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Communicate! Kathleen S. Verderber Northern Kentucky University

Rudolph F. Verderber Distinguished Teaching Professor of Communication,

University of Cincinnati

Deanna D. Sellnow University of Kentucky

13

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Communicate!, Thirteenth Edition

Kathleen S. Verderber, Rudolph F. Verderber, and Deanna Sellnow

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iii

Brief Contents

Contents iv

Preface xiii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives 1

Chapter 2 Perception of Self and Others 23

Chapter 3 Communicating Verbally 47

Chapter 4 Communicating Nonverbally 66

Chapter 5 Listening and Responding 87

PART II INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 6 Communicating Across Cultures 111

Chapter 7 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 133

Chapter 8 Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Confl ict 157

Appendix Interviewing 185

PART III GROUP COMMUNICATION

Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 207

Chapter 10 Problem Solving in Groups 224

PART IV PUBLIC SPEAKING

Chapter 11 Developing and Researching a Speech Topic 250

Chapter 12 Organizing Your Speech 275

Chapter 13 Adapting Verbally and Visually 304

Chapter 14 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery 332

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking 363

Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking 388

References 419

Index 430

iv

Brief Contents iii

Preface xiii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1 Communication Perspectives 1

The Communication Process 3

Participants 3 Messages 3 Context 4 Channels 5 Interference (Noise) 5 Feedback 7 A Model of the Basic Communication Process 8 Communication Settings 8

Communication Principles 10

Communication Has Purpose 10 Communication Is Continuous 11 Communication Messages Vary in Conscious Thought 11 Communication Is Relational 11 Communication Is Guided by Culture 12 Communication Has Ethical Implications 14 Communication Is Learned 15

Increasing Our Communication Competence 15

Develop Communication Skills Improvement Goals 18

Chapter 2 Perception of Self and Others 23

The Perception Process 24

Attention and Selection 24 Organization of Stimuli 25 Interpretation of Stimuli 26

Perceptions of Self: Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 26

Forming and Maintaining a Self-Concept 26

Developing and Maintaining Self-Esteem 28

The Infl uence of Gender and Culture on Self-Perceptions 30 Changing Self-Perceptions 31 Accuracy and Distortion of Self-Perceptions 31 The Effects of Self-Perceptions on Communication 34

Contents

v Contents

Presenting Self to Others 35

Self-Monitoring 36 Social Construction of Self 36

Perception of Others 37

Observing Others 38 Using Stereotypes 38 Emotional State 39 Perceiving Others’ Messages 40 Improving the Accuracy of Social Perceptions 41

Chapter 3 Communicating Verbally 47

The Nature and Purposes of Language 48

Purposes of Language 49 The Relationship Between Language and Meaning 49 Cultural and Gender Infl uences on Language Use 51

Improving Language Skills 52

Use Clear Language 52 Use Language That Makes Your Messages Memorable 55 Use Linguistic Sensitivity 58

Chapter 4 Communicating Nonverbally 66

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 68

Types of Nonverbal Communication 69

Use of Body: Kinesics 69 Use of Voice: Vocalics 71 Use of Space: Proxemics 73 Use of Time: Chronemics 75 Self-Presentation Cues 76

Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication 79

Sending Nonverbal Messages 79 Interpreting Nonverbal Messages 82

Chapter 5 Listening and Responding 87

What Is Listening? 88

Types of Listening 88

Appreciative Listening 89 Discriminative Listening 89 Comprehensive Listening 90 Empathic Listening 90 Critical Listening 90

vi Contents

Steps in the Listening Process 91

Attending 91 Understanding 93 Remembering 97 Evaluating 98 Responding 100

Conversation and Analysis 102

PART II INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 6 Communicating Across Cultures 111

Culture and Communication 112

Intercultural Communication 112 Dominant Cultures and Co-Cultures 113 Cultural Identity 116

Identifying Cultural Norms and Values 117

Individualism–Collectivism 117 Uncertainty Avoidance 121 Power Distance 121 Masculinity–Femininity 122

Barriers to Effective Intercultural Communication 123

Anxiety 123 Assuming Similarity or Difference 123 Ethnocentrism 124 Stereotypes and Prejudice 125 Incompatible Communication Codes 126 Incompatible Norms and Values 127

Intercultural Communication Competence 127

Adopt Correct Attitudes 127 Acquire Knowledge About Other Cultures 128 Develop Culture-Specifi c Skills 129

Chapter 7 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 133

Types of Relationships 134

Acquaintances 134 Friends 136 Close Friends or Intimates 137

Disclosure and Feedback in Relationship Life Cycles 141

The Open Pane 141 The Secret Pane 142 The Blind Pane 142 The Unknown Pane 142

Communication in the Stages of Relationships 143

Beginning Relationships 143 Developing Relationships 144

vii Contents

Maintaining Relationships 145 Deteriorating and Dissolving Relationships 148

Dialectics in Interpersonal Relationships 149

Relational Dialectics 149 Managing Dialectical Tensions 151

Conversation and Analysis 152

Chapter 8 Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships: Providing Emotional Support, Managing Privacy, and Negotiating Confl ict 157

Comforting Messages 158

Skills for Comforting 158 Gender and Cultural Considerations in Comforting 160

Managing Privacy and Disclosure in Relationships 161

Effects on Intimacy 164 Expectations of Reciprocity 164 Information Co-Ownership 165 Guidelines and Communication Strategies for Disclosure 165 Communication Strategies for Managing Privacy 171

Negotiating Different Needs, Wants, and Preferences in Relationships 172

Communicating Personal Needs, Wants, and Preferences: Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior 173

Cultural Variations in Passive, Aggressive, and Assertive Behavior 174

Managing Confl ict in Relationships 176

Styles of Confl ict 176 Guidelines for Collaboration 178

Conversation and Analysis 179

Appendix Interviewing 185

Structuring Interviews 186

The Interview Protocol 186 Effective Questions 187 Order and Time Constraints in Interview Protocols 188

Guidelines for Conducting Information Interviews 189

Doing Research About Interviewees 189 Conducting an Information Interview 190

Conducting Employment Interviews 191

Preparing for the Interview 191 Conducting the Interview 191

Interviewing Strategies for Job Seekers 192

Applying for the Job 192 Electronic Cover Letters and Résumés 194 Preparing to Be Interviewed 196 Guidelines for Job Interviewees 197

viii Contents

Conversation and Analysis 198

Following Up After the Interview 200

Strategies for Interviews with the Media 200

Before the Interview 201 During the Interview 201

PART III GROUP COMMUNICATION

Chapter 9 Communicating in Groups 207

Characteristics of Healthy Groups 208

Healthy Groups Have Ethical Goals 208 Healthy Groups Are Interdependent 210 Healthy Groups Are Cohesive 210 Healthy Groups Develop and Abide by Productive Norms 210 Healthy Groups Are Accountable 212 Healthy Groups Are Synergetic 213

Stages of Group Development 213

Forming 213 Storming 214 Norming 214 Performing 214 Adjourning 214

Types of Groups 215

Families 215 Social Friendship Groups 216 Support Groups 216 Interest Groups 217 Service Groups 217 Work Groups 217

Evaluating Group Dynamics 219

Chapter 10 Problem Solving in Groups 224

The Problem-Solving Process 225

Step One: Identify and Defi ne the Problem 226 Step Two: Analyze the Problem 226 Step Three: Determine Criteria for Judging Solutions 227 Step Four: Identify Alternative Solutions 228 Step Five: Evaluate Solutions and Decide 229 Step Six: Implement the Agreed-Upon Solution 230

Shared Leadership 230

Task Roles 230 Maintenance Roles 231 Procedural Roles 232

ix Contents

Making Meetings Effective 235

Guidelines for Meeting Leaders 235 Guidelines for Meeting Participants 238

Conversation and Analysis 239

Communicating Group Solutions 242

Written Formats 242 Oral Formats 243 Virtual Reports 243

PART IV PUBLIC SPEAKING

Chapter 11 Developing and Researching a Speech Topic 250

Identify Topics 252

List Subjects 252 Brainstorm and Concept Map for Topic Ideas 253

Analyze the Audience 254

Identify Audience Analysis Information Needs 254 Gather Audience Data 255

Analyze the Setting 257

Select a Topic 258

Write a Speech Goal 259

Identify Your General Goal 259 Phrase a Specifi c Goal Statement 259

Locate and Evaluate Information Sources 261

Personal Knowledge, Experience, and Observation 262 Secondary Research 262 Primary Research 264

Evaluate Sources 265

Identify and Select Relevant Information 267

Factual Statements 267 Expert Opinions 268 Elaborations 268

Draw Information from Multiple Cultural Perspectives 269

Record Information 269

Prepare Research Cards 269

Cite Sources in Speeches 270

Chapter 12 Organizing Your Speech 275

Developing the Body of the Speech 276

Determining Main Points 276 Writing a Thesis Statement 279

x Contents

Outlining the Body of the Speech 280 Selecting and Outlining Supporting Material 284 Preparing Section Transitions and Signposts 286

Creating the Introduction 287

Gaining Attention 287 Establishing Listener Relevance 289 Stating the Thesis 290 Establishing Your Credibility 290 Setting a Tone 290 Creating a Bond of Goodwill 291

Crafting the Conclusion 291

Summary 292 Clincher 292

Listing Sources 294

Reviewing the Outline 296

Chapter 13 Adapting Verbally and Visually 304

Adapting to Your Audience Verbally 305

Relevance 305 Common Ground 306 Speaker Credibility 307 Information Comprehension and Retention 309 Adapting to Cultural Differences 312

Adapting to Audiences Visually 315

Types of Presentational Aids 316 Criteria for Choosing Presentational Aids 323 Designing Effective Presentational Aids 323

Methods for Displaying Presentational Aids 326

Posters 326 Whiteboards or Chalkboards 326 Flip Charts 327 Handouts 327 Document Cameras 328 CD/VCR/DVD Players and LCD Projectors 328 Computer-Mediated Slide Show 328

Chapter 14 Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery 332

Public Speaking Apprehension 333

Symptoms and Causes 333 Managing Your Apprehension 334

Characteristics of an Effective Delivery Style 336

Use a Conversational Style 336 Be Animated 336

Effective Use of Your Voice 337

Speak Intelligibly 337 Use Vocal Expressiveness 338

xi Contents

Effective Use of Your Body 341

Facial Expressions 341 Gestures 342 Movement 342 Eye Contact 343 Posture 343 Poise 343 Appearance 344

Delivery Methods 345

Impromptu Speeches 346 Scripted Speeches 346 Extemporaneous Speeches 346

Rehearsal 346

Preparing Speaking Notes 347 Handling Presentational Aids 347 Recording, Analyzing, and Refi ning Speech Delivery 349

Criteria for Evaluating Speeches 351

Sample Informative Speech 353

Chapter 15 Informative Speaking 363

Characteristics of Effective Informative Speaking 364

Intellectually Stimulating 364 Relevant 365 Creative 365 Memorable 366 Address Diverse Learning Styles 367

Methods of Informing 368

Description 368 Defi nition 369 Comparison and Contrast 369 Narration 370 Demonstration 370

Common Informative Speech Frameworks 371

Process Speech Frameworks 371 Expository Speech Frameworks 372

Sample Informative Speech 379

Chapter 16 Persuasive Speaking 388

How We Process Persuasive Messages: The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 389

Writing Persuasive Speech Goals as Propositions 390

Types of Persuasive Goals 390 Tailoring Your Proposition to Your Audience 391

xii Contents

Developing Arguments (Logos) That Support Your Proposition 393

Finding Reasons to Use as Main Points 393 Selecting Evidence to Support Reasons 394 Types and Tests of Arguments 395 Avoiding Fallacies in Your Reasons and Argument 397

Increasing Audience Involvement Through Emotional Appeals (Pathos) 398

Cueing Your Audience Through Credibility (Ethos): Demonstrating Goodwill 400

Motivating Your Audience to Act Through Incentives 401

Using Incentives to Satisfy Unmet Needs 401 Creating Incentives That Outweigh Costs 403

Organizational Patterns for Persuasive Speeches 403

Statement of Reasons 404 Comparative Advantages 404 Criteria Satisfaction 404 Refutative 405 Problem-Solution 405 Problem-Cause-Solution 406 Motivated Sequence 406

Sample Persuasive Speech 409

REFERENCES 419

INDEX 431

xiii

Preface

We are delighted to welcome Deanna D. Sellnow, Ph.D., to the author team for Communicate! A proven textbook author, Dr. Sellnow is the Gifford Blyton Endowed Professor and Director of Undergraduate Studies in Communication at the University of Kentucky. Her scholarly interests include instructional communi- cation, educational assessment, popular culture, and gender communication. A past president of the Central States Communication Association, she has taught a wide variety of communication courses and enjoys directing basic communication courses. Dr. Sellnow’s voice blends well with ours, as her writing has an appealing conversational quality that keeps the reader’s interest. While the contributions she has made to this book will not be evident to those of you who are reading the book for the fi rst time, those of you familiar with Dr Sellnow’s work will recognize and appreciate her infl uence. We look forward to a long and successful collaboration.

To Students Congratulations! You are beginning to study communication, a subject that is impor- tant and useful to you in all parts of your life. When you want to establish or improve a relationship, when you need to work with others on a group project for class or for a cause you support, or when you are required to make a presentation at work, your success will depend on how effective you are at communicating in those settings.

Most of you have probably never studied communication formally. Rather, you’ve learned the communication skills and strategies you use every day informally, in your home and from your friends. By taking this communication course and learning tested communication skills, you’ll strengthen your existing abilities and improve your rela- tionships. You can improve the likelihood that your group project is successful by understanding the predictable patterns of group process and communication. And you can more effectively overcome stage fright and give better presentations when you have studied public speaking and know how to plan and deliver a formal speech. So again, we say, congratulations! You’ll fi nd that this course will be instantly relevant to your day-to-day living. We are confi dent that by the end of this term you will be glad you spent your time and money on it.

The textbook you’re reading, Communicate!, was one of the fi rst college texts about human communication. A lot has changed since Rudy wrote that fi rst edition. Over the years we have worked to make sure that students, like you, have a book that is easy and enjoyable to read and learn from. We have also worked hard to make sure that the information, theories, and skills discussed and relevant to the real relation- ships and communication situations you face. So every three years we examine the book in light of how the world has changed. Just ten years ago, cell phones were not in wide use, texting wasn’t a verb, many social networking sites and YouTube didn’t exist, and “to twitter” simply meant to speak excitedly about something. Despite these huge changes in the way we communicate, this textbook is as up-to-date and useful as the fi rst edition was because we work hard to make sure that the information we present refl ects what it takes to be an effective communicator today.

xiv Preface

Communicate! is written with six specifi c goals in mind:

1. To explain important communication concepts, frameworks, and theories that have been consistently supported by careful research so that you can understand the conceptual foundations of human communication.

2. To teach specifi c communication skills that research has shown facilitate effective relationships.

3. To describe and encourage you to adopt the ethical frameworks that can guide competent communication.

4. To increase awareness of how culture affects communication practices. 5. To stimulate critical and creative thinking about the concepts and skills you learn. 6. To provide tools for practice and assessment that enable you to monitor how well

you are learning communication concepts and skills.

So we hope you will read and enjoy this textbook and that it will be a resource you will want to maintain in your personal library. We appreciate it when students who are using our text take time to share their reactions to the book with us. So we encour- age you to email us with questions, comments, and suggestions. Our email address is Communicate.Authors@cengage.com.

To Instructors Thank you for considering and using Communicate! We are grateful for the colleagues who have used previous editions of this text and to those of you who are considering using this edition. We believe that the revisions we have made will surprise and delight those of you who have used Communicate! in the past. We also believe that those of you who are looking for a different textbook will fi nd Communicate! is precisely the learning tool that will encourage your students to read and think about the important role of communication in their lives.

As we prepared this edition, we were acutely aware of how our students’ lives are changing and how these changes are infl uencing their learning process and the nature of communication in their lives. So we have revised the text with these new realities in mind while at the same time retaining the hallmarks that have made this textbook useful to students and instructors in the past. And, as with every new edi- tion, we have incorporated the suggestions of colleagues who use the text, and we’ve reviewed the latest scholarship so that this new edition refl ects what users want and what recent scholarship has discovered about human communication. In the sections that follow, we detail what’s new and highlight the continuing features that have made Communicate! a perennial favorite with both students and faculty.

New to This Edition • Pop Comm! articles, found in each chapter, highlight how the communication

concepts addressed in this book play out in popular culture. Each article demon- strates the universal and omnipresent role of communication in our culture and how communication practices change and evolve. Many articles spotlight how the uses of new technologies are changing basic communication processes. Topics include online mourning, the ghostwriting of online dating profi les, managing privacy on social networking sites, the dark side of online social groups, and the persuasive messages of infomercials.

• Relevant Communicate! pedagogy has been revamped to facilitate active learning and assessment. Chapter-opening questions prompt students to consider what

xv Preface

they already know and to engage with the main ideas of each chapter as they read (pre-assessment). Review questions in the margins throughout the chapters and activities at the ends of chapters encourage students to think critically about what they’re learning (formative assessment). And end-of-part and online quizzes help students determine how well they’ve absorbed chapter content (summative assessment).

• New and updated examples throughout the text highlight student-friendly topics, such as pop culture and new technologies.

• Chapter 1, “Communication Perspectives,” now includes a section on communi- cation settings that distinguishes among intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group, and public communication.

• Chapter 2, “Perception of Self and Others,” introduces the important role media images play in distorting one’s self-perception, the relationship between self- perceptions and communication apprehension, and how perception is shaped via images constructed on social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace.

• Refl ecting the fact that today we rely heavily on computer-mediated communica- tion, Chapter 4, “Communicating Nonverbally,” includes a discussion of how nonverbal messages that clarify meaning and convey emotions can be communi- cated in online environments.

• Because listening and responding is a foundational element of communica- tion in any setting, we moved the discussion of this topic forward to Chapter 5, “Listening and Responding,” in Part I of the book. This chapter now includes a section on the types of listening, which distinguishes among appreciative, dis- criminative, comprehensive, empathic, and critical listening purposes. In addition, we added a section on responding effectively to public speakers in the form of speech critiques.

• Chapter 6, “Communicating Across Cultures,” has been updated to refl ect what we know today about dominant cultures and co-cultures, including the distinction among sex, gender, and sexual orientation.

• For this edition, we have reworked the two interpersonal chapters, which now focus, fi rst, on understanding relationships and, second, on specifi c skills. Chapter 7, “Understanding Interpersonal Relationships,” walks readers through the types of interpersonal relationships, the role of disclosure and feedback in relationship life cycles, communication in the various relationship stages, and the dialectical tensions inherent in interpersonal relationships. In Chapter 8, “Communication Skills in Interpersonal Relationships,” we describe communication skills for comforting, managing the competing urges between self-disclosure and privacy management, and confl ict management styles.

• Many instructors have indicated that they simply don’t have time to teach the chapter on interviewing in their courses. Still, because we believe effective inter- viewing skills are so important, we have retained the content in the form of an internal appendix, “Interviewing.” So, even if teachers cannot include the con- tent in their courses, students can still benefi t from learning about it on their own. The content of this appendix has been refi ned so that it fi rst focuses on developing good questions and then proposes some guidelines for conducting both informa- tion and employment interviews. Tips for presenting oneself in employment and media interviews are also discussed.

• The unit on group communication has been extensively revised. For this edition, Chapter 9, “Communicating in Groups,” focuses on understanding the character- istics of groups, stages of development, different types of groups, and guidelines for communicating effectively in groups. In Chapter 10, “Problem Solving in

xvi Preface

Groups,” we focus specifi cally on the nature of effective problem solving, includ- ing leadership, member responsibilities, and formats for sharing results with others.

• As in the previous edition, the unit on public speaking continues to describe the process for preparing and presenting public speeches using the Speech Plan Action Steps. The chapters in this part include many important revisions. Chapter 11, “Developing and Researching a Speech Topic,” now includes a discussion of concept mapping as a means by which students can generate topic ideas. In Chapter 12, “Organizing Your Speech,” we added narrative order as a method for arranging main points. Chapter 13, “Adapting Verbally and Visually,” includes a section about addressing diverse learning styles when adapting to an audience. In addition, we expanded the discussion of visual aids to include guidelines for using audio and audiovisual presentational aids. And Chapter 14, “Overcoming Speech Apprehension by Practicing Delivery,” offers an expanded discussion of public speaking apprehension and ways to overcome it.

• New to Chapter 15, “Informative Speaking,” are a discussion of learning styles as they relate to effective informative speaking, revised informative speech critique forms, and a new sample student speech, “Understanding Hurricanes.”

• Finally, in Chapter 16, “Persuasive Speaking,” we have expanded our discussion of reasoning fallacies to include the either-or and straw person fallacies, we have expanded the discussion of organizational patterns to include both the refutative and problem-cause-solution patterns as options, and we offer a new sample stu- dent speech, “Sexual Assault Policy a Must,” which uses the motivated sequence pattern.

Hallmark Features • Communication Skill boxes provide a step-by-step guide for each of the com-

munication skills presented in the text. Each of these boxes includes the defi nition of the skill, a brief description of its use, the steps for enacting the skill, and an example that illustrates the skill. A convenient tear-out chart at the begin- ning of the book provides a summary of all the Communication Skill boxes. The Skill Building activities, adjacent to each Communication Skill box, reinforce and provide an immediate opportunity for students to practice the skills. Students can complete these activities online and then compare their answers with models provided by the authors.

• Conversation and Analysis communication scenarios offer print and video exemplars of important concepts. Transcripts of these conversations appear in the text and online—students can download the transcripts to use for note taking as they view the videos. Once they have analyzed the conversation by answering a series of critical-thinking questions, they can compare their assessments with the authors’.

• The principles of effective speech making are organized into fi ve Speech Plan Action Steps, presented in Chapters 11–14. The activities that accompany each of these action steps guide students through an orderly process that results in better speeches. Communicate!’s online resources provide students with the opportunity to view examples of each activity prepared by other students and to complete many of the action steps with Speech Builder Express. (See the section Student Resources for more about these online resources.)