Ottoman science and technology

ISSN 2039-2117 (online) ISSN 2039-9340 (print) Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy Vol 5 No 29 December 2014 81Impact of Ottoman Scientific Advancement in the Era of Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih (Mehmed the Conqueror) towards the Ottoman Scientific Zenith Ammalina Dalillah Mohd Isa Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Email: ammalina05mohdisa@gmail.com Roziah Sidik @ Mat Sidek Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Email: roziah@ukm.edu.my Doi:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n29p81 Abstract The main criteria of a developed country lie in its scientific and technological development. Nevertheless, in developing thosefields in a nation, it starts with its ruler and his rule. In the case of the Ottomans, the field of science and technology wasstagnant in the early stage of their rule. Through transformations in the field of science and technology undertaken by Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih (Mehmed the Conqueror) as the seventh ruler of the Ottomans during his reign, this field experienced its advancement era. In the subsequent years (post-Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih era), the field of science and technology attained its golden age. Hence, the objective of this paper is to analyse the impact of scientific advancement in the era of Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih towards the Ottoman scientific zenith in the subsequent era. This study employed a qualitative approach via a historical research design and was analysed using a method of content analysis and deduction by examining authoritative sources in Ottoman studies. Through this study, it was found that the transformation brought about by Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih in the field of science and technology during his era succeeded in elevating the scientific fields of the Ottomans to a new height of glory. The impact can be seen in material and non-material cultures of the Ottoman society in post-Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih era. Keywords: Muhammad al-Fatih; Ottoman Science; Islamic science and technology; 15th century;1.Introduction The field of science and technology first emerged in the Ottoman Empire after Sultan Orhan I established the first madrasah institution in Iznik in 1331(Inalcik, 1973). Since then, this field was worked by only certain individuals who had the need for the field since religious field was more of a priority at that time. This shows that the field of science and technology was not much studied, let alone practiced, by the Ottomans on the whole. This caused the Ottoman scientific field to be stagnant or stunted. The disciplines worked on by the Ottomans were only those scientific fields obtained and inherited from previous kingdoms such as the Seljuk. However, the future of the Ottoman scientific field eventually changed when this field advanced after Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih ascended to the throne and it flourished with vitality after Constantinople was opened by him in 1453 as stated by Ayduz (2010). There were various fields of scientific knowledge which progressed to a greater height such as medicine, astronomy, mathematics and engineering. The advancement in those fields was a fruit of labour of the role and transformations carried out by Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih during his reign. 2.Ottoman Science Before the Era of Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih The field of science and technology in the Ottoman Caliphate can be discussed in two stages. The first stage is the growth and activities which happened during the early era of Ottoman establishment and the second stage is the development and activities of science and technology which occurred during the golden age of the Ottoman Caliphate. The first stage covers the ruling era of Sultan Orhan I up to that of Sultan Murad II, which began in 1324 until 1451, while the second stage encompasses the reign of al-Fatih which began in 1451 until the year 1600. The field of science and technology in the Ottoman Caliphate after 1600 is not deliberated in this paper as in that year Islamic scientific traditions
ISSN 2039-2117 (online) ISSN 2039-9340 (print) Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy Vol 5 No 29 December 2014 82ended. In the following years, the field of science and technology of the Ottomans went through modernizing era following Western scientific traditions (Ihsanoglu, 2002). The field of science and technology was first introduced and worked on in the Ottoman State through learning in madrasahs. In 1331, after Bursa had been occupied, madrasah institution was established by the Ottomans under Sultan Orhan I in Iznik. Nevertheless, the field of science and technology did not go through much development as stated by Ayduz (2006) in his work: “The Ottomans inherited Islamic science and did not open new horizons to advance it further. Instead they spent their efforts in developing the application of this heritage”. This is supported by Ihsanoglu (2005). According to Ihsanoglu (2005), before Ottoman science reached the era of progress under the rule of Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih, the field of science and technology was not developed to a greater height. Based on quotes from both scholars, Ottoman science and technology did not grow and this was linked to the low level of science inculcation into the Ottoman society in that age and this can be attributed to several factors. Among them was that the field of science and technology was not recognised as a formal education as written in the state education policy. Even though the field of science and technology emerged in Ottoman education institutions, it was however not taught in all madrasahs formally. This was because the subjects were taught based on requests from the students or on the wish of the teacher at the madrasah. If there was no request or there was no skilled teacher in that field, the subject was not delivered at the madrasah (Ihsanoglu, 2005). This caused the discipline to stagnate and not spread in the Ottoman society. The second factor was due to the absence of necessity or specific use for the field in their life, resulting in no initiatives being taken by any individual or organisation to develop the field. Therefore, the Ottoman society only learnt and applied the field of science and technology inherited from previous kingdoms of Seljuk, Egypt, Persia and Turkestan without developing it to a higher level such as critically studying them or digging new treasure of knowledge base on the inherited knowledge (Ayduz, 2010). It was sufficient to use the inherited knowledge only. The next factor was that more focus was given by the Ottoman society to the sciences of shari’ah such as tajweed, shari’ah, exegesis, and the likes. As proof, the growth of these fields can be seen in the existence of scholarly figures in those fields and in their published original works. Among shari’ah scholars who emerged were Davud b. Mahmud el-Kayseri (d. 751A.H./1350-1351A.D.), Taceddin el-Kurdi and Alaeddin Esved. In the era of Sultan Orhan I reign, Davud b. Mahmud el-Kayseri was the first individual to receive the title ‘professor’ in Iznik Madrasah for his work in religion, philosophy and mysticism, as well as his review of the work of Fahruddin al-Razi (d. 606H/1209-1210M) and commentary work on Fususu l-Hikem written by Muhyiddin Ibnu l-Arabi (d. 638H/1240-1241M) (Ihsanoglu, 2002). Consequently, the situation did not give space for the field of science and technology to flourish. Another factor was that there was no encouragement from the leaders to develop science and technology in the Ottoman State. This is more or less given as most of the Ottoman sultans prior to al-Fatih focused more on the affairs of territorial expansion and military politics considering the unstable political situations of the era . This is because at the onset of Ottoman dynasty until the age of Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih, The Ottomans were constantly threatened by European powers on the borders of the Ottoman territory. Meanwhile, within the territory Ottoman was threatened by rebel groups. Hence, peace and stability of the state was more emphasised as compared to other issues. Among the early fields of science and technology applied in the era were mathematics (more specifically geometry), medicine and astronomy. According to Ileri (2011), those disciplines were central to the Islamic sciences in the Ottoman government. These fields were among the most important in the life of Ottoman society at that time. This was because the fields were needed to determine the time, know the geographical location of Ka’abah and calculate the accurate beginning time of prayers as well as the starting and end time of fasting in the month of Ramadan (Ayduz, 2010). As for mathematics, its importance in the life of Ottoman society was, for instance, the application of geometry as a branch of mathematics in assisting philosophers estimating the origin of the universe. In addition, this field of knowledge also helped the jurists to edict fatwa and qadis in their court ruling (Ihsanoglu, 2002). Meanwhile, medicine was important for treatment of diseases and injuries suffered by particularly Ottoman soldiers. Therefore, it can be concluded that even though the field of science and technology was introduced since the era of Sultan Orhan I, the field did not progress due to several factors as discussed earlier on. Nevertheless, that era witnessed a rapid development in the field of shari’ah leading to the appointment of the first professor at the Iznik Madrasah. 3.Ottoman Scientific Progress in the Era of Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih When Sultan Muhammad al-Fatih ascended the throne of the Ottoman State in 1451 after the demise of his father, Sultan Murad II, the fate of Ottoman science and technology changed for the better and turned into advancement. This was