 271

Zhang Ailing (Eileen Chang) 275

Mahasweta Devi 276

PERSPECTIVES: Gendered Spaces 277

Chinua Achebe 281

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Wole Soyinka 284

PERSPECTIVES: Postcolonial Conditions 286 Mahmoud Darwish and Faiz Ahmad Faiz 286

Reza Baraheni 289

Farough Faroghzad 289

Derek Walcott 290

Salman Rushdie 291

PERSPECTIVES: Literature, Technology, and Media 291

Index 301

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General Editors’ Preface

The tremendous wealth of world literature available today is also a kind of embar- rassment of riches: How can we best present this great range of works in class? We’ve designed the second edition of The Longman Anthology of World Literature with this issue constantly in mind, giving teachable groupings and illuminating juxtapo- sitions throughout the Anthology and framing compelling texts with introductions and notes that give the context needed for an informed and pleasurable reading. Yet finally it comes down to individual class sessions and the detailed discussion of par- ticular works, and here is where this teaching companion comes in. In this book we suggest fruitful modes of approach, presenting ways to engage students, to foster un- derstanding, and to stimulate lively discussion of all our major texts and groupings of works.

We have set three ambitious goals for ourselves in creating this teaching com- panion. First, it has been written directly by the editors responsible for each sec- tion of the Anthology—the use of the Anthology in class isn’t some afterthought; it’s an integral part of our own work on the project. In seeking people to join us on the editorial board, we looked for coeditors who are dynamic and experienced teachers as well as deeply knowledgeable scholars and clear, lively writers. We’ve seen this teaching companion as the opportunity to share directly with you our best ideas on how to bring these texts alive in class.

To this end, our second goal has been to discuss every major author or com- bination of authors in the Anthology, opening up possible lines of approach, indi- cating good connections that can be made, and sketching important trends in scholarly debate. Third, we’ve tried to be suggestive rather than prescriptive, and we hope to inform instructors who are new to some of this material while also in- triguing people interested in a fresh take on familiar works. This volume gives us a chance to expand on the reasons behind our choices and to indicate ways that we have found these materials to work best during many years of teaching them.

Teaching with and across Groupings

A distinctive feature of our Anthology is the grouping of works in Perspectives sec- tion and as Resonances between texts. Together, these groupings are intended both to set works in cultural context and to link them across time and space. These groupings have a strategic pedagogical function as well. We have observed that in other anthologies, brief author listings rarely seem to get taught. Added with the laudable goal of increasing an anthology’s range and inclusiveness, the new materials

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too often get lost in the shuffle. Our groupings of works cluster shorter selections in ways that make them more likely to be taught, creating a critical mass of read- ings around a compelling literary or social issue and economically providing cul- tural context for the major works around them.

We expect that our contextual groupings will be used variously by different people. A Perspectives section can be taught entirely as a freestanding unit, or it can share a week with an important work or major author.

While entire Perspectives sections can be assigned, individual works within them can also be paired with works elsewhere. For example, in Volume E, Walt Whitman can either be taught with the other writers next to him in “Perspectives: The National Poet” or he can be assigned instead with Emily Dickinson and Rubén Darío later in the volume. Darío’s poem “Walt Whitman,” indeed, makes a direct link to work from, whether the two poets are assigned together or in dif- ferent weeks.

Particularly in the case of our fuller Perspectives sections, like the Enlightenment-era section on “Liberty and Libertines” (Volume D), it can be pro- ductive to assign different readings to different members of the class, with students working in teams to explore contrasting viewpoints; these can then be debated in class or presented as written projects. Students interested in exploring Perspectives section issues in greater depth should be alerted to the extensive bibliographies at the end of each volume; Perspectives sections, as well as individual author listings, have bibliographies that can lead students further into the primary sources.

Obviously, the various Perspectives sections and the juxtapositions of works and Resonances are only a few of the many groupings that could be created. We wouldn’t want any student to come away from the course with the misconception that these were the only issues that mattered in the period or culture in question. Rather, these groupings should be seen as exemplary of the sorts of literary and cul- tural debate that were current in a region or an era. Students can be encouraged— individually or in small groups—to research and develop their own perspectival clusters of materials, using as a point of departure some text or some issue that has particularly intrigued them. They could then present their own Perspectives sec- tion to the class as a whole or write it up and analyze it as a term project.

On a larger scale, we have followed custom in dividing the Anthology accord- ing to the broad period divisions that have become ubiquitous in modern literary study, with further division by region in the first three volumes, but there is no rea- son that a survey course should treat these divisions as sacrosanct. Even within a generally chronological presentation, it can be interesting to have some cross- cutting sessions or weeks, such as an overview of the sonnet, or a section on travel writing, or one on short prose narratives. Such groupings can bring together ma- terial from two, three, or more sections and even volumes of the Anthology. Courses organized by genre or by theme will mine the Anthology for entirely dif- ferent groupings suited to individual needs. We hope and expect that teachers and students alike will use our tables of contents as a starting point for ongoing explo- rations and reconfigurations of their own.

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Reading the Illustrations

Our hundred black-and-white illustrations and fifty color images are very much conceived as part of the Anthology’s teachable material, and the extensive captions for the color images and for many of the black-and-white ones are intended to sig- nal effective avenues of approach to them. Many of the images work directly with particular authors or works, but valuable points can be made with images of more general import, including our six cover illustrations. These are teachable images, not mere window dressing, and a detailed caption for each appears at the end of the list of illustrations that follows each volume’s table of contents.

Inter-arts comparisons have to be made with care, respecting the differences embodied in different media—differences often of patronage and audience as well as of materials and method. We wouldn’t want such comparisons to create sim- plistic images of “The Medieval Mind” or “Oriental Art.” Yet to speak of a culture at all is to recognize that its participants share (and may struggle against) com- monalities of history and of worldview, and the varied artistic productions of a given region or era will often show certain family resemblances. Visual art, archi- tecture, and music can be particularly useful in a world literature classroom be- cause they don’t have to be experienced in translation (except in the significant but more limited translation of reproduction). Important aesthetic values have often been shared by poets and painters (who at times have even been one and the same person), and these values and strategies can often be seen most directly and vividly in visual arts, while they may be somewhat muted in translation. As we know, too, our students are growing up in a culture that is more visual than verbal, and see- ing can help them to then read. For both these reasons, starting from visual art can help sensitize students to what to look for in the literary works of the region and period.

Reading and Listening

An important addition to our Anthology’s resources is our pair of audio CDs, which can show students how literature has played out in the larger aural culture of its times. As with painting, music can illustrate aspects of a culture’s aesthetics, from reconstructed ancient Egyptian and Greek music, to medieval Japanese court music, to Bach and Handel in the Enlightenment and Jelly Roll Morton and Igor Stravinsky in the twentieth century. Equally, our CDs allow students to hear po- etry read—or sung—aloud, in the original and in translation, giving direct access to the sounds of a variety of the languages included in the Anthology and restoring the aural dimension that great poetry has always had. Our twentieth-century selections include several major poets reading their own work, including T. S. Eliot, Anna Akhmatova, and Pablo Neruda, as well as noted performers and poets reading ear- lier poetry: Dylan Thomas declaiming a speech by Milton’s Satan with evident rel- ish, Adrienne Rich reading a haunting poem by the great Urdu poet Ghalib. A number of our selections also show the kinds of cross-cultural connections found

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in many of our Anthology texts, as with a gorgeous early Arab Christian hymn of the Byzantine era on the first CD and a Spanish Jewish lullaby recorded in Eastern Europe on the second CD.

Teaching with the Web

Our course Website is designed to enhance teaching in a variety of ways. It pro- vides an interactive timeline, practice quizzes for major authors and periods, and annotated links for our major authors and groupings, giving students guidance in further exploration and research for projects and term papers. We include a glos- sary of literary and cultural terms and also an innovative audio glossary. This al- lows students to click on each author’s name, and each name or term included in the pronunciation guides at the end of many of our introductions, so as to hear directly how each should be pronounced. Finally, we have a section of original texts and variant translations for each of the Anthology’s six volumes. Each section includes several poems printed in the original and in two or three translations, giv- ing an opportunity to explore the ways meaning shifts in translation. Finally, we have a supplementary component to the new Translations feature in the second edition. Each original text in these sections is also read aloud in a connected audio file, so that students can hear the original as they look at it in print and in trans- lation. These selections can be downloaded for use in class or given as assignments for students to experience on their own.

Typo Alert!

As you and your students read the Anthology, we would be very grateful if you let us know of any typos you find in the Anthology (or indeed, in this volume too). Every page has been proofread with care, and we’ve fixed all the typos we’ve found, even though a few of them had a weird logic of their own. The enraged Achilles, for ex- ample, disputing Agamemnon’s claim on his prize at the start of the Iliad, swears “a great oath,” which in our page proofs became “a great bath”—an oddly appropriate highlighting of the childishness within his heroism, which we corrected with some regret. Some typos are no doubt still hiding in the 6,500 pages of the Anthology and in this companion volume as well. So please let us know of any lingering errors you encounter and also send us broader ideas and suggestions of all sorts.

An Evolving Collaboration

The scope and definition of world literature has been changing rapidly in recent years, and the second edition of The Longman Anthology has provided us with an opportunity to keep pace with these changes. We’ve designed the Anthology to be open and flexible in form, and it is sure to be used in a variety of ways: in courses with a historical, or a generic, or a thematic basis; in survey courses using the full Anthology and in upper-level courses using only one of its volumes; in quarter-

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system as well as semester-based schools; in community colleges, in liberal arts col- leges, and in universities. We have posted onto our course Website selected syllabi and other teaching materials reflecting actual practice as the Anthology is used in class. We invite contributions for this purpose. The print Anthology itself reflects a collaboration between the editorial board and the many reviewers we thank in our Acknowledgments; our reviewers often went far beyond the call of duty in helping us select texts and find the best ways to present them. The publication of the sec- ond edition of the Anthology is only the next stage in this ongoing collaboration with everyone who is using it in class and sharing their experiences with the rest of us who are working on and with the book.

Finally, we also welcome suggestions for continuing improvements to the Anthology itself. Our Anthology is meant as a resource for teachers in an evolving and growing field, and with your help future editions will allow the Anthology to continue to reflect these changes. So we would be delighted to hear what things you would most like to see added in the future and to learn what existing con- junctions and combinations work best for you, what others might better be rethought. We can be reached by e-mail at the addresses below or by letter at the Department of English and Comparative Literature, 602 Philosophy Hall, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 (David Damrosch) and the Department of Literature, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20016-8047 (David L. Pike).

Our coeditors and we hope that the entries in this teaching companion will assist you in teaching our Anthology. We hope too that you’ll find The Longman Anthology of World Literature as enjoyable to use as it has been to create, and we look forward to hearing from you as you work with it in the coming years.

—David Damrosch, dnd2@columbia.edu

—David L. Pike, dpike18@gmail.com

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MyLiteratureLab offers the best multimedia resources for literature. The site includes detailed online lectures, interactive readings, a glossary of lit- erary and critical terms, extensive help with the writing and research processes, avoiding plagiarism tutorials, and Exchange (Longman’s online peer and instructor review program).

Every Longman Lecture in MyLiteratureLab includes thoughtful ques- tions to prompt discussion and/or to become a topic for an essay. As you have probably already found, the Guide to MyLiterature Lab is in the front of this supplement for your convenience.

MyLiteratureLab Browser Tune-up

To use all of the features of MyLiteratureLab, you will need to install the following plug-ins: Shockwave and Adobe Acrobat Reader. Use the Browser Tune-up to check if you have all of these plug-ins installed and to install them if you do not.

Register to use MyLiteratureLab Resources in your WebCT Course

You will need the access code that is beneath the pull tab of your access code card that either came with your purchase of a new textbook or that you pur- chased separately. (If you do not have an access code you can purchase ac- cess online through the MyLiteratureLab site in your WebCT link.) You only have to register once. Once you have created your own, unique log-in name and password, you will use them each time you link to MyLiteratureLab resources from your course. Whenever you link to the

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Guide to

http://www.myliteraturelab.com

You may check the Instructor Resources section of MyLiteratureLab for a more extensive Faculty Teaching Guide.

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MyLiteratureLab resources from your course for the first time during an on- line session, you will be asked for your log in name and password. Type the name and password that you created during registration. You will not be asked again for your log-in name and password to access other MyLiteratureLab resources. If you close your Internet browser, end your on- line session, or turn off your computer, you may have to enter them again.

Longman Lectures

Experience how listening to literature being read can bring it to life! Listen to these richly illustrated concise ten-minute audio “lectures” narrated by Longman’s textbook authors to help you connect with authors and works. Each lecture is divided into three segments, and each segment concludes with Questions for Thinking and Writing to help you analyze and reflect on what you have heard.

Interactive Readings

Read and explicate stories, poems, and scenes from plays through a series of interactive questions that guide you in the study of the literary elements. Select a Literary Element to view its Interactive Reading and Questions for Thinking and Writing.

Introduction

Welcome, instructors, to MyLiteratureLab. This brief guide highlights the main benefits and features of MyLiteratureLab. In this guide you will find an overview of the three main sections.

1. The Literary Elements: Testing Your Knowledge 2. Where Literature Comes to Life: The Longman Lectures 3. Writing and Research: Tools and Techniques

For more extensive information on these portions of MyLiteratureLab, in- cluding detailed descriptions of each of the Longman Lectures and teach- ing tips for using it in your classroom, please see the Instructor Resources section.

The Literary Elements: Testing Your Knowledge

This section of the site features Diagnostics (linked to the Glossary of Literary and Critical Terms) and Interactive Readings.

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Diagnostics

The Diagnostics, including multiple-choice and fill-in-the-blank questions, enable students to assess their understanding of literary theory and criti- cism by quizzing them on terms such as imagery, archetype, point of view, and soliloquy. Upon completing each diagnostic, students are forwarded to the Glossary of Literary and Critical Terms to fill any gaps in their knowledge.

Interactive Readings

The Interactive Readings section is designed to help students understand how to use literary elements to interpret works of literature. Each reading focuses on a particular literary element, such as word choice, tone and style, and character analysis. As students read a particular selection, key pas- sages are highlighted. When students click on the highlighted text, a box appears that contains explanations, analysis, and/or questions highlighting how the passage can be interpreted using the literary elements. These read- ings can be assigned as homework, and students may be required to submit their written responses to the questions.

Where Literature Comes to Life: The Longman Lectures

This section of MyLiteratureLab features a menu of nine-minute lectures. All of the Longman Lectures are given by Longman’s authors—critically ac- claimed writers, award-winning teachers, and performance poets. Longman’s “guest lecturers” discuss some of the most commonly taught lit- erary works and authors in depth. In the process, they encourage students to analyze stories, poems, and plays, and develop thoughtful essay ideas.

The lectures are richly illustrated with words and images to contextu- alize and enrich the content of each lecture. As you will hear, each lecture is divided into three parts—Reading, Interpreting, and Writing. Each part of each lecture is accompanied by a diverse selection of Critical Thinking and Writing Questions. Some questions provide feedback and suggestions for online research and essay development. Students’ answers to the ques- tions can be e-mailed to you or used to spark class discussion.

As a whole, the lectures are designed to complement in-class discussion of particular works and augment related assignments in your syllabus. Available to students around the clock, the three-part structure of the lec- tures encourages students to read and interpret works more thoughtfully and spark ideas for research and writing. The lectures may also be assigned as extra-credit work or be used as an emergency substitute instructor.

Below we discuss the primary purpose of each part of the lectures and provide examples.

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Part 1: Reading

Students often are reluctant readers. The first part of each lecture, Reading, sparks student interest through the lecturer’s interpretative reading. The reading of a key passage places the work within a context that appeals to stu- dents. Some readings are dramatic and performative; others provide analy- sis about how a work is structured. The lecturers’ varying approaches to their subject matter help reach students with different learning styles. At the same time, related visuals help students see the work while reading it. Here are a few examples of opening statements in Part 1 of the lectures.

• From Shakespeare’s sonnets lecture: In Shakespeare’s Sonnets (published in 1609 but probably written in the middle 1590s), love—whether for the fair youth or the dark lady—is only one of several themes. Some of these themes—for instance beauty and the tragic effect of time on beauty—are easily connected with love. Let’s glimpse a few of the themes by looking at the opening line of some of the sonnets.

• From the Flannery O’Connor “A Good Man Is Hard to Find” lecture: What if I told you about a writer who included in her works a youth who, in baptizing his mentally defective nephew, manages to drown him, or a woman with a wooden leg and a Ph.D. in philosophy who . . . is robbed of her wooden leg and stripped of her self-confident belief in nothing . . . ? If I then told you that this author is a devout Catholic, would you be astonished? If so, you are not yet familiar with the works of Flannery O’Connor.

• From the James Baldwin “Sonny’s Blues” lecture: From the opening scene . . . until the final scene in a darkened nightclub when Sonny, bathed in blue light, performs the magic of improvisational jazz on his piano, these two brothers move in and out of each others’ lives, attempting to communicate but most often failing.

Part 2: Interpreting

Many students lack confidence in their ability to analyze and interpret works of literature. Some students are impatient to find the “right” answer. Part 2 of each lecture provides provocative “keys” for understanding. The lecturers’ comments humanize both the work and its author. For example:

• From the Seamus Heaney “Digging” lecture: Not only is he [Heaney] honoring the work of his father and grandfather, he is using his own kind of digging—that is, writing poetry—to show us the worth of the work they did. And in this respect, he honors and carries on their tradition—but with a different tool. As such, it’s a poem about writing poetry—with digging as its metaphor.

• From the James Joyce “Araby” lecture: Notice how the bright images of his love, Mangan’s sister, always appear out of the dreary background that sur-

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rounds them. Compare the words and phrases that are used to describe Mangan’s sister and the boy’s feelings about her with the language that de- scribes his neighborhood or his everyday activities. Let the words open your senses—visualize and feel the bright, warm image of Mangan’s sister as her dress swings and the soft rope of her hair tosses from side to side and contrast it with the dark, cold image of the short days of winter and the acrid smell of ashpits and horse stables in the surrounding neighborhood.

• From the Billy Collins “The Names” lecture: A typical Collins poem be- gins in the morning. The poet walks around his empty house, thinks about last night’s supper or tonight’s bottle of wine, puts on some jazz, goes out and runs a few errands or takes a train into the city, comes home, looks out the win- dow, and makes a poem. To say that Collins writes a low-pressure kind of po- etry is like observing that a flat tire could stand a little air. It’s the poetic equivalent of an episode of Seinfeld, “the show about nothing.” But . . . I sympathize. Indeed, I’m a little envious. Collins’s saving grace is the wit that laces his observations of everyday matters. Poets, he says, “have enough to do / complaining about the price of tobacco, // passing the dripping ladle, / and singing songs to a bird in a cage. // We are busy doing nothing. . . .”

• From the Hawthorne “Young Goodman Brown” lecture: Let’s consider two specific ways to better understand and enjoy this famous story. First, can you sum up its theme—what’s its central message? In some stories, the theme is easy to find. You can just underline its general statements, those that appear to sum up some large truth. In a fable, the theme is often stated in a moral at the end, such as: “Be careful in choosing your friends.” In Stephen Crane’s story of a shipwreck, “The Open Boat,” Crane tells us, among other things, that “it occurs to a man that Nature does not regard him as important.” But Hawthorne’s story is trickier. If you underline its general statements and ex- pect one of them to be its theme, you’ll miss the whole point of the story. See paragraph 65: “Evil is the nature of mankind.” Does Hawthorne believe that? Do you? Those are the words of the Devil, always a bad guy to believe. No, after you finish reading the story, especially pondering its closing paragraph, you can sum its theme much better in your own words.

Part 3: Writing In Part 3, Writing, the lectures further the discussions in Part 2 and help students form their own interpretations. The historical and cultural back- drop of the times, the writer’s life experiences, and a close reading of the text all help students make connections. The lectures are peppered with ideas that students might pursue to write a critical essay or even a research paper. Here are a few examples:

• From the Seamus Heaney “Digging” lecture: While both use natural im- agery, Yeats writes of nature in idealized terms that seem to transcend everyday

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life. Images like “Dropping the veils of morning to where the cricket sings” and “midnight’s all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow” remove us from the gritty world of toil. For Heaney, nature is anything but an escape. It is the here and now substance of everyday living—the harsh “rasping” of the spade—the “strain- ing rump”—and the “heaving of sods.” No pun intended on the title “Digging,” but Heaney’s poetry is much earthier and grounded than that of Yeats. And much of this attitude toward nature can be attributed to his own background.

• From the Baldwin “Sonny’s Blues” lecture: Though the setting in Harlem in the mid twentieth century is in many ways crucial to an understanding of the problems faced by these two African American brothers, their story is uni- versal. Therefore, an essay on the theme or themes in “Sonny’s Blues” can be especially informative. Ask yourself what major ideas Baldwin is suggesting in the story. One theme, the theme of learning wisdom through suffering, is as old as literature, and Baldwin shows us through the searching and suffering of the two brothers that literature can share with us the wisdom of the ages, that we can learn about the agony and the beauty and the creativity within our- selves by vicariously sharing theirs.

• From the Kate Chopin “The Story of an Hour” lecture: Kate Chopin published several of her stories in the magazines of her time. However, Vogue and The Century initially refused to publish “The Story of an Hour.” The Century regarded the story as “immoral” and Vogue only published it after Chopin’s Bayou Folk became a success. Discuss “The Story of an Hour” in terms of the artistic, moral, and intellectual sensibilities of Chopin’s time. Consider why Chopin’s story was branded as “immoral” and why literary per- ceptions have changed over the years.

• From the Sophocles Oedipus the King lecture: Over time, this play has drawn many conflicting interpretations. Here are a few long-debated questions for you to think about. Is Oedipus a helpless, passive tool of the gods? Who is responsible for his terrible downfall? Does he himself bring about his own mis- fortune? Is he an innocent victim? If the downfall of a person of high estate (as Aristotle thought tragedies generally show) is due to a tragic flaw or weak- ness in the person’s character, does Oedipus have any tragic flaw? If he does, how would you define it? Consider his speeches, his acts, his treatment of oth- ers. Does Oedipus seem justified in afflicting himself with blindness? Does his punishment fit, or fail to fit, his supposed crime?

Critical Thinking and Writing by Lecture Each part of the three-part lectures is accompanied by Questions for Thinking and Writing. These questions help reinforce the content given in the lecture and provide helpful suggestions for research and writing. Students can respond to the questions directly on screen and have their re- sponses e-mailed to you.

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Writing and Research: Tools and Techniques

From formulating an original idea to citing sources, this section of MyLiteratureLab offers students step-by-step guidance for writing powerful critical essays and research papers. This section of the site can reinforce and augment the writing coverage in your text. Below is a brief description of what each section covers.

Overview

Writing and Research contains seven main sections. Five are discussed here, while we cover Exchange and Avoiding Plagiarism in more detail below. Writing About Literature facilitates effective writing by providing useful information on both the writing process and writing about litera- ture, including such key topics as invention, planning, and strategies for or- ganizing, drafting, and revising. Writing the Research Paper offers com- prehensive instruction for writing research papers, including finding a topic, evaluating sources, taking notes, tips for summarizing, developing a thesis, suggestions for organizing the paper, choosing a pattern of develop- ment, guidance for writing introductions and conclusions, and compre- hensive MLA documentation. A dozen Student Papers are integrated throughout, providing helpful models of a variety of critical essays and the research paper. Comprehensive coverage of MLA Documentation pro- vides numerous models of all types for citing a range of sources, from in- terviews to periodicals to electronic sources. Access to our Tutor Center is provided free of charge with your subscription to MyLiteratureLab. The Tutor Center gives your students help with reviewing papers for organiza- tion, flow, argument, and consistent grammar errors. Students can contact tutors toll-free via phone, e-mail, Web access, or fax, often at times when your campus writing center is not available.

Using Exchange

Exchange, Pearson’s powerful interactive tool, allows students to com- ment on each other’s drafts and instructors to review and grade papers— all online. More information about Exchange can be found in the Instructor Resources section of MyLiteratureLab. Please visit the Instructor Resources area to learn about creating and administering Exchange as part of your teaching apparatus. Highlights of Exchange in- clude the ability to:

• Quickly and easily add comments at the word, sentence, paragraph, or paper level.

• Save and re-use your favorite comments.

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• Help students identify and overcome common grammar errors through links to practice exercises and an online handbook.

• Decide how many students are in each group. • Assign students by name, or create random groups. • Let all students see comments, or only the author and instructor. • Allow students to post comments anonymously. • And more!

Avoiding Plagiarism

Avoiding Plagiarism allows students to work through interactive tutorials to learn how to cite and document sources responsibly in MLA format. This section guides students through a step-by-step tutorial, complete with self- tests and items for extended analysis. The steps include:

• What is Plagiarism? • When to Document • Using Print & Electronic Sources • Avoiding Plagiarism

� Attribution � Quotation Marks � Citation � Paraphrase � Loyalty to Source � Works Cited � Citation for Images

• Extended Analysis • Wrap-Up

Each step in the MLA tutorial guides students to read and click to navigate to the next step. Students do not need to complete the tutorial on one visit to the site; they can jump ahead to continue their work or return to previ- ous steps to review an earlier discussion. The Avoiding Plagiarism tutorial contains many practice sets for students.

Extended Analysis

The extended analysis section allows students to apply what they have learned from the Avoiding Plagiarism tutorials. Here students can test how well they recognize plagiarism as they read a student research paper. Students must pay careful attention to the sources that are being quoted, paraphrased, or summarized in consideration of the seven rules of avoid- ing plagiarism discussed during the tutorial.

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Tips for Instructors and Suggestions for Use

Student writers can benefit from their work in Avoiding Plagiarism through- out a composition course and at different stages in the research writing process. Avoiding Plagiarism helps students to correctly paraphrase, summa- rize, and quote source material, as well as cite and document sources in both MLA and APA style. Students can use the Avoiding Plagiarism tutori- als on their own, working through the tutorials at their own pace and re- turning to them as needed throughout their research projects. Most pages or “steps” in each tutorial can also be printed for quick student reference.

We encourage you to explore the tutorial yourself so that you under- stand the tutorial’s content and can make connections to your own course, your students and their research projects, and to other areas of MyLiteratureLab. We encourage you to identify teaching opportunities, learn to navigate MyLiteratureLab, and view the additional resources and links.

Students should also be encouraged to review Avoiding Plagiarism be- fore they submit both drafts and final versions of their research projects for review. With peer review of drafts, for example, students who have re- viewed the appropriate tutorial will be better prepared to give informed feedback about documentation of sources in other student papers. And students who review the tutorial before submitting papers to instructors are more likely to correct their in-text and end-of-text citations during the final editing stage.

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Volume D The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

The World the Mughals Made

Babur’s defeat of the Afghan Sultan Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat (near the capital Delhi) in 1526 C.E. inaugurated one of the most materially opulent, politically pow- erful, and culturally rich periods of imperial stability in South Asian history. Various dynasties of Indo-Muslim rulers had sat on the throne of Delhi from the thirteenth century onward, a period generally known as the Delhi Sultanate. Babur, however, saw himself as superior to these Delhi sultans, the last of whom he had defeated soundly in battle, and felt that he was carrying on the tradition of the great conquerors Mahmud of Ghazni, his illustrious great-grandfather Timur (Tamerlane), and his matrilineal ancestor Genghis Khan. But unlike these power- ful predecessors, all of whom had at one time or another been lured by the wealth of Hindustan and quickly departed once they got it, Babur was forced by circum- stance to stay in India after his victories. In doing so, he laid the foundations of a “dynamic, centralized, complex” empire (John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire, 1993, p. 1) that was to last for some three centuries. One scholar summarizes the Mughals’ place in world history thus:

[Mughal] India far outstripped in sheer size and resources its two rival early modern Islamic empires—Safavid Persia and Ottoman Turkey. The Mughal emperor’s lands and subjects were comparable only to those ruled by his con- temporary, the Ming emperor in early modern China. . . . The “Great Mughal’s” wealth and grandeur were proverbial. His coffers housed the plun- dered treasures of dozens of conquered dynasties; his regalia and throne dis- played some of the most spectacular precious stones ever mounted. Nearly all observers were impressed by the opulence and sophistication of the Mughal empire. The ceremonies, etiquette, music, poetry, and exquisitely executed paintings and objects of the imperial court fused together to create a distinctive aristocratic high culture. (Richards, The Mughal Empire, p. 1)

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Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur

When we think about premodern kings and emperors, especially the greatest among them, we often picture solely the imperial pomp and splendor: the courts, the poets, the dancing girls, the royal processions and regal festivals. How intrigu- ing—and refreshing—therefore, to read Babur’s memoirs. The impression left by the excerpts provided here is much the same as that left by reading the entire work— that of a humble, meticulous, cultured, supple intellect.

Babur was of course a conqueror, and his memoirs do not shy away from top- ics such as kingly honor and the martial responsibilities of the ruling elite, as expressed in his letter to Humayun:

Through God’s grace you will defeat your enemies, take their territory, and make your friends happy by overthrowing the foe. God willing, this is your time to risk your life and wield your sword. Do not fail to make the most of an opportunity that presents itself. Indolence and luxury do not suit kingship. . . . Conquest tolerates not inaction; the world is his who hastens most. When one is master one may rest from everything— except being king. (Vol. D, p. 17)

But such sentiments do not set Babur apart from his time. Rather, one can look at Babur’s sense of urgency here as part of an overriding conviction, culled from his own experience of being forced from his homeland by the Uzbeks, that if you don’t seize the opportunity to rule and conquer, you will be ruled and conquered by someone else. War was simply part of the elite social landscape, and being good at it was nothing to be ashamed of.

Yet it is important to stress the sense of fear and danger with which men like Babur and his army constantly lived. We see a hint of this in Babur’s need to “encourage his troops,” among whom “manly words or courageous ideas were being heard from no one” (Vol. D, p. 16). Babur expresses this state of mind explic- itly in another section of the memoirs, when some of his men, frustrated, hot, and tired, want to leave Hindustan and go back to Central Asia. He tells them:

For some years we have struggled, experienced difficulties, traversed long distances, led the army, and cast ourselves and our soldiers into the dan- gers of war and battle. . . . What compels us to throw away for no rea- son at all the realms we have taken at such cost? Shall we go back to Kabul and remain poverty-stricken? (Wheeler M. Thackston, The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor, 2002, p. 358)

This last question goes to the heart of Babur’s motivations for entering India. The economics of the drive to conquer India have rarely been emphasized as much as they should, and men like Babur (or Mahmud of Ghazni before him, c. 1000) have often been portrayed solely as Muslim holy warriors, intent on religious war against

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peaceful Hindus. The rhetoric of jihad and iconoclasm were often employed, to be sure, having, as Babur blithely observes, “favorable propagandistic effect on friend and foe” (Vol. D, p. 16). But the reality was much more complex.

Babur rarely refers to the natives of India as “infidels.” One exception is dur- ing his discussion of India’s “wonderful weights and measures” and “excellent sys- tem of numbering”: “Most of the people of Hindustan are infidels, whom the people of India call Hindu. Most Hindus believe in reincarnation” (Thackston, Baburnama, p. 352). This is an observation, pure and simple, and can hardly be considered a call to jihad. His notorious dislike of the people whom he encounters in India—including the “rustic and insensitive” Afghan sultans of Delhi (Baburnama, p. 321)—had mostly to do with what he deemed to be their lack of refinement and gentility: “Hindustan is a place of little charm. There is no beauty in its people, no graceful social intercourse, no poetic talent or understanding, no etiquette, nobility, or manliness” (Baburnama, p. 352). Indeed, in the most explicit remarks on the nature of kingship cited above, he makes no mention of even Islam or the duties of a Muslim monarch, much less of iconoclasm, of the need to war with and convert infidels, or any such jihad-like motivations. Even his celebrated “pledge of temperance” (Vol. D, p. 17) can be read as a garden-variety quid pro quo with the Almighty (“I’ll stop drinking, you help me win”), coming as it does dur- ing a period of self-doubt immediately before Babur’s crucial battle with the intran- sigent Rajasthani king, Rana Sangha. Thus, outside of the martial context, Babur’s attitude toward the Indian population, Hindu and Muslim alike, could be charac- terized by indifference (or sometimes disdain), rather than vehement religious antagonism. Remember too that, in order to gain hold of this infidel land, Babur defeated a Muslim king at Panipat.

We need to temper this general attitude, however, with Babur’s clear desire to understand India. Page after page of Babur’s memoirs contain detailed remarks on the subcontinent’s flora and fauna, weights and measures, timekeeping methods, and monetary denominations. A good example of his desire to first comprehend and then improve upon the native Hindustani practices is found in his discussion of divisions of time. Babur claims to have recognized a flaw in the Hindustani method of sounding the watch and orders a slight change: “It was a great idea,” he explains. But Babur shows no interest in imposing his own system of timekeeping on the native Indians. Instead, he works with the existing method and establishes a system amenable to all concerned. This trivial example is suggestive of Babur’s entire approach to ruling north India and is representative of the many gestures of cultural accommodation made by all the Mughal emperors.

It is also fascinating to examine the family ties expressed in these excerpts. Modern historians have tended to treat the Baburnama and other such chronicles as sourcebooks for names and dates of political history; their uses for social and cultural history were, if not entirely overlooked, then certainly never tapped in the way they merit. In his letter to Humayun, Babur’s gentle chiding of Humayun’s poor penmanship and prose style (Vol. D, p. 18) shows a human, paternal side rarely acknowledged for conquerors of his stature. His remarks on the naming of

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“al-Aman” (Vol. D, p. 17) reveal not only something about the sociolinguistic spec- trum of northern India at the time and the fact that such an Arabicized name would seem out of place in Hindustan but also something about Babur’s personal- ity and his sense of émigré pragmatism that people would simply have a tough time saying the boy’s name.

The scholarly literature has long characterized Mughal family life exclusively by intrigues and bloody wars of succession, but here we see a different, gentler, more loving side of the imperial family. Indeed, students will be fascinated to hear the story of Babur’s death. It is reported that Humayun had fallen seriously ill, and none of the imperial physicians could find a successful treatment. Desperate and fearing for his son’s life, Babur, on the instructions of a mystic, walked around Humayun’s sickbed three times and offered himself to God if only his son would get well. The offer apparently was accepted, for Humayun recovered, and Babur himself died soon thereafter, in December 1530.

Jahangir

We get more evidence of the intimate family atmosphere of the royal household from Jahangir, who informs us that his father always called him by the pet name Shaykhu Baba, rather than by his given name, Salim (the epithet “Sultan” is simply an honorific, which by Mughal times referred not, as in previous eras, to the reign- ing monarch but to his heirs, the equivalent of “prince”) (Vol. D, p. 20). Salim’s rela- tionship with Akbar was notoriously fractious, so bad that at one point, feeling that his father would pass him over and nominate Salim’s own son as successor instead of him, he had his father’s closest confidante and advisor Abu’l Fazl assassinated and sought to rebel, albeit unsuccessfully. (For a popular, if historically inaccurate, depiction of Akbar and Salim’s relationship, you might consider screening the epic Bollywood film Mughal-e Azam—“The Exalted Mughal”—which is available on DVD, in Urdu with English subtitles.) We needn’t deny the contentiousness of Mughal court politics, especially around the issue of succession, to appreciate that the royal family was capable of great intimacy and expressions of love, as Babur’s writings also show. Indeed, whatever their disagreements might have been, Jahangir refers to his father with utmost humility and respect throughout the Jahangirnama.

A subtly revealing moment in his memoirs is Jahangir’s choice of name for himself, as recounted in “Designation of Name and Honorific” (p. 20). In addition to demonstrating the coalescence of religious inspiration (“an inspiration from the beyond suggested to me”), political ambition (“the labor of emperors is world dom- ination”), and astrological coincidence (“my accession occurred at the time of the rising of the majestic greater luminary”) that went into such a decision, we get an important insight here into the Mughals’ sense of their global significance, as well as the global audience for whom Jahangir is writing. It is unlikely that anyone in Hindustan would have confused Jahangir (Sultan Salim) with the Ottoman Sultans Selim I and Selim II; the fact that he is worried about such mistaken identity (“I should change my name lest it be confused with the caesars of Anatolia,” p. 20)

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indicates the cosmopolitan reach of Persian literature at the time and its vast, quasi- global audience. Jahangir knows—or at least hopes—that literati and intellectuals far from the subcontinent will be reading his book, as is also evident by his gesture of converting Hindustani measurements to their globally better-known Iranian equiv- alents (“By weight that much is six Hindustani seers, which is equivalent to one and a half Iranian maunds,” p. 21).

But writing for a global audience is not the same as pandering to it. Unlike the era of Babur and Humayun, by the time Jahangir acceded to the throne the Mughal Empire was firmly established as a global power. The sense of political, ter- ritorial, and cultural competition with the Ottomans of Turkey, and especially the Safavids of Iran (who had helped Jahangir’s grandfather Humayun regain Hindustan after he lost it to the Afghan Sher Shah Suri) becomes more and more pronounced during Jahangir’s reign. Jahangir notes this explicitly, and it is espe- cially significant that he does so in terms of India’s capacity for religious tolerance during his father’s reign:

Followers of various religions had a place in the broad scope of his [Akbar’s] peerless empire—unlike other countries of the world, like Iran, where there is room for only Shiites, and Rum [Anatolia], Turan [Central Asia], and Hindustan [the North India of the Delhi Sultanate, or that con- trolled by the Afghans], where there is room only for Sunnis. Just as all groups and the practitioners of all religions have a place within the spa- cious circle of God’s mercy, in accordance with the dictum that a shadow must follow its source, in my father’s realm, which ended at the salty sea, there was room for practitioners of various sects and beliefs, both true and imperfect, and strife and altercation were not allowed. Sunni and Shiite worshipped in one mosque, and Frank and Jew in one congregation. Utter peaceableness was his established way. [This refers to Akbar’s famous pol- icy of sulh-i kull, or “peace with all.”] He conversed with the good of every group, every religion, and gave his attentions to each in accordance with their station and ability to understand. (Wheeler M. Thackston, The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India, 1999, p. 40)

Of course, the Mughals were nominally Muslim emperors. But Akbar’s reign is justifiably famous for its consistent policy of reaching out to all groups: socio- politically, as in his marriage alliances with powerful Rajput families; culturally, by commissioning grand translation projects of the Sanskrit classics, as well as insti- tuting Persian as the official, nonsectarian, cosmopolitan language of administra- tion for the whole of his lands; and religiously, by holding special court assemblies for the exchange of theological principles, by giving generous land grants to pious groups of all faiths, and by abolishing many of the taxes generally levied exclusively on non-Muslims. Akbar had set the stage for an ecumenical approach with his imperial Din-i Ilahi, a generalized “religion of God,” a major component of which was the policy of sulh-i kull. Thus Jahangir’s conversations with the hermit Jadrup

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(Vol. D, pp. 21–23) can be seen in the context of this tolerant, inquisitive imperial sensibility. Moreover, in the wake of Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi, it is significant that Jahangir has no difficulty in seeing the ascetic practices of the Hindu Jadrup as not simply parallel to, or a tolerable alternative to, but in fact as the same as Sufism, the Islamic mystical tradition—“He is not devoid of learning and has studied well the science of the Vedanta, which is the science of Sufism” (p. 22). Similar is Jahangir’s use of quotations from Rumi’s and Sana’i’s Persian works to describe the Hindu hermit. Part of what had made Persian such an attractive choice to Akbar as a lan- guage of administration was its long poetic tradition of expressing nonspecific, almost secular mystical ideals (see Muzaffar Alam, “The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan,” in Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia, ed. Sheldon Pollock, 2003; and Muzaffar Alam, The Languages of Political Islam, 2004). Here we see that tradition—and its capacity for crossing com- munal boundaries—in action.

Much of Jahangir’s personality comes through in these few selections, and much as with Babur, we hear the day-to-day voice of the emperor here: frank discus- sions of his bouts with alcoholism and substance abuse, as well as those of his friend Inayat Khan (Jahangir’s brother Daniyal, too, waged an unsuccessful battle with alco- holism and died as a result); his tender reminiscences of his namesake, Shaykh Salim Chishti; his regret and his understanding of the frightening power of his own words as emperor, even when spoken in jest, at the death of the blacksmith Kalyan.

We also pick up hints of what it meant to live in the increasingly globalized world of the seventeenth century, specifically in the description of Muqarrab Khan’s trip to Goa. The Portuguese had begun making forays into the Indian Ocean maritime routes as early as the late fifteenth century. By Jahangir’s time, more and more Western trading companies were making their presence felt in India by establishing ports, trading outposts, and even full-fledged principalities (with permission of the Mughal emperor). In addition to more conventional trade in precious metals, spices, and textiles, there were cultural exchanges of “every sort of thing and object,” including the “rarities” prized by a fascinated Jahangir (p. 23). Ironically, the same forces of globalization that made such wonders available at Jahangir’s court would enrich and empower the Mughals’ competitors—specifically, the British East India Company—enough to usher in the colonial era of Mughal decline and Western domination. But in the early seventeenth century, at the height of Mughal power, such an outcome was inconceivable.

Mirza Muhammad Rafi “Sauda” and Mir Muhammad Taqi “Mir”

During the eighteenth century, the landscape of power and dominance in Hindustan began to change dramatically. Following the death of Aurangzeb, Jahangir’s grand- son and the last of the so-called Great Mughals, a succession of less charismatic, less effective emperors followed who became ever more vulnerable to the plots and intrigues of ambitious cadres of nobles, as well as to the growing imperial preten-

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sions of regional powers such as the Sikhs, Jats, Rohillas, and especially Marathas, who had previously been more or less willing to accept Mughal sovereignty (see Muzaffar Alam, The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and the Punjab 1707–1748, 1986). Meanwhile, Delhi began to suffer brutal raids from outsiders— most notably those of the Iranian Nadir Shah in 1739 and the Afghan Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1748—and the British, for their part, were steadily consolidating their hold on the Gangetic plain.

This state of affairs resulted in a growing sense of anxiety and helplessness among the people of eighteenth-century Delhi, including the two illustrious poets excerpted in Volume D, Mirza Muhammad Rafi‘ Sauda and Mir Muhammad Taqi “Mir”. Common parlance began to note the irony in the fact that the emperor Shah Alam II controlled nothing beyond a nearby Delhi suburb (see C. M. Naim, introduction to Zikr-i Mir: The Autobiography of the Eighteenth Century Mughal Poet Mir Muhammad Taqi Mir, 1999—Naim’s introduction and appendices are extremely insightful, informative, and well worth reading for anyone planning to teach Mir). The poet Mir bemoaned the regional uprisings and raids by outside plunderers much more explicitly: “Sikhs, Marathas, thieves, pickpockets, beggars, kings—all prey on us / Happy is he who has no wealth; this is the true wealth today” (cited in Ralph Russell and Khurshidul Islam, Three Mughal Poets, 1968, p. 221). When the Mughal emperor could not even safeguard his own capital, what indeed was the point of seeking financial security?

This undercurrent of sociopolitical instability and popular fatalism is the con- text for Sauda’s scathing commentary in “How to Earn a Living in Hindustan” and has historically been viewed as the cause of the pathos evident in so much of Mir’s poetry. Sauda’s satires, however, are not always directed at society’s ills. He was will- ing to go after everything under the sun, including specific people who might have piqued his ire, and even, on at least one occasion, the heat of the sun itself, as Russell and Islam note:

The atmosphere of his satires is the atmosphere of the open-air political meeting, where the speaker and heckler are all the time trying to score off each other, and the audience thoroughly enjoys every hit that goes home. . . . Not all of them are personal attacks. Some are sheer clown- ing, like modern slapstick comedy. One is a ferocious attack on the intol- erable heat of the Indian summer. (Three Mughal Poets, p. 42)

Such caustic salvos, however, could have dangerous consequences, as one famous incident shows. One of his rival poets became so upset at Sauda’s attacks that he sent a gang of his pupils (shagirds) to waylay the satirist, and it was only the inter- vention of Sauda’s patron, the Nawab of Lucknow, that saved him from physical harm. All in all, however, there is no doubt that a sense of lost nobility in society at large underlies much of Sauda’s critique. As Russell and Islam write:

In demanding, so to speak, that his social ideals be realized, he did not feel that he was demanding the impossible, for he believed that they had

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already been realized once before—and only a generation or two before his time. Thus one of his satires contrasts the Delhi of former times with that of his own day. (Three Mughal Poets, p. 59)

But it is important also to emphasize that the picture of Mughal decline— which was put to much invidious use by the British, who sought thereby to legiti- mate their own imperial ambitions—is only one way to characterize Sauda and Mir’s eighteenth-century milieu.

This narrative of a terminal decline is only too familiar. It, nevertheless, expresses a specific and narrow perspective: a Delhi or Mughal-centred point of view. The same years, looked at from Lucknow, Hyderabad or Murshidabad, or through the eyes of the Marathas, the Jats, and the Sikhs, were a time of empowerment and resurgence when those regional courts and cultures came into their own. The same holds true from the point of view of Urdu too. The eighteenth century marks the emergence of Urdu—more accurately Rekhta, Hindi or Hindui, as it was then vari- ously called—as the preferred literary language of the elite of Delhi and the Gangetic plain, instead of Persian. (C. M. Naim, introduction to Zikr-i Mir: The Autobiography of the Eighteenth Century Mughal Poet, Mir Muhammad Taqi ‘Mir’, 1723–1810, 1999, pp. 1–2)

Both of these trends, the rise of regional courts and the shift to Urdu, had effects on and were in turn affected by the careers of Sauda and Mir. Both poets were forced to leave turbulent Mughal Delhi in search of patronage and wound up find- ing financial security and lending their prestige and cultured aura to the newly wealthy court of the Nawabs of Awadh in Lucknow—a crucial development in the emergence of Lucknow as a center of culture to rival Delhi in the late eighteenth century. Of course, poets were often ambivalent about their reciprocal obligations to the patron, as evidenced by Sauda’s gripe: “But perhaps you have thought of becoming a poet . . . he is trying all the time to compose an ode to his patron” (Vol. D, p. 27). Mir, too, had some famous squabbles with his various benefactors. The fact remains, however, that poets depended on patrons for money (perhaps a source of their proud bitterness), and patrons needed poets to establish their reputations as worldly, cultured men.

More generally speaking, one could argue that the success of Urdu literary cul- ture itself was made possible in part by the legitimacy provided by the success of Mir, Sauda, and a handful of others in the first generation or so after the shift away from Persian. They showed that Urdu could be just as expressive, cultured, and refined as Persian—in their eyes, perhaps even more so—and was an equally viable literary language, suitable to all poetic genres. It should be pointed out, though, that even while Urdu gained currency as the literary lingua franca of eighteenth- century North India, Persian remained the language of all serious prose (including Mir’s autobiography) and continued to be used for poetry as well, by luminaries

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such as Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib and Muhammad Iqbal, throughout the nine- teenth and well into the twentieth centuries.

The centrality of the ghazal in Urdu literary culture, and Mir’s place as one of the most nimble practitioners of this lyric genre, cannot really be overstated. Part of the difficulty of accessing this wealth of poetic output, from the instructor’s per- spective, is the conventionality of the genre itself. The ghazal world is populated with certain stock characters and references, and the poet could use, associate, and contrast these freely, with the expectation that his or her audience would see the connections, the “nets of awareness” at which any given couplet hinted. (The phrase comes from Frances W. Pritchett’s excellent study, Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and Its Critics, 1994; especially recommended is Part Two, “Flowers on the Branch of Invention.”)

Many of these conventional figures are represented in our selection of Mir’s couplets. For example, we see in the first few couplets the pangs of one of the most popular ghazal protagonists: the overwrought lover, burning with anticipation, driven to madness and social scorn by devotion to an inaccessible or cruel beloved. Mir’s description of his father in the autobiography could just as easily apply to the ghazal protagonist: “He possessed a suffering heart but was ever eager for more suf- fering” (Vol. D, p. 32). The paradigmatic example of such a hero-lover, willing and eager to endure all hardships, is the legendary Majnun, who lost his sanity pining for his beloved Laila and wound up wandering the desert talking to plants and ani- mals, desperate for any news of her whereabouts. The poet has only to use the word majnun in his couplet, and a whole host of associations will flash before the minds of connoisseurs: deserts, dust, madness, the inaccessible beloved, various plants and animals, and so on. The ghazal protagonist himself knows that true love is danger- ous—hence, Mir’s warnings against it in the first few couplets—because in this poetic universe the true lover will do anything, will renounce all propriety for that amorous intoxication, and will eventually wind up suffering both social excommunication and loss of self, loss of “strength, and faith, and fortitude, and will and heart and soul” (p. 30) until “at the last nothing but ash remains” (p. 29)