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Managerial Communication

Seventh Edition

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Managerial Communication Strategies and Applications

Seventh Edition

Geraldine E. Hynes Jennifer R. Veltsos

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hynes, Geraldine E., author. | Veltsos, Jennifer R., author.

Title: Managerial communication : strategies and applications / Geraldine E. Hynes, Sam Houston State University, USA, Jennifer Veltsos, Minnesota State University, Mankato, USA.

Description: Seventh Edition. | Thousand Oaks : SAGE Publications, [2018] | Revised edition of Managerial communication, [2016] | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017041152 | ISBN 9781506365121 (hardcover : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Communication in management. | Business communication.

Classification: LCC HD30.3 .H95 2018 | DDC 658.4/5—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017041152

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Brief Contents

1. Preface to the Seventh Edition 2. What’s New in This Edition 3. Acknowledgments 4. About the Authors 5. PART I• MANAGING IN CONTEMPORARY ORGANIZATIONS

1. Chapter 1 • Communicating in Contemporary Organizations 2. Chapter 2 • Understanding the Managerial Communication Process 3. Chapter 3 • Communicating With Technology

6. PART II• COMMUNICATING WITH GROUPS 1. Chapter 4 • Managing Meetings and Teams 2. Chapter 5 • Making Presentations 3. Chapter 6 • Communicating Visually

7. PART III• WRITING AS A MANAGER 1. Chapter 7 • Writing in the Workplace 2. Chapter 8 • Writing Routine Messages 3. Chapter 9 • Writing Reports and Proposals

8. PART IV• UNDERSTANDING MESSAGES 1. Chapter 10 • Listening 2. Chapter 11 • Communicating Nonverbally 3. Chapter 12 • Communicating Across Cultures

9. PART V• COMMUNICATING INTERPERSONALLY 1. Chapter 13 • Managing Conflict 2. Chapter 14 • Negotiating 3. Chapter 15 • Conducting Interviews

10. Index

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Detailed Contents

Preface to the Seventh Edition What’s New in This Edition Acknowledgments About the Authors PART I• MANAGING IN CONTEMPORARY ORGANIZATIONS

Chapter 1 • Communicating in Contemporary Organizations A Brief History of Managerial Communication

Management Communication in Ancient Times 1900s: Management Efficiency and One-Way Communication 1920s: The Human Relations Approach and the Rise of Interpersonal Communication 1950s: The Behavioral Approach and Organizational Communication 1990s: The Empowerment Approach and Participative Communication 21st Century: The Contingency Approach to Management Communication

Factors Affecting Communication Contingencies Diversity

Gender Diversity Cultural Diversity Age Diversity Education Diversity

Competition and the Drive for Quality Ethics

The Importance of Studying Managerial Communication Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

Chapter 2 • Understanding the Managerial Communication Process Levels of Managerial Communication A Strategic Approach

The First Layer Communication Climate Cultural Context

The Second Layer Sender (Encoder) Receiver (Decoder) Purpose of the Message

The Third Layer Message Content

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Channel of the Message Physical Environment Time

Feedback and Measures of Effectiveness Critical Errors in Communication

The Assumption–Observation Error The Failure to Discriminate Allness and the Process of Abstraction

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

Chapter 3 • Communicating With Technology A Framework for Using Technologically Mediated Communication

Bandwidth Perceived Personal Closeness Feedback A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Matching Technology and the Message Message Sensitivity Message Negativity Message Complexity Message Persuasiveness

Communicating with Technology at Work E-mail Electronic Messaging: IM and Text Blogging Videoconferencing Social Networks

Considerations for Technology Use Monitoring Technology Use Decision Making Job and Organizational Design Collaboration

The Management Challenge Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

PART II• COMMUNICATING WITH GROUPS Chapter 4 • Managing Meetings and Teams

Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Teams Advantages of Teams Disadvantages of Teams

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Groupthink Strategic Considerations for Meetings

Strategic Consideration 1: Should We Meet? Strategic Consideration 2: Who Should Attend? Strategic Consideration 3: Agenda and Materials Strategic Consideration 4: Leadership Style

Leading Project Teams Strategic Consideration 5: Managing Disruptions

Before the Meeting During the Meeting

Strategic Consideration 6: Follow-Up Strategic Considerations for Face-to-Face Meetings

Strategic Consideration 7: Physical Facilities Seating Arrangements

Strategic Considerations for Virtual Meetings Strategic Consideration 8: Technological Adequacy Strategic Consideration 9: Team Relationships Strategic Consideration 10: Cultural Differences

Group Decision-Making Formats Rational Problem-Solving Process The Nominal Group Technique The Delphi Technique

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

Chapter 5 • Making Presentations Plan Your Presentation

Purpose Length Audience Analysis

Organize Your Presentation Introduction Organization of Persuasive Presentations

Persuasion Variables Ethical Persuasion

Organization of Informative Presentations Transitions Evidence

Factual Evidence Opinions as Evidence

Closing

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Anticipate Questions Prepare Your Visual Aids

Criteria Types

Deliver Your Presentation Speaking Anxiety Speaker Notes Nonverbal Aspects

Body Language Vocal Style

Media Presentations Team Presentations Impromptu Speaking Summary • Exercises

Chapter 6 • Communicating Visually Document Design

Design Principles for Managerial Communication Building Blocks

Grid Alignment Typography Color Conventions

Relationships Emphasis Unity

Using Graphics Data Displays

Tables Charts Quantitative Charts Concept Charts Creating Ethical Data Displays

Illustrations Photographs Line Art

Designing Graphics for Accessibility Tables Charts

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Copyright Considerations for Graphics Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

PART III• WRITING AS A MANAGER Chapter 7 • Writing in the Workplace

The Unique Role of Managerial Writing Stage 1: Planning

What? Why? Who? When? Where? How?

Stage 2: Composing Selecting Words

Principle 1: Choose Words Precisely Principle 2: Use Short Rather Than Long Words Principle 3: Use Concrete Rather Than Abstract Words Principle 4: Economize on Words Principle 5: Avoid Clichés and Jargon Principle 6: Use Positive Words That Convey Courtesy Principle 7: Use a Conversational Style

Organizing Words for Effect Principle 8: Keep Sentences Short Principle 9: Prefer the Active to the Passive Voice Principle 10: Organize Paragraphs Logically Principle 11: Be Coherent

Stage 3: Revising Collaborative Writing

Advantages of Collaborative Writing Disadvantages of Collaborative Writing Guidelines for Effective Collaborative Writing

Summary • Exercise: Plain English at a Glance • Case for Small–Group Discussion • Exercise for Small Groups

Chapter 8 • Writing Routine Messages Audience Adaptation

Basis of the You Attitude Anticipating Questions

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Stressing Reader Benefits Avoiding Negatives Nonverbal Elements and the You Attitude Diction

Organizational Strategies Direct Strategy

Opening Body Close

Indirect Strategy Opening Body Close Handling Negatives

Specific Types: Direct Messages Inquiries and Requests

Opening Body Close

Positive Responses to Inquiries and Requests Opening Body Close

Claims Opening Body Close

Positive Responses to Claims Opening Body Close

Specific Types: Indirect Messages Negative Responses to Inquiries

Opening Body Close

Refused Claims Opening Body Close

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Apologies Persuasive Messages

Opening Body Close

Letter Formats Internal Correspondence

Memo Format E-mail Format Memo and E-mail Uses

Communicating to Groups Fixing Responsibility Communicating With Opponents Communicating With the Inaccessible

Types of Internal Correspondence Announcements Requests for Action

Political Uses in Business Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion • Exercise for Small Groups

Chapter 9 • Writing Reports and Proposals The Report-Writing Process

Groundwork Defining the Problem or Objective Developing Recommendations Seeking Data

Report Parts Strategic Considerations

Design Audience Effort Significance The Original Assignment Precedent

Arrangement of Points Direct Order Indirect Order

Organization of the Body Time

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Place Quantity/Size Criteria or Factors

Headings Content Headings Heading Levels

Transitions Memo and Letter Reports

Memo Reports Introduction Body Close

Letter Reports Organization Introduction Body Close

Elements of the Formal Report Front Matter

Title Page Transmittal Document Table of Contents List of Illustrations Executive Summary

The Report Proper Introduction: Required Elements Introduction: Optional Elements Body Summary, Conclusions, and/or Recommendations

Back Matter References/Bibliography Appendixes

Visual Aids General Rules

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

PART IV• UNDERSTANDING MESSAGES Chapter 10 • Listening

Benefits of Listening Barriers to Listening

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Preparing to Listen Specific Techniques for Active Listening

Identify the Main and Supporting Points Organize the Message Summarize the Message Visualize the Message Personalize the Message Take Notes

Specific Techniques for Interactive Listening Paraphrasing Questioning

Open–Closed Questions Primary–Secondary Questions Neutral–Directed Questions

Responding to Negative Messages Listening to Informal Communication Listening to the Total Environment Developing a Listening Climate

The Micro Listening Climate The Macro Listening Climate

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion • Exercise for Small Groups

Chapter 11 • Communicating Nonverbally The Importance of Nonverbal Communication The Functions of Nonverbal Cues Movement Spatial Messages

Spatial Zones Spatial Differences Strategic Use of Space

Personal Appearance Voice Applications of Nonverbal Communication Research

Phone Sales and Service Teams and Meetings Informal Communication External Communication

Nonverbal Signs of Deception Baseline

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Movement Dress Personal Space Artifacts Voice

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion

Chapter 12 • Communicating Across Cultures Rationale

The Global Economy Foreign Direct Investment Culturally Diverse Workforces

What Is Culture? Intercultural Myths Some of the Ways in Which We Differ

Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance Collectivism/Individualism Masculinity/Femininity Context Monochronic/Polychronic

Should You Learn the Language? Nonverbal Sensitivity

Greetings Dress Space, Touch, and Posture Gestures Food Gifts

What Is a Good Intercultural Communicator? Developing Interculturally Sensitive Managers

Cultural Competence in Foreign Environments Cultural Competence in Domestic Environments

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion • Exercise for Small Groups

PART V• COMMUNICATING INTERPERSONALLY Chapter 13 • Managing Conflict

Benefits of Conflict The Relationship Between Communication and Conflict

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Sources of Conflict Conflict and Perception

Strategies in Conflict Resolution Avoiding Accommodating Forcing Compromising

Problem Solving: The Win–Win Strategy Description of the Strategy Beliefs Necessary to Implement the Strategy

Belief 1: Cooperation Is Better Than Competition Belief 2: Parties Can Be Trusted Belief 3: Status Differences Can Be Minimized Belief 4: Mutually Acceptable Solutions Can Be Found

Implementing the Strategy Conflict and Management Success Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion • Exercise

Chapter 14 • Negotiating Negotiation and Networking Negotiation and Conflict A Strategic Model for Negotiations Layer 1: Culture and Climate Layer 2: Sender, Receiver, and Purpose

Purpose Defining the Maximum Supportable and Least Acceptable Outcomes Finding the LAO and MSO Defining BATNA

Layer 3: Time, Environment, Content, and Channel Time Environment Message Content

Opening Messages Concessions Questions Answering Questions

Channel Layer 4: Core Strategies

Surprise

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Bluff Stacking Fait Accompli Take It or Leave It Screen

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion • Exercise for Small Groups

Chapter 15 • Conducting Interviews Barriers to Effective Interviews

Barrier 1: Differing Intentions Barrier 2: Bias Barrier 3: Confusing Facts With Inferences Barrier 4: Nonverbal Communication Barrier 5: Effects of First Impressions Barrier 6: Organizational Status

Strategies for Effective Interviews 1: What Is the Interview Objective? 2: Where Is the Best Place to Conduct the Interview? 3: What Is the Best Way to Begin the Interview? 4: What Is the Best Questioning Strategy? 5: What Is the Best Sequence for the Questions? 6: What Are the Best Types of Questions? 7: What Is the Best Way to Close the Interview?

Employment Interviews Planning Legal Concerns The Employment Interview Process

Use Appropriate Questioning Strategy Do Not Do Most of the Talking Keep Records

Performance Review Interviews Types Planning

Timing Environment Message Content

The Performance Interview Process Supportive Communication Climate

Evaluative Versus Descriptive

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Control Versus Problem Orientation Neutrality Versus Empathy Superiority Versus Equality Certainty Versus Provisionalism

Providing Performance Feedback Establishing Goals

Networking Purpose How to Network

Summary • Cases for Small-Group Discussion • Exercise for Small Groups

Index

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Preface to the Seventh Edition

The roots of this textbook extend back to 1984, when John Wiley and Sons published Managerial Communication: A Strategic Approach, by Larry Smeltzer and John Waltman. Their practical, results-oriented examination of managerial communication was groundbreaking at the time. In the preface they stated the book’s objective: “to develop managers who communicate in a creative manner by understanding and strategically applying appropriate concepts.” That objective is still valid.

A second edition added Don Leonard as third author in 1991. Gerry Hynes adopted the 1994 edition, authored by Larry Smeltzer and Don Leonard, by then titled Managerial Communication: Strategies and Applications. She had been looking for a graduate-level text that presented a balanced approach to workplace communication and that was written for managers and executives.

These strengths drew Gerry to that early edition:

A strategic approach A solid research base Comprehensive coverage of contemporary issues An even-handed examination of oral and written communication channels A focus on managerial rather than entry-level competencies

Gerry came onboard as third author with Smeltzer and Leonard for the 2002 edition and obtained sole authorship starting with the 2008 edition. In 2017, she invited Jennifer to join her as a second author on the new (seventh) edition. Our goal continues to be ensuring that the qualities that made the original book unique and successful are still present in this seventh edition. Truth is truth. It does not change with the times. Therefore, our task is to bring timeless communication principles into the contemporary workplace. To meet the needs of today’s busy manager/student, we updated the chapters, describing current business practices, summarizing relevant research, and providing guidelines for strategic managerial communication.

The reality is that an effective contemporary manager must possess a wide range of skills. While being accountable to an executive team and a customer base, a manager must be able to motivate subordinates and cross-functional work groups with diverse backgrounds, interpret complicated rules, foster process improvement, and meet sometimes-unclear organizational expectations. Furthermore, today’s manager often must use new technology to accomplish these tasks. Since these advanced abilities do not necessarily come from prior work experience, communication education is a vital component in managerial development.

Working together on this textbook has been both enjoyable and challenging. It has forced us to evaluate the content of the managerial communication courses we teach in our MBA programs, Gerry at Sam Houston State University and Jennifer at Minnesota State University, Mankato, to sort out what is important and what is no longer important for our students to know and be able to do. We hope that the results of these efforts satisfy other students’ professional communication needs as well. After all, we know for sure that effective

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communication leads to managerial and organizational success. The value of these courses is not controversial; the key is to keep the course content fresh.

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What’s New in This Edition

Many adopters of the sixth edition of Managerial Communication: Strategies and Applications indicated that major strengths are its balanced approach to managerial writing and oral communication, the end-of-chapter cases and exercises that offer opportunities for practice and application of the principles, and the comprehensive instructor supplements. We retained these strengths in the seventh edition. On the other hand, this edition shakes things up a bit. We realized that the book was missing an important mode of communication, so we added a new chapter on visual communication. We updated the content of the other chapters as well; the new features are described below.

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New Chapter

Audiences expect professional documents to be not only accurate and thorough but also attractive and usable. Visual elements attract attention, organize information, and enhance the persuasiveness of messages. Although a comprehensive discussion of document design exceeds the scope of this book, we introduce a collection of design principles that managers can easily apply in their reports, proposals, presentations, and other documents. We also describe best practices for using a variety of graphics, including tables, data displays, and illustrations. Because some readers may have visual impairments, we offer advice about improving the accessibility of graphics. We conclude with a reminder about copyright protections that may limit use of graphics that students may find online.

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Changes in Existing Chapters

Every chapter features updated examples and references to research and practice of managerial communication. Chapter-specific improvements in the seventh edition include the following:

Chapter 1 (“Communicating in Contemporary Organizations”) has an expanded consideration of the challenges that managers face in communicating with diverse groups of employees. Chapter 2 (“Understanding the Managerial Communication Process”) includes a clearer discussion of the strategic communication model, with examples for each level. Chapter 3 (“Communicating With Technology”) is updated to include greater coverage of electronic messaging at work, videoconferencing, and social media. Emphasis is on the principles and best practices that apply to both emerging technologies and better-established technologies, such as e-mail and videoconferencing. A section on surveillance warns students to expect that their employers will monitor their technology use. Chapter 4 (“Managing Meetings and Teams”) includes a considerably expanded discussion of effective communication for virtual teams and new Stop and Think inserts. Chapter 5 (“Making Presentations”) has an expanded section on virtual presentations and a new section on storytelling as a persuasive strategy. Chapter 7 (“Writing in the Workplace”) contains updated references. Advice about collaborative writing has been moved to the end of the chapter to return the focus to the writing process. Chapter 8 (“Writing Routine Messages”) offers updated guidelines for formatting and designing e-mail, letters, and memos. The expanded discussion of negative messages includes recent examples of corporate apologies. Chapter 9 (“Writing Reports and Proposals”) takes an in-depth look at formal and informal business reports, including proposals and analytical reports. It also provides more information about evaluating and citing sources of information. Chapter 10 (“Listening”) has a new section on social listening. It also expands the discussion of techniques for listening and responding to negative messages. Chapter 11 (“Communicating Nonverbally”) now includes a section on the use of emoji in business documents. Chapter 12 (“Communicating Across Cultures”) explores cultural differences in business communication. New examples of corporations that prepare their managers to function in culturally diverse environments, both abroad and domestically, have been added. Chapter 13 (“Managing Conflict”) adds new emphasis to advice on choosing conflict resolution approaches. Chapter 14 (“Negotiating”) includes a new expanded discussion of cross-cultural negotiation strategies. Chapter 15 (“Conducting Interviews”) presents additional guidelines for employment interviews and performance appraisal interviews. Strategies are offered for networking as a type of informational interviews.

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Acknowledgments

Most importantly, we wish to acknowledge John Waltman, Larry Smeltzer, and Don Leonard, who pioneered this textbook. They explicated the centrality of communication for managerial success, which we now know is an enormous undertaking. We deeply respect their wisdom and vision.

Many people helped make this edition a reality. Josh Davis, an SHSU graduate business research assistant, performed his tasks with diligence, accuracy, and good cheer. Maggie Stanley, our SAGE acquisitions editor, smoothed the way with her perspicacity and dependability. Katie Ancheta and Alissa Nance kept us on schedule and helped us navigate the revision process. Andrew Olson, our Production Editor, was very professional, positive, and constructive as he shepherded this book through the final crucial stages. Several reviewers offered valuable insights and suggestions that shaped this edition. They are Abram Anders, University of Minnesota Duluth; Silvina Bamrungpong, California Lutheran University; Yvonne Block, College of Lake County; Rodney Carveth, Morgan State University; Renee King, Eastern Illinois University; Lisa Kleiman, Boise State University; Holly Lawrence, University of Massachusetts; and Astrid Sheil, California State University San Bernardino.

—Geraldine E. Hynes and Jennifer R. Veltsos

Thank you, Gerry, for inviting me to work with you on this book, mentoring me through the process, and being open and welcoming as I ventured into your world.

I am grateful to Johnna S. Horton for her unfailing encouragement and for her unknowing role as a persona for the revision of this book. Whenever I questioned a decision, I would ask “What would a manager like her need to know?” and the solution would often become clear.

My husband, Christophe, may not have intended to become a writer, but his enthusiasm and passion for communicating ideas with others has become a model of the kind of career I want to have. I thank him and our sons for their patience and support through this unexpected opportunity.

—Jennifer R. Veltsos

A special thanks goes to Dave Fosnough, former Irwin/McGraw-Hill field sales supervisor, who started me down this path in 1993, and to Patricia Quinlin, former SAGE business editor, who turned me in the right direction. I am where I am today because they believed in me.

Thank you, Jennifer, for joining me on this journey. The new edition is better than ever because of your contributions. It’s an honor to be your collaborator and friend.

I am forever grateful to my family—Jim, Maureen, Erasmus, Kellie, Bob, and my incandescent grandchildren, Ben, Aaron, Trixie, Samuel, and Clara—for their unreserved love and support.

Finally, I salute my students because they are dedicated to improving their managerial communication skills

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and strategies, and because they believe that I can help them do it. This book is for you.

—Geraldine E. Hynes

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About the Authors

Geraldine E. Hynes, PhD, retired in 2017 from Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas, USA, where she had been a professor in the College of Business Administration since 2001, teaching business and managerial communication at the undergraduate and graduate levels. She continues her practice as a communication consultant, executive coach, and contract trainer for business, government, and not-for- profit organizations. Her award-winning research has been published in scholarly journals and books in several countries and languages. She provides leadership to her discipline through the Association for Business Communication and was elected ABC president in 2010.

Jennifer R. Veltsos, PhD, is an associate professor of technical communication at Minnesota State University, Mankato, USA. Since 2007, she has taught undergraduate courses in business communication, technical communication, visual rhetoric and document design, and research methods; at the graduate level, she has taught managerial communication, proposals, and instructional design. Since 2017, she is also the director of the university’s Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning.

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Part I Managing in Contemporary Organizations

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1 Communicating in Contemporary Organizations

Extremists think “communication” means agreeing with them.

—Leo Rosten, U.S. (Polish-born) author and political scientist

As we move deeper into the 21st century, management communication is both challenging and exciting. It is challenging because organizations are becoming much more complex, and many new forces confront the manager. Greater competitive pressures, shorter product life cycles, increased demands for quality and service, more regulatory constraints, greater concerns for cost containment, heightened awareness of environmental concerns, and renewed emphasis on human rights are just some of the pressures increasing the complexity of the manager’s job. But these pressures also make managerial communication exciting. The contemporary manager has a greater opportunity than ever to make a significant difference in the success of the organization and increase the quality of work life for fellow employees. But that requires effective managerial communication skills, which are becoming more complex, making them more difficult to master.

The workplace is much more diverse and complex than it was just a few decades ago, and it requires more sophisticated management communication skills. At the start of the 20th century, heavy manufacturing was the industrial base of Western countries. Products changed little from year to year, and the workforce consisted mainly of white males. But today, products and entire management systems change rapidly, and employees must adapt just as quickly. In addition, work teams are extremely diverse. At Intel, one of the world’s largest and highest valued semiconductor chip makers, it is not uncommon to have a design engineer from Singapore working with a purchasing manager from Ireland and an accountant from California. This means the project manager must have the sophisticated skills required to communicate to a diverse work group in a rapidly changing environment.

Technology helps with this communication challenge, but it also adds new requirements. Advances in telecommunications have increased our communication capabilities, but we must learn how to best use these capabilities. In addition, the improved communication systems mean we have greater abilities to interact with multiple cultures, which require that we become better cross-cultural communicators. Furthermore, as technical products and services become more complex, we must be able to communicate about more complicated concepts than in the past.

Effective communication has been shown to be a leading indicator of financial performance. Towers Watson, a global company that provides human capital and management consulting services, conducted research on 651 organizations from a broad range of industries and regions over a ten-year period. They found that those companies that communicate effectively are 3.5 times more likely to significantly outperform their industry peers than those companies that do not communicate effectively. Other key findings include these approaches:

Managers at the best companies are three times more likely to communicate clearly to their employees the behaviors that are expected of them, instead of being focused on cost.

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Managers at the best companies pay careful attention to their employees in their change planning; they communicate reasons for changes, provide training, and support the employees, instead of using a top- down approach. Extensive managerial communication improves the likelihood of successful change. Managers at the best companies are more than twice as likely to use new social media technologies to facilitate collaboration on work projects. Furthermore, they typically see better employee productivity and financial performance.1

Communication and its role in the life of an organization will continue to evolve. As a result, we must think about how communication will occur in the future. One way to understand what this will mean for managerial communication behavior is to look at the different stages through which managerial communication has already passed. As you read the following pages and note how managerial communication has changed over time, it is interesting and valuable to speculate how it will change during your career. Knowledge of the past will help us prepare for the future.

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A Brief History of Managerial Communication

Managers communicated with employees in markedly different ways in the past than they do today. To best understand these changes, it is helpful to review the eras of management as listed in Table 1–1. After an overview of each era, the management communication strategies and techniques appropriate for that era are discussed.

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Management Communication in Ancient Times

The earliest known example of managerial communication may be the record keeping procedure developed by Sumerian priests around 5000 BCE.2 These records, consisting of pictograms scratched or pressed into clay tablets, reflected cross-cultural business transactions, such as payments of beer to workers.3 Around the same time, Egyptians were developing hieroglyphics, which they wrote on clay, wood, or most often, papyrus.4 The Babylonians seem to have adopted cuneiform, the Sumerian form of writing. The Code of Hammurabi is a code of conduct or what we might think of as an early form of putting a request in writing, written circa 1750 BCE.5 Tablets found in London reveal that the ancient Romans were the first managers, using commercial languages to request payments, lend money, and settle legal disputes in the year 57 CE.6 The first committee may have been organized around 325 BCE, as Alexander the Great organized staff groups.

Table 1–1 Historical Perspective of Managerial Communication

Era Characteristics Communication

Ancient and medieval

Initial efforts to organize commerce Written records

1900s

Scientific management

Administrative theory

Clearly defined job duties, time specifications for completing the task, and adherence to rules

Emphasis on authority and discipline

One-way communication, heavy reliance on written job instructions and rules

1920s

Human relations

Relationship among managers and workers is important

Listening and interpersonal communication skills become important

1950s

Behavioral

Complexity of organizational behavior and communication recognized

Development of communication theory, beginning to apply theory to organizational practice

1990s

Empowerment

Distribution of power to everyone in the organization

Two-way communication; participation of employees

Today

Contingency

Interdependence of jobs, organizations, and people

Communication strategy must be applied to the situation

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Venice, Italy, was a major center for merchants and economic exchange during medieval times. Merchants built warehouses and used an inventory system that required periodic reports for the city governing body.7 These brief examples indicate that, since the beginning of commerce, some type of managerial communication has been practiced.

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Stop and Think 1. Do you suppose managers complained about meetings in ancient times as much as they do now? 2. Other than technology use, what has changed in the way business is conducted?

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1900s: Management Efficiency and One-Way Communication

The systematic evolution of managers as communicators began around the turn of the 20th century. The scientific management philosophy stressed the scientific study and organization of work. During this era, it was believed that the greatest levels of efficiency could be obtained with extremely precise job instructions and that employees should not second-guess the instructions. This period is characterized by one-way communication at work.

The background to the scientific management philosophy helps us understand its relationship to communication. Frederick Taylor was a supervisor at the Philadelphia Midvale Steel Company in the late 1800s when he became interested in ways to improve lathe work. He believed it was possible to develop a science that could indicate the most efficient and effective manner for performing a task; then this technique could be written in elaborate job designs and communicated to employees through extensive training. To Taylor, employees were just another element in his formula.8 Other proponents of the scientific management theory developed these concepts further. Frank Gilbreth studied motion to make bricklaying more efficient. After carefully analyzing the procedures followed by bricklayers, he reduced the number of motions from an average of 18 to 4.5 per brick on exterior brick and from 18 to 2 on interior brick.9 To ensure precision, he invented the microchrometer, a clock with a sweeping second hand that could record time in 1/200 of a minute. Harrington Emerson developed 12 principles of efficiency for the railroads. One of his most repeated principles was discipline, which included adherence to rules and strict obedience.10

We still see elements of the scientific method today in such businesses as McDonald’s. The founder, Ray Kroc, used scientific management techniques to bring quality, service, cleanliness, and value to the fast-food industry. Every employee has a precise job description, each task is to be completed in a specified period, and there is strict adherence to rules. These procedures allow employees to be trained in a short time and reduce the number of unique conditions to which managers must adapt. Only limited strategic managerial communication is required.11

Scientific management attempted to systematize the work environment by reducing individual variance. This made the job easier for both the managers and the workers because unique situations were eliminated. Management’s role was to establish a set of elaborate rules and communicate them to employees. Employees were expected to follow them. Managerial authority was not to be questioned, and deviations from the norm or negotiations were not allowed.

While scientific management was receiving extensive attention in the United States, administrative theory was developing in France. Although this approach to management emerged during the same era as scientific management, its focus was quite different. While scientific management was concerned mainly with making processes efficient, administrative theory focused on broader issues facing all managers.

A key figure in developing this theory was Henri Fayol, who developed 14 principles of management.12 Table 1–2 presents six of the principles related to managerial communication. Note that two-way communication

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between the manager and employee is limited; the manager’s authority is emphasized. The manager’s role is to give orders and maintain discipline; little attention is placed on listening skills. Teamwork and participative decision making were not integral to administrative theory. This approach is similar to the military model of the time, in which officers were extremely autocratic—soldiers were not encouraged to provide feedback to them, and the officers seldom listened. It is also comparable to the political system used in totalitarian governments.

Table 1–2 Six of Fayol’s Principles

1. Division of work. Efficiency requires that the total task be broken into small component parts assigned to workers who specialize in these limited tasks.

2. Authority. Managers have the formal authority to give orders. However, to be effective leaders, they must also possess personal authority deriving from their skill, experience, and character.

3. Discipline. Workers should willfully obey the rules and leaders of the organization.

4. Unity of command. Each employee should receive orders from only one supervisor.

5. Subordination of individual interest to general interest. The company’s interest always takes precedence over the individual’s interests.

6. Scalar chain. An unbroken line of authority runs from the top manager of an enterprise to the lowest levels of the organization. For giving orders and reports, this line should normally be observed.

Source: Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949).

The sixth principle, scalar chain, has special importance in our discussion of managerial communication. Fayol recognized the traditional organization hierarchy as important in establishing the chain of command. However, he also saw inefficiencies in the system when employees at the same level needed to communicate. Figure 1–1 shows how Employee B would communicate with Employee J according to prevailing thought at the time. The employee would have to send the message up the organization’s chain of command to the top; then, the message would come down through another chain of command. The implications for inefficiency and ineffectiveness are clear to contemporary managers.

Figure 1–1 Following the Hierarchy

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To bypass these problems, Fayol developed what is now famously known as the gangplank theory. According to this theory, Employee B would be allowed to communicate directly with Employee J if each had permission from their immediate supervisors to do so and they kept the supervisors apprised of the communication. Figure 1–2 diagrams informal networks and horizontal communication.

Gangplank theory was the first formal recognition of horizontal communication and acknowledged the importance of organizational structure and informal communication networks, which are now taken for granted in most contemporary organizations. But a strict chain of command is still used in some organizations. Throughout this book, we will discuss how organizations differ and how these differences must be considered when communicating.

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1920s: The Human Relations Approach and the Rise of Interpersonal Communication

During the early 1900s, the nature of management and the manager’s job became the focus of attention. While scientific management and administrative theory focused on compliance and efficiency, others were beginning to study the relationships between organizational members. The heart of the human relations approach is that attention to social needs and participation improves morale. In turn, this morale leads to greater compliance with managerial authority. In the human relations approach, managerial communication, not carefully planned procedures, is a tool for controlling organizational processes.

Figure 1–2 Gangplank Theory

Dale Carnegie was one of the first writers to link communication skill with managerial effectiveness. His most famous book may be How to Win Friends and Influence People (1936), in which he wrote about the social and psychological aspects of business communication and building professional relationships.13 Carnegie argued that gaining compliance from other people depends on interpersonal dynamics of attraction and influence.14 He offered his own prescriptions for influencing others by listening, showing an interest in their concerns, and gaining their confidence. Although his primary audience was not managers, his message to them was clear. Obtaining employee commitment to the organization does not depend solely on economic motivators or the authority of a manager’s position. Commitment is gained through interpersonal communication skills. This was a radical change to those who previously believed a manager could “buy” commitment. His legacy continues today through the Dale Carnegie Training Institute, which has expanded into sales, leadership, and presentations training for business professionals in 80 countries and in 25 languages.

While Dale Carnegie was presenting his seminars, a group of Harvard professors, led by Elton Mayo, was

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conducting a series of studies that became known as the Hawthorne studies.15 At Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne plant in Illinois, management followed the scientific management principles to produce telephones. Little personal communication occurred between managers and employees; job specifications and work rules were spelled out. The manager’s job was to enforce them through authority and discipline.

A group of industrial engineers was studying the effect of increasing the light in work areas on productivity. The engineers set out to find the optimum conditions by experimenting with the lighting, but the results of the study defied explanation. Productivity increased regardless of what the researchers did to the lighting. When light was increased, productivity went up. When light was held constant, productivity still went up. Even when the level of light was decreased, productivity continued to increase until workers could no longer see what they were doing.

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Stop and Think Recall a time when the instructor of a course or training class asked for your input on the course topics, schedule, methods, or even the meeting time and location.

1. How did the ability to voice your opinion influence the amount you learned? 2. How did it affect your interest and motivation?

The results of these illumination studies were disturbing to engineers schooled in scientific management principles. To further study why their principles failed, researchers isolated and observed a small group of workers. These studies included changes in compensation, rest periods, work schedules, and work methods. In general, productivity increased during the studies regardless of changes in the work conditions. The researchers finally concluded the relationship between the researchers and the workers accounted for the results. The researchers had shown a great personal interest in the workers as they consulted with and kept them informed about changes. The relationship established between the researchers and the employees was quite different from that of the managers and employees in other parts of the plant.

Because the results differed from what was expected, the industrial engineers continued to study working conditions. Traditionally, scientific management advocates simply observed workers as the researchers sought the most efficient way to organize a job. During the next phase, the researchers interviewed thousands of employees to discover their attitudes toward working conditions, managers, and work in general. This was probably the first time extensive interviewing was conducted in the workplace. Questioning or interviewing became part of the work environment.

The interviews indicated that people who work under similar conditions experience these conditions in different ways and assign different meanings to their experiences. The research concluded that employees’ attitudes depend on the social organization of the group and their positions in these groups. One of the primary researchers, Elton Mayo, recommended that managers be friendly in their relationships with workers, listen to workers’ concerns, and give workers a sense of participation in decisions so they could meet their social needs.16 In many respects, both Mayo and Carnegie were similar in their advice, and both were in stark contrast to the scientific management philosophy.

Or were they? Did this human relations approach really differ from the scientific management approach? Some would argue that both Mayo and Carnegie were promoting highly manipulative managerial communication strategies intended only to gain compliance from workers and to promote acceptance of managerial authority.

Although the general orientation of management during that era may have been manipulative, the human relations approach pointed out the importance of interpersonal communication. The legacy of the human relations approach is that managing groups, listening, and interviewing are now all considered integral to

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managerial communication.

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1950s: The Behavioral Approach and Organizational Communication

During the 1950s, managers’ behavior, including communication, received extensive attention. Economics, anthropology, psychology, and sociology were all applied to understanding communication on the job. The general orientation was to view organizational members as full human beings, not just as tools used to complete a job. Peter Drucker was among the first management gurus to assert that workers should be treated as assets, not as liabilities. He originated the view of the corporation as a human community built on trust and respect for the worker and not just a profit-making machine.17 Many management theories emerged during this era, such as McGregor’s theory X and theory Y, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Likert’s four systems of management, Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid, and Herzberg’s motivational model. These theories, explained in most comprehensive management textbooks, have valuable information about what is required for effective managerial communication. Unfortunately, the theoretical explanations of managerial behavior became extremely complex, too complex for most managers to understand and apply. Many training programs were developed to help managers apply these theories, but often little benefit resulted.

While theories were being developed about behavior at work, much also was being done in the area of communication theory. For instance, J. L. Austen developed the speech act theory, which maintains that certain communication conventions must be used to be effective, and David Berlo developed a model emphasizing two-way communication.18 Attention was given to social influences on communication, but unfortunately, the social context of managers was given little or no attention.19

The nature of organizational structure also received extensive attention. Organizations of the 1950s and 1960s were recognized as being different from the social organizations of the early 1900s. Karl Weick developed a theory of organizing that helped us understand the nature of organizations and how communication operates within them. Weick and others made it clear that organizations are not stable, static entities; rather, they are continually evolving. Internal and external communication networks are continually evolving too. Changing types of information and factors like rumors and informal communication must be considered by managers when communicating. Forty years earlier, Fayol recognized the importance of communication networks and organizational structure when he presented the gangplank concept. Now, entire organizations and their structure were receiving renewed attention.20 The nature of managerial and employee behavior, the study of communication, and an analysis of the nature of organizations all had important implications for managers as communicators. However, as mentioned earlier, these studies resulted in a complex body of knowledge that was difficult for managers to use. Out of this behavioral approach, the era of employee empowerment emerged.

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1990s: The Empowerment Approach and Participative Communication

Empowerment is power sharing, the delegation of power or authority to employees in the organization.21 In traditional organizations, all the power to make decisions was vested in top management, but since the emergence of the behavioral approach, we have seen a major shift away from the centralization of power. Empowerment encourages employees to participate fully in the organization. In the 1990s, we began to see power being given to others in the organization, so they could act more freely to accomplish their jobs.

As companies experienced more intense global competition and rapidly developing technology, many top managers believed giving up centralized control would promote faster product development, flexibility, and quality. In a 1989 study, 74 percent of the chief executive officers surveyed reported they were more participatory, were more consensus oriented, and relied more on communication than on command than in years past. They found less value in being dictatorial, autocratic, or imperial.22 The chief executive officer’s letter to the General Electric stockholders in the 1990 annual report provides an example of the empowerment philosophy. In this letter, the CEO asserted that managers must learn to delegate, facilitate, listen, and trust. He talked about the sharing of ideas to develop one vision for the huge corporation.

Sharing a vision means sharing information. In the traditional organization, the top managers are frequently the only ones who know the financial condition of the company, but in organizations that empower employees, information is shared with everyone. For instance, Springfield Remanufacturing Center Corp. in Springfield, Missouri, is an employee-owned company where workers on the line know—and are taught to understand—almost everything the president knows about costs and revenues, departmental productivity, and strategic priorities.23 The empowerment movement can be seen in union–management relations; union members have become more involved in management decisions as management provides more information to them. In fact, information sharing is often part of contract negotiations.24 Both management and union members can be found on work quality and productivity improvement teams.

You may not be surprised that attempts at empowerment faced many challenges. Caterpillar Inc., the heavy- equipment manufacturer, worked with the United Auto Workers in the 1980s to improve employee relations, including a program that asked shop floor workers to submit ideas for improving operations. However, when the industry met financial troubles in 1991, the employee involvement program became the victim of a bitter battle between the company and the United Auto Workers. An adversarial relationship between union and management returned; accordingly, one-way communication was more frequent than would be expected in an environment of empowerment.25

Although efforts to empower employees may run into problems, a number of strategies for empowering employees can be attempted, such as autonomous work groups, self-leadership, work-out groups, and quality circles. But as mentioned in the discussion of the behavioral approach, some of the theories and programs for empowerment can become so complicated they are difficult to apply and are not suitable for every contemporary organization. As a result, the contingency approach has emerged as a management philosophy

that makes sense in the early 21st century.26

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21st Century: The Contingency Approach to Management Communication

Managers who are effective see the interdependence of the various aspects of jobs, organizations, and communication. The basic idea of the contingency approach is that there is no one best way. The appropriate communication strategy varies from one situation to another. The most effective and efficient strategy depends on a number of factors. Accordingly, a communication method highly effective at one time and place may be ineffective in another situation. The contingency approach recognizes the importance of matching different situations with varying communication strategies. The scientific approach may be more appropriate in one situation, while extensive efforts to empower employees may be better in another setting.

For example, during a crisis, a manager may yell at employees and tell them exactly what to do because two- way communication might waste time. But during more tranquil times, discussion between the manager and employees may be appropriate. Each communication strategy—the direct autocratic approach and the participative approach—is appropriate in different situations.

The contingency approach has grown in popularity recently because of the complexity of organizations. Especially in multinational and multicultural organizations, managers must understand that there is no one best way of communicating; effective communication is contingent on the situation. That is not to say, however, that contemporary organizations are managed chaotically. On the contrary, accountability and oversight systems have been emphasized since the meltdown of multinationals such as Enron, Adelphia, and WorldCom in the early 2000s. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (especially Section 404) stresses the need for business control and auditing processes. The point is that, as corporate governance becomes more transparent, information flows more freely and effective managers adapt to the complexities of each situation when communicating.

In summary, each era approaches communication differently but helps us better understand communication within contemporary organizations and the type of communication that may be appropriate in the future. Good ideas can be drawn from the scientific, administrative, human relations, behavioral, and empowerment approaches to communication. For example, without the administrative and human relations orientations, managerial communication might still focus on keeping records, giving orders, and maintaining discipline. Creative analysis is required to ensure that communication strategies adapt to the varying contingencies.

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Stop and Think 1. What are some of the complexities in today’s business environment that make the contingency model appropriate? 2. How can today’s managers identify the contributing factors in their particular situation?

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Factors Affecting Communication Contingencies

The nature of communication and a model of managerial communication are presented in Chapter 2. This discussion presents three contingencies that should be considered when developing a strategy for managerial communication. It is impossible to review all contingencies because every manager faces many unique situations. However, it is possible to review the major current events that may influence a manager’s environment. The following sections review major social and business influences that affect managerial communication contingencies, particularly diversity, competition and product quality, and ethics.

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Diversity

Today, everyone works with more diverse populations than just a few decades ago. Beginning in the 1960s, the United States embraced tolerance and diversity as a strategic mission. However, minimizing cultural bias in the workplace continues to be a challenge for managers. This challenge, which is discussed throughout this text, means managers must not only be able to communicate with a greater variety of audiences but also must help their employees see diversity as a corporate asset rather than a liability. The contemporary manager should be particularly aware of four types of diversity that are becoming more predominant: gender, culture, age, and education.

Gender Diversity

During the past three decades, much has been written about how men and women communicate differently. Attention has also been given to how women and men communicate with each other. Many questions have been asked: Are men more assertive than women? Do women show more social support and sympathy to colleagues? Do men and women provide different types of feedback? Do leadership styles of men and women differ? Do women convey a different nonverbal message with the same gesture? Do men use space differently with other men than with women? Do men and women use different persuasive strategies? In many cases, the answers to these and similar questions are not clear; furthermore, there is evidence that the answers evolve as general social changes occur.

Sexual harassment is an example of a factor that affects communication between the genders at work. When some people think of sexual harassment, they think of touching or making physical advances. However, to others, sexual harassment can be an overheard ribald joke, extensive eye gaze, or even unexpected and unwelcome proximity. (Chapter 11 outlines the most common consequences of misinterpreted nonverbal behaviors.) Another possible example of sexual harassment in the workplace is a supervisor’s sudden change in work schedules that makes it difficult for a worker to arrange child care or transportation to work.27 The point here is that the definition of workplace harassment is evolving and broadening to reflect such perceptions.

Because of the evolving nature of communication and workplace relationships between the genders, definitive answers on gender differences in communication are difficult. But strong arguments for differences have been presented. In her best-selling book, Deborah Tanner makes a case for supporting the differences in communication styles of men and women. In doing so, she also presents interesting reasons men and women have difficulty communicating with each other. These reasons include both inherited traits and learned behavior.28

The differences in communication between genders are important because of the increasing gender diversity of the workforce. Both men and women will have difficulty succeeding if they cannot successfully communicate with each other. During the early 20th century, women who worked (by choice or by circumstances) had either mostly routine, low-level manufacturing or clerical jobs; if they wanted to be a

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professional, their choices were teaching and nursing. Meanwhile, men had a greater variety of jobs such as management and engineering. Overall, men worked mostly with men, and women worked with other women or children.

But women have greater opportunities today and have access to most professions. Women represented 40 percent of the U.S. workforce in 1976, and that number grew to more than 47 percent by 2010.29 The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that the participation rate of women will increase by another 5.4 percentage points by the year 2022, which would make women the majority of the workforce.30 Women are also moving into management. In 1983, only about a third of managers were women, but by 2016, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, women filled 51.5 percent of management, professional, and related occupations.31 Furthermore, the number of women serving as corporate officers in the top ten Fortune 500 companies doubled in less than twenty years—from 8.7 percent in 1995 to 23 percent in 2014 and 24 percent worldwide.32 Yet 31 percent of businesses have no women in leadership roles.33 Obviously there is still room to grow.

As mentioned earlier, a strong argument can be made that men and women tend to communicate differently, which often causes men and women to experience miscommunication with each other at work. As Sallie Krawcheck, CEO of the financial services firm Ellevest, explains, women in management may be more risk averse than men, often take a longer-term perspective, and are often more relationship oriented. Such gender differences should be considered complementary rather than problematic, since research shows that diversity in work teams leads to better outcomes. (See Chapter 4 for a thorough examination of team communication.) Effective managers must be sensitive to gender differences and make special efforts to adjust their communication.34

Cultural Diversity

Managers must be able to communicate with people from other cultures as well as people of different genders. The increasing diversity of the U.S. workforce is a reflection of the increasingly diverse population. This demographic phenomenon brings a range of interests, languages, and cultures that impacts the way business is conducted. No longer can we assume that the typical business professional is a non-Hispanic white. Data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that 17 percent are Hispanic, 12 percent are black, and 6 percent are Asian, and these numbers will continue to grow.35

It is critical for businesses to know the demographic makeup of geographical regions so they can effectively localize products, services, and marketing. For example, many southwestern U.S. cities have large populations of Hispanic workers, whereas southeastern cities may have more African American employees. In parts of New Mexico and Arizona, managers may have many Native American employees, but a job transfer to California or Hawaii may involve managing more Asian American employees than before. Managers must be aware of regional differences that could influence work values and communication styles. Managers must learn to communicate with other managers and employees of all cultural backgrounds. In less than twenty years, the racial and ethnic landscape will become even more diverse, at which point our communication styles will be all the more important.

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Managers must be able to work with diverse cultures both within their own organizations and from other organizations. For example, executives, such as purchasing managers, must be familiar with cross-cultural communication because of the increase of international business. International purchasing alliances too frequently fail because of poor communication.36 This may be termed intercultural business communication, which is discussed in detail in Chapter 12.

In an effort to capture the growing multicultural market, U.S. businesses are offering different products and services, and they are using new advertising and promotional appeals. Although Hispanic people may be the largest ethnic group in the United States, Asian Americans are the fastest growing one. The buying power of this group is expected to reach $1.1 trillion in 2020. But diversity in languages and culture will present challenges to marketers and managers alike.37

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Stop and Think 1. Recall a recent TV commercial or advertisement of one of your favorite products. How does the persuasive message appeal

to multicultural audiences? 2. How could it be improved?

Age Diversity

A third kind of diversity that managers must recognize is age diversity. Americans are living longer, and the average employee is getting older. For the first time in history, five generations are working together. Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics shows the number of employed Americans who are age 55 or older has doubled since 1994 to nearly 22 percent of the labor force.38 Of those, 16 percent are between ages fifty- five and sixty-four, and nearly 6 percent are at least sixty-five years old.39 Meanwhile, the vanguard of Generation Z (born in 1996) has already entered the workforce.

These generational shifts can be challenging to managers and employees alike. According to a Harris study for CareerBuilder.com, 38 percent of employees report to someone younger.40 Older workers may feel that their experience isn’t valued, and younger managers may feel that their decisions are being questioned. Both groups may feel that the skills of the “Boomers” are outdated.41 The worker who is thirty years old in 2018 has lived in a much different world from that of the worker who is sixty. The thirty-year-old, born in 1988, did not experience the national turmoil of the Vietnam War, grew up in an era of relative affluence, and is an avid techie. Multicultural social networks are important. The sixty-year-old remembers the Vietnam War and was affected by both the dot com bubble of the early 2000s and the global economic collapse of 2008. Economic and national securities are major concerns.

Age differences can affect the way employees work. The Millennial generation, already the largest segment of the workforce, will strongly influence workplace culture in the future. Kronos’ Employee Engagement Lifecycle Series study found that 40 percent of Millennials surveyed felt that employees should define work culture, far more than the 13 percent of managers and 9 percent of HR professionals who said the same.42 Another Harris survey found that only 22 percent of Boomers (born 1946–1964) said answering a work e- mail during a family dinner was acceptable. By comparison, 52 percent of Millennials (born 1981–1997) said they saw nothing wrong with the practice.43 Such results support the perception that older cohorts consider “work” to be a place to go to (and leave), while younger cohorts consider “work” to be an activity to be accomplished anywhere and anytime. The implication is that younger workers expect to be evaluated for productivity, not hours at their desk, especially since technology makes geographic location irrelevant. Yet both groups agree that face-to-face interactions are important (58% of 25–34-year-olds vs. 64% of 55+) and that casual office attire is appropriate (66% vs. 54%), so common ground may be easier to find than we think.44

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Globalization and social media have created connections that could make differences in age and experiences more significant than cultural differences. For instance, consider a woman of Korean descent and one of

Hispanic descent who are both thirty years old, born and raised in a suburb of Dallas, educated at the University of Texas, and working in Dallas. These two women may have more in common and find it easier to communicate with each other than with the sixty-year-old Hispanic or Southeast Asian immigrant women they supervise.

Communication across age differences can be a major challenge in the workplace, a challenge that companies can ill afford to ignore. Every generation is different, and generation gaps are natural, but generational tensions seem especially strong when leaders are from one generation and employees are from another generation. Mutual respect and open lines of communication are the recipe for a productive professional relationship across generations. Older workers may have a strong work ethic and avoid drama. Younger workers tend to think and act quickly, and they are often willing to try out new ideas and technologies.45 Respecting each others’ strengths and helping others continue to grow will benefit everyone in the workplace. Managers must consider age diversity as a factor that affects their communication contingencies because of its implications for workplace harmony.

Education Diversity

The fourth kind of diversity that managers should recognize as a contingency is educational level, because the workforce’s education is changing dramatically. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 89 percent of U.S. residents twenty-five and older are at least high school graduates. The bureau reported record high educational levels for nearly every racial and ethnic group and the nation overall. Furthermore, 33 percent of the civilian labor force has a college degree.46 As you move up through the management ranks, there is a good chance that you will manage people who have more experience or knowledge than you do.47 In the scientific management era, a manager could simply tell an educated employee what to do; however, today managers must listen to the employee and seek assistance with problem solving.

In summary, gender, culture, age, and educational diversity are major factors affecting a manager’s communication contingencies. Diversity helps the bottom line. Ethnically diverse organizations are 35 percent more likely to have financial returns that exceed industry averages than less diverse ones, and gender-diverse organizations are 15 percent more likely to perform better.48 Given the increasingly diverse workforce, today’s managers need to develop competencies that will enable effective communication internally with bosses, employees, and coworkers and externally with customers, suppliers, vendors, regulatory agencies, and the public.

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Competition and the Drive for Quality

As explained in the previous section, diversity is an important managerial communication contingency. A second is quality, which is a competitive advantage for business. In the late 1960s, the French journalist Jean- Jacques Servan-Schreiber received considerable notoriety for his book The American Challenge.49 In this book, he warned Europeans that American industry was well ahead of the industrialized world and the United States was widening its lead. But in 1992, such books as Quality or Else: The Revolution in World Business emphasized that quality must be improved if the United States is to remain competitive.50 A pioneer of the drive for quality, W. Edwards Deming, pointed out that in order to continuously improve quality, systems must be in place for gathering feedback from the employees and customers. Contemporary managers now accept the idea that business is a globally competitive game and quality is the key to victory. Competitive advantage and quality are common words in business today. But what do the terms mean?

Competition may be considered as the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most attractive terms. A competitive environment means the organization must produce a product or service in a more efficient and effective manner than its competitors. Also, the service or product must possess greater value at the same or lower price. Little room exists for errors; defective parts must be minimal, few or no reworked parts can be allowed, few product repairs can be tolerated, and delivery cycles must be short. Continuous efforts are required to find new ways to improve the product or service while reducing costs.

Some of the characteristics an organization needs to gain competitive advantage in today’s markets include the ability to do the following:

Access resources Add value Develop a good skills base among the workforce Attract investment Develop nonprice characteristics that appeal to other markets Be price competitive Be efficient Use technology Be innovative

As you look over this list of factors, note how many directly rely on management’s communication competencies. Yes, most of them. Today’s managers must be able to gather information and ideas, share data, and promote and persuade to ensure continuous process improvement. Managers must be efficient and effective communicators in a fast-paced, highly competitive environment. Limited time exists to relax and contemplate communication strategies.

Let us look at an example. Toyota is the number one automaker in the United States (by production).51 As of

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2017, it was the tenth-largest company in the world (by revenue).52 Toyota relies on manufacturing systems, statistical process control, and other proven methods under a continuous improvement strategy to produce high-quality products that consumers demand. All the elements, including management’s communication with dealers, suppliers, and employees, contribute to Toyota’s reputation for quality.53

To enhance their competitiveness, many organizations use cross-functional work teams in which employees learn a variety of tasks and work together. It is almost the direct opposite of the scientific management approach. When cross-functional work teams are used, managers must understand and coordinate a variety of activities. They must be able to communicate from a variety of perspectives.

In some cases, entire organizational cultures must be changed from one in which quality is of little importance to a culture that says, “Quality Is Job One,” Ford Motor Company’s motto since the 1980s. The slogan succinctly represents the corporate cultural changes that many companies are attempting. This means managers must be able to communicate a real interest in quality, and they must be willing to listen to

employees about quality improvements. In 2003, as Ford celebrated its 100th anniversary, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Bill Ford said, “Our success always has been driven by our products and our people. . . . We’re going to apply fresh thinking and innovative technology to everything we do, from our basic business processes to the products that define who we are as a company.”54 This dedication appears to be paying off: J.D. Powers ranked it fourth globally in overall quality.55

Here is a simple example of how the organization’s quality culture works. A Ford automobile assembly worker believed he had a better way to mount the door mirror. After several discussions with the departmental managers, a better procedure was implemented.56 If managers are not willing to listen about quality improvements, they will not be successful in implementing the necessary corporate culture.

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Ethics

A third major contingency that managers should consider when communicating is business ethics. The dangers of unethical behavior have been exemplified in recent years by major scandals in the corporate world. In the early 21st century, executives at Adelphia, Arthur Andersen, Enron, WorldCom, Martha Stewart Omnimedia, HealthSouth, and other corporations were charged with major ethics violations—accounting fraud, stock manipulation, obstructing justice, lying, and so on. In many cases, the accused executives were convicted, and in some cases, their companies were even destroyed. In 2016, Wells Fargo admitted that its employees had created hundreds of thousands of fake accounts to meet quotas; a year later, it admitted that employees had also sold customers car insurance that they didn’t need, causing some to go into default on their loans and have their cars repossessed.57 Such events have triggered renewed concern for ethical standards in business.

Ethical dilemmas and temptations face managers at all levels, not just the political leaders and corporate executives who receive the attention of journalists. The top ethical issues in business today include corporate accounting practices, the use of social media among employees, workplace relationships (harassment), and pay equity.58 Consider the following examples of ethical issues in managerial communication:

The supervisor of a travel agency was aware his agents could receive large bonuses for booking 100 or more clients each month with an auto rental firm, although clients typically wanted the rental agency selected on the basis of lowest cost. The agents worked on a commission basis. Should the supervisor “warn” his employees, or should they be trusted to use their best judgment? The executive in charge of a parts distribution facility told employees to tell phone customers that inventory was in stock, even if it was not. Replenishing the items took only one to two days; no one was hurt by the delay. Is it ethical for the company to omit this information? The project manager for a consulting assignment wondered whether some facts should be left out of a report because the marketing executives paying for the report would look bad if the facts were included. What is the project manager’s ethical responsibility? A North American manufacturer operating abroad was asked to make cash payments (a bribe) to government officials and was told it was consistent with local customs, despite being illegal in the U.S. by the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.59 Should the manufacturer make such payments?

Answers to these questions are not easy, and in today’s atmosphere of cynicism and mistrust, little room for error exists. Chapter 2 discusses the concept of communication climate and points out that trust is essential to developing a positive communication climate. Unfortunately, managers have difficulty developing trust when so many blatant examples of mistrust surface and individual managers face conflicting ethical demands.

No concrete set of ethical rules exists. There is no law to follow. Many behaviors have not been codified, and managers must be sensitive to emerging norms and values. Sensitivity to the nuances of ethical communication is the only way to maintain employee trust.

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Stop and Think Examine the code of conduct for a company, profession, or industry you are interested in.

1. Who wrote the code of conduct? 2. What are the consequences of honoring it? 3. What are the consequences of violating it (if any)? 4. What do you consider the most important reason that codes of conduct exist?

Because no universal laws exist, what one person or group considers ethical may be unethical to another. The question of taking bribes is a good example; they are quite ethical in one country but unethical and even illegal in another. Organizations are assisting managers with the many ethical quandaries they face when communicating by providing guidelines, seminars, and workshops. A recent survey of 71 U.S.-based global organizations in a range of industries found that employee ethics training is, in fact, commonplace; not only does it foster ethical behavior among employees, but ethics training also improves organizational performance.60

Another strategy many companies use to improve communication ethics is to develop a formal code of ethics. The code clarifies company expectations of employee conduct and makes clear that the company expects its personnel to recognize the ethical dimensions of corporate behavior and communication. A code of conduct may be broad or specific, and most address managerial communication. For instance, the following is taken from International Paper’s code of conduct, which is published on the company’s website.

This Code of Conduct is designed to communicate our core values of commitment, ownership, respect, and excellence, and the standards that govern our business. It also provides guidelines for navigating successfully through ethical challenges. In our competitive global environment, we sometimes encounter situations that test our judgment and integrity. When that happens, this Code will help us respond in such a manner as to uphold the IP Way and comply with the spirit and letter of the law.61

Another possibility is an ethics committee or an ethics ombudsperson. With this approach, either one executive or a panel of executives is appointed to oversee the organization’s ethics and serve as a consultant to other managers. This provides an opportunity for a manager to go to one person or a group of people to seek advice when confronted with an ethical issue. The importance of such a position is demonstrated by Xerox, where the ombudsperson reports directly to the CEO.

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The Importance of Studying Managerial Communication

In 2017, the Kansas City Chiefs football team fired head coach John Dorsey, in part because of his poor internal communication style. Sources say that he did not explain important decisions, such as the firing of two successful directors.62 Employee engagement suffers when employees feel uncertainty, but giving them the information they need helps them become happier and more productive.63

A survey by the American Management Association showed that communication, interpersonal skills, collaboration, cultural sensitivity, and diversity are some of the most common topics for employee training.64 Jennifer Jones, director of the training firm AMA Enterprise, says that communication skills are essential for managers to succeed in their jobs.

Communication is actually an umbrella term for such core skills as listening, thinking clearly, interpreting organizational concepts, being alert to non-verbal signals as well as dealing with any stress or emotional issues in working with co-workers or supervisors. Indeed, understood correctly communications helps a person understand a situation, resolve differences and build trust. It’s essential for a productive workplace to encourage creativity and collaboration in order to solve problems or achieve business objectives.65

Furthermore, a recent study showed that managers, particularly those of the Boomer Generation, consider interpersonal and oral communication skills when making decisions about promotion. Although written communication did not rate as highly, the researchers suggest that managers consider writing to be a “threshold competency” that all candidates are expected to have.66

The Project Management Institute, Inc., headquartered in Pennsylvania, has provided solid evidence for the claim that managerial communication is a critical core competency for business success. In 2013, PMI published an in-depth report, Pulse of the Profession: The High Cost of Low Performance: The Essential Role of Communications. The report was the result of research conducted among over 1,000 project managers, executives, and business owners involved in large capital projects (at least $250,000) worldwide. PMI’s study revealed that $135 million is at risk for every $1 billion spent on a project, and a startling 56 percent is at risk because of ineffective communication with stakeholders. Undoubtedly, effective communication is the most crucial success factor in a complex and competitive business climate. The report concludes, “Organizations cannot afford to overlook this key element of project success and long-term profitability.”67

This introductory chapter presents a historical overview of managerial communication, concluding that the contingency approach is the most appropriate, and it reviews three factors that affect contingencies. But organizational management and the corresponding communication are in constant transition. Not every contingency can be discussed, and managers must remain creative and strategic as they communicate in many unique and challenging situations. Our challenge is to understand management communication and begin to prepare for these changes. This book will help you compose messages that focus on the needs of your readers,

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explain ideas in a clear and ethical manner, and strengthen your reputation as a good communicator.

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Summary

Management communication has gone through a number of changes since ancient and medieval times. In recent years, increasingly more attention has been given to managerial communication and employee engagement.

To better understand managerial situations, several contemporary dynamics affecting communication are presented. Different types of diversity are reviewed: gender, culture, age, and education. The work population will probably become more diverse in the majority of these attributes.

The drive for competitive advantage through improved product and service quality also affects managerial communication. As a result, everything will occur in shorter time cycles, and less room for error will exist as a result of quality demands.

Ethics is another contemporary dynamic that must be considered. Although management ethics can create difficult communication decisions, organizations provide assistance with training programs and codes of ethics. In addition to these dynamics affecting contemporary communication, trends imply that communication will become more frequent, intense, and intercultural as it grows in importance.

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Cases For Small-Group Discussion

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Case 1–1

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Ethics and Technology Chris smiled as he received the analysis packet from his supervisor. He had been working from home for GEH Mortgage Company, analyzing mortgage applications, for the past three years. This particular application involved not just a home mortgage but also an entire farmstead, a home and business. Whenever he received an assignment he did not know how to analyze, he would call on his friend Joel, whom he had known since high school, to help him accomplish such tasks. He compensated Joel, usually with a case of beer, when they got together on the weekends. Chris knew he could trust Joel to do a good job on the analysis, because Joel had double majored in finance and accounting at a regional university. Chris would then tailor the analysis according to the way the firm expected reports to be submitted. He quickly e-mailed the application packet to Joel.

Chris was perceived as one of the most dependable analysts in the division because of his past work, much of which had been farmed out to Joel. He had received accolades and raises as a result and was enjoying his successful career with the firm.

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Questions 1. The method used by Chris is obviously successful, and the company is satisfied with the results. Is it just good business, or is there

an ethical dilemma present? 2. Should Chris confess to his supervisor or just continue the successful deception? 3. What are the privacy issues, since the information used in these analyses is proprietary and sensitive? 4. Does this activity fit the notion of plagiarism? 5. Do electronic communication and the telecommuting arrangement make Chris’s actions more likely?

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Case 1–2

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A 120-Year Difference On June 26, 1876, General George A. Custer’s 261 soldiers were killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. One historian has said this about Custer: “Generals who led men were rare; generals who won battles were rarer. It is no wonder that he was idolized from President Lincoln down. All the world loves a winner.” Another historian asks, “Was Custer a hero or a fool?”68

On February 27, 1991, the allied coalition forces of Operation Desert Storm led by Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf overcame the armies of Iraq’s Saddam Hussein in a victory that quickly became known to the world as “The 100-Hour War.” Shortly before the war, Schwarzkopf is quoted as saying, “I told my family that during the first month of any military campaign, the guy in charge is a hero, and it’s downhill after that.”

We don’t normally think of military leaders as managers, but they are responsible for the actions of numerous employees in critical times. They must be effective communicators to carry out this mission. These generals help demonstrate the differences in managerial communication that occurred during a span of 120 years.

General Custer led his 261 men on horseback in southeastern Montana. Compare this to General Schwarzkopf as you think about him stepping quickly toward the podium in a fourth-floor ballroom at the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Riyadh to address two hundred reporters from around the world. No doubt these two managers had different communication support systems, but they also had different responsibilities. General Custer was managing an operation of 261 horse soldiers. General Schwarzkopf was coordinating a half-million- strong international military force including the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Army as well as the first Tank Division of the United Kingdom and corps from Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and France.

What a difference! But in some ways, their training was quite similar. Both were educated at West Point, went through army war colleges at Fort Leavenworth, were stationed at Fort Riley, and had frontline battle experience. Both had experienced defeat and victory.

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Questions 1. Compare the management communication systems of these two managers. How are the basics similar? What was the role of

technology? 2. Which of the two generals had the easier job? Consider this question carefully because Custer had a much smaller group of men,

but Schwarzkopf had sophisticated technology and organizational structure. 3. Which of the two managers required more advanced training in management communication? Why? 4. How would you compare these two generals to business managers during the same era?

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Case 1–3

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Like Grandfather, Like Granddaughter? Clarence opened a farm supply store in Montana during the early 1900s. His neighbors in the county were also his customers. Every person who walked into his store felt comfortable. In fact, they would often sit, sip a cup of coffee or shell some peanuts, and solve the world’s problems before loading up their purchases. Clarence prided himself on knowing what his customers needed to be successful farmers, and he freely gave them advice about which brand of flea dip would work best on their cattle and which tonic would help a colicky horse. By the time he retired and his son Seth took over, the company had expanded to three stores in three towns and had fourteen full-time employees.

As a youth, Seth had attended the state college and earned a degree in agricultural business. He eagerly applied what he had learned to the family business. He was convinced that technology was the key to success, not personal relationships. Over the years, he struggled to convert all his father’s old, handwritten records to electronic files. Eventually, he installed a completely computerized information system that tracked inventory, personnel, and accounts. He sometimes boasted about being an entrepreneur, but Clarence snorted at that term. “Just do what’s right for your customers and you’ll be doing what’s right for yourself,” he would retort.

When Seth retired, his daughter Kathy took over the company that now has twenty-three stores with 228 employees in three states and one wholly owned subsidiary of eighteen gas stations. Kathy’s vision involves offering a broader range of products than farm supplies. She wants to sell the image of the family farm. Her stores stock western clothing; boots, hats, and jewelry; home furnishings; and even CDs featuring country and western music.

Kathy finds herself traveling extensively from the corporate office to the various stores. Finding time to manage everything is a problem, but she has a staff of twelve professionals in the corporate office to assist her. A computer network, e-mail, and fax machines help tremendously.

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Questions 1. How have communication requirements differed for Clarence in the early 1900s and Kathy in the early 2000s? 2. How do you think the management behaviors differed for Clarence and Kathy? 3. In what ways do you think Clarence and Kathy were alike as company presidents?

Student Study Site

Visit the Student Study Site at study.sagepub.com/hynes7e for web quizzes, video and multimedia resources, and case studies.

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http://study.sagepub.com/hynes7e
Notes

1. Towers Watson, Inc., “Change and Communication ROI: The 10th Anniversary Report,” (2013–2014), http://www.towerswatson.com.

2. Robert A. Guisepi, “The History of Ancient Sumeria, Including Its Cities, Kings, and Religions,” World- History.org, http://history-world.org/sumeria.htm.

3. “The First Writing: Counting Beer for the Workers,” The British Museum, http://culturalinstitute.britishmuseum.org/asset-viewer/the-first-writing-counting-beer-for-the- workers/fgF9ioy89DC2Uw?hl=en.

4. “Early Writing,” Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin, http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/educator/modules/gutenberg/books/early/.

5. “Hammurabi’s Code,” World-History.org, http://history-world.org/hammarabicode.htm.

6. Agence France-Presse, “Hundreds of Roman Tablets Reveal Early London Life,” PRI, June 1, 2016, https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-06-01/hundreds-roman-writing-tablets-reveal-early-london-life.

7. C. George, The History of Management Thought (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1972), chaps. 1 & 2.

8. Edwin A. Locke, “The Ideas of Frederick E. Taylor,” Academy of Management Journal, January 1982, 41– 44.

9. Tom Ricci, “Frank Bunker Gilbreth,” American Society for Mechanical Engineers, May 2012, https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/construction-and-building/frank-bunker-gilbreth.

10. William F. Muks, “Worker Participation in the Progressive Era: An Assessment by Harrington Emerson,” Academy of Management Review, January 1982, 101.

11. “McRisky,” BusinessWeek, October 21, 1991, 114–117.

12. Henri Fayol, General and Industrial Management (London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1949), 3–13.

13. Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1936).

14. M. Richetto, “Organizational Communication Theory and Research: An Overview,” in Communication Yearbook 1, ed. B. D. Rubin (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1977).

15. F. L. Roethlisberger and W. Dickson, Management and the Workers (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1939).

16. E. Mayo, The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (Boston: Harvard Business School, 1947).

17. John A. Byrne, “The Man Who Invented Management: Why Peter Drucker’s Ideas Still Matter,” BusinessWeek, November 28, 2005, 97–106.

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http://www.towerswatson.com
http://history-world.org/sumeria.htm
http://culturalinstitute.britishmuseum.org/asset-viewer/the-first-writing-counting-beer-for-the-workers/fgF9ioy89DC2Uw?hl=en
http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/educator/modules/gutenberg/books/early/
http://history-world.org/hammarabicode.htm
https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-06-01/hundreds-roman-writing-tablets-reveal-early-london-life
https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/construction-and-building/frank-bunker-gilbreth
18. J. L. Austen, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962); and David K. Berlo, “Human Communication: The Basic Proposition,” in Essay on Communication (East Lansing, MI: Department of Communication, 1971).

19. Larry R. Smeltzer and Gail F. Thomas, “Managers as Writers: Research in Context,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 8, no. 2 (April 1994): 186.

20. K. Weick, The Social Psychology of Organizing, 2nd ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979).

21. Edwin P. Hollander and Lynn R. Offermann, “Power and Leadership in Organization,” American Psychologist 45 (February 1990): 179–189.

22. Thomas A. Stewart, “New Ways to Exercise Power,” Fortune, November 6, 1989, 52–64.

23. John Case, “The Open-Book Managers,” Inc., September 1990, 104–105.

24. Stephenie Overman, “The Union Pitch Has Changed,” HR Magazine, December 1991, 44–46.

25. Donald W. Nauss, “UAW Dispute With Caterpillar Just Crawls Along,” Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1994, http://articles.latimes.com/1994-07-05/business/fi-11982_1_unfair-labor.

26. Robert L. Rose and Alex Kotlowitz, “Strife Between UAW and Caterpillar Blights Promising Labor Idea,” The Wall Street Journal, November 23, 1992, 1.

27. Fatima Goss Graves, Liz Watson, Katherine Gallagher Robbins, Lauren Khouri, and Lauren Frohlich, “Seventeen Million Reasons Low-Wage Workers Need Strong Protections from Harassment” (National Women’s Law Center Report, April 1, 2014), http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/final_nwlc_vancereport2014.pdf.

28. Deborah Tanner, You Just Don’t Understand (New York: Ballantine Books, 1990).

29. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012. Labor Force, Employment, and Earnings, Table 616, p. 393.

30. Mitra Toossi, “Labor Force Projections to 2022,” Monthly Labor Review, December 2013, http://www.bls.gov/EMP.

31. U.S. Census Bureau, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey, https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm.

32. “Women in Leadership,” Catalyst Knowledge Center, February 17, 2017, http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-management.

33. “Women in Leadership,” Catalyst.

34. Sally Krawcheck, “Diversify Corporate America,” Time, March 24, 2014, 36–37.

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http://articles.latimes.com/1994-07-05/business/fi-11982_1_unfair-labor
http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/final_nwlc_vancereport2014.pdf
http://www.bls.gov/EMP
https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm
http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-management
35. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Characteristics by Race and Ethnicity, 2015,” September 2016, https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/race-and-ethnicity/2015/home.htm.

36. Michiel R. Leenders, Harold E. Fearon, and Wilbur B. England, Purchasing and Materials Management, 10th ed. (Burr Ridge, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1993), 480.

37. Alexia Fernandez Campbell, “The Overlooked Consumer Group with Billions to Spend,” The Atlantic, August 24, 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/08/the-overlooked-consumer-group- with-billions-to-spend/497105/.

38. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Projections to 2024: The Labor Force Is Growing, But Slowly,” December 2015, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2015/article/labor-force- projections-to-2024.htm.

39. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey, 2016, https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat03.htm.

40. Debra Auerbach, “Generational Differences in the Workplace,” CareerBuilder.com, August 27, 2014, http://www.careerbuilder.com/advice/generational-differences-in-the-workplace.

41. Joanne Kaufman, “When You’re Older Than the Boss,” New York Times, March 19, 2017, 5.

42. Kronos, “Who’s the Boss of Workplace Culture? HR, Managers, and Employees Disagree, Says New Workforce Institute Study,” Kronos.com, March 9, 2016, http://www.kronos.com/pr/who-is-the-boss-of- workplaceculture-hr-managers-and-employees-disagree-says-new-workforce-institute-study.aspx.

43. “Workfront Survey Uncovers the Generational Differences in Perception of Work-Life Balance,” PR Newswire (USA), June 16, 2015, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/workfront-survey-uncovers-the- generational-differences-in-perception-of-work-life-balance-300099251.html.

44. Auerbach, “Generational Differences in the Workplace.”

45. Kaufman, “When You’re Older Than the Boss.”

46. U.S. Census Bureau, Educational Attainment in the United States, 2016, https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/demo/tables/educational-attainment/2016/cps-detailed- tables/table-1-1.xlsx.

47. Rebecca Knight, “How to Manage People Who Are Smarter Than You,” Harvard Business Review, August 6, 2015, https://hbr.org/2015/08/how-to-manage-people-who-are-smarter-than-you.

48. Vivian Hunt, Dennis Layton, and Sara Prince, “Why Diversity Matters,” McKinsey & Company, January 2015, http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/why-diversity-matters.

49. Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber, The American Challenge (New York: Atheneum, 1968).

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https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/race-and-ethnicity/2015/home.htm
https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/08/the-overlooked-consumer-group-with-billions-to-spend/497105/
https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2015/article/labor-force-projections-to-2024.htm
https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat03.htm
http://www.careerbuilder.com/advice/generational-differences-in-the-workplace
http://www.kronos.com/pr/who-is-the-boss-of-workplaceculture-hr-managers-and-employees-disagree-says-new-workforce-institute-study.aspx
http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/workfront-survey-uncovers-the-generational-differences-in-perception-of-work-life-balance-300099251.html
https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/demo/tables/educational-attainment/2016/cps-detailed-tables/table-1-1.xlsx
https://hbr.org/2015/08/how-to-manage-people-who-are-smarter-than-you
http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/organization/our-insights/why-diversity-matters
50. Lloyd Dolyns and Clare Crawford-Mason, Quality or Else: The Revolution in World Business (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1992).

51. “World Motor Vehicle Production,” International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers, 2015, http://www.oica.net/wp-content/uploads/ranking2015.pdf.

52. “The World’s Biggest Public Companies 2017,” Forbes.com, https://www.forbes.com/companies/toyota- motor/.

53. Mary Connelly, “Toyota’s Ad Constants: Stress Quality, Seek a Feel-Good Connection,” Automotive News, October 29, 2007.

54. Off-Road.com Newswire, “Ford Motor Company’s Vision for Next 100 Years.” Accessed at http://www.off-road.com/trucks-4x4/news/ford-motor-companys-vision-for-next-100-years-29941.html.

55. “New-Vehicle Initial Quality Is Best Ever, J.D. Power Finds,” J.D. Power, June 21, 2017, http://www.jdpower.com/press-releases/2017-us-initial-quality-study-iqs.

56. Netpiper Auto News, July 6, 2003, http://www.autoemirates.com/netpiper/news/details.asp?NID=997.

57. Chris Arnold, “Who Snatched My Car? Wells Fargo Did,” NPR, August 3, 2017, http://www.npr.org/2017/08/02/541182948/who-snatched-my-car-wells-fargo-did.

58. Jonathan Lister, “Top Ethical Issues Facing the Business Community,” Houston Chronicle, May 14, 2014, http://smallbusiness.chron.com/top-ethical-issues-facing-general-business-community-25417.html.

59. U.S. Department of Justice, “Foreign Corrupt Practices Act,” https://www.justice.gov/criminal- fraud/foreign-corrupt-practices-act.

60. James Weber, “Investigating and Assessing the Quality of Employee Ethics Training Programs Among US-Based Global Organizations,” Journal of Business Ethics (2015) 129: 27–42, DOI: 10.1007/s10551-014- 2128-5.

61. http://www.internationalpaper.com/documents/EN/Ethics/IPCodeofConduct.pdf.

62. Terez A. Paylor, “Sources: Communication, Management Style Were Factors in Chiefs’ Firing of Dorsey,” The Kansas City Star, June 25, 2017, http://www.kansascity.com/sports/nfl/kansas-city- chiefs/article158155634.html.

63. Preston Lewis, “5 Steps to Creating a Better Employee Experience,” Communication World, March 2017, 1–3.

64. Jennifer Jones, “Communication Skills Most Needed by Individual Contributors,” American Management Association, February 25, 2014, http://www.amanet.org/news/9791.aspx.

65. Ibid.

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http://www.oica.net/wp-content/uploads/ranking2015.pdf
https://www.forbes.com/companies/toyota-motor/
http://www.off-road.com/trucks-4x4/news/ford-motor-companys-vision-for-next-100-years-29941.html
http://www.jdpower.com/press-releases/2017-us-initial-quality-study-iqs
http://www.autoemirates.com/netpiper/news/details.asp?NID=997
http://www.npr.org/2017/08/02/541182948/who-snatched-my-car-wells-fargo-did
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/top-ethical-issues-facing-general-business-community-25417.html
https://www.justice.gov/criminal-fraud/foreign-corrupt-practices-act
http://www.internationalpaper.com/documents/EN/Ethics/IPCodeofConduct.pdf
http://www.kansascity.com/sports/nfl/kansas-city-chiefs/article158155634.html
http://www.amanet.org/news/9791.aspx
66. N. Lamar Reinsch and Jonathan A. Gardner, “Do Communication Abilities Affect Promotion Decisions? Some Data from the C-Suite,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 28, no. 1 (2014): 31–57, doi: 10.1177/1050651913502357.

67. Project Management Institute, Inc., “Pulse of the Profession™ In-Depth Report: The High Cost of Low Performance: The Essential Role of Communications,” May 2013, 2, accessed August 5, 2014, at https://www.pmi.org/learning/thought-leadership/pulse/essential-role-communications.

68. D. A. Kinsley, Favor the Bold (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968). See also Lawrence A. Frost, Custer Album (Seattle: Superior Publishing, 1964).

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https://www.pmi.org/learning/thought-leadership/pulse/essential-role-communications
2 Understanding the Managerial Communication Process

Today, communication itself is the problem. We have become the world’s first overcommunicated society. Each year we send more and receive less.

—Al Ries, chairman, Trout & Ries Advertising, Inc.

Whether working for a hospital, manufacturer, or service firm, more than 75 percent of a manager’s time is spent communicating. Considering the amount of information for which a manager has responsibility, this is not surprising. General managers face two fundamental challenges: figuring out what to do as they sort through enormous amounts of information and getting things done through a diverse group of people.1 Effective communication is the key to planning, leading, organizing, and controlling the resources of the organization to master these challenges.

Communication—the essential process that managers use to plan, lead, organize, and control—is not easy. To understand a manager’s message, you must be able to perceive and interpret it. The process becomes more complex when communicating to a group of people because of the variety of perceptions and interpretations possible.

At the most general level, the communication process consists of an exchange of messages that are comprised of a set of symbols, such as words or gestures. Understanding the messages depends on a common meaning or frame of reference for those symbols. When sending a message, a manager may have the meaning of the symbols clearly in mind, but if someone receiving the message attributes a different meaning, the message is misunderstood. The process is made even more complicated because the symbols’ meanings not only differ between people but also change as the experiences of the people involved change.

In this chapter, we examine those aspects of developing and exchanging symbols that relate to managerial communication, and we analyze the human factors that aid or hinder understanding. Further, we present a model of the strategic approach to communication that managers should follow when developing messages. Finally, we discuss three critical errors that managers must avoid when seeking effective communication.

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Levels of Managerial Communication

Managerial communication may occur at five different levels:

1. Intrapersonal 2. Interpersonal 3. Group 4. Organizational 5. Intercultural2

One level is not more important than another. Communication may occur at any or all of these levels simultaneously.

Intrapersonal communication focuses on internal cognitive behavior, such as observing, listening, and reading. Most of these activities involve the seeking of information; consequently, this communication level is extremely important for managerial decision making and problem solving because effective decisions require accurate information.

The second category is the interpersonal level of communication. At this level, two or more people exchange thoughts. They may be sharing information, providing feedback, or simply maintaining a social relationship through conversation.

Group communication is a third level. The most common form of group communication is the meeting, which may be either formal or informal. Chapter 4 discusses the various functions of formal meetings.

Fourth, the organizational level of communication operates within the networks that link members of a company or other organization. Organizational communication is also concerned with how a group of tasks is linked to complete a job.

Fifth, the intercultural level of communication concerns interactions among people of different cultures. As discussed in the next section of this chapter, intercultural business communication is occurring more frequently because of globalization, improved telecommunications, and transportation.3 Because of its importance, Chapter 12 is dedicated to intercultural communication.

Communication is a behavior we engage in throughout life and often take for granted. You may reach a managerial position yet never deliberately analyze your communication because it has become such common behavior. However, a lack of strategic decision making can cause communication problems for you as a manager. Just as a complex fiscal transaction triggers many different accounting decisions, a communication situation should trigger strategic communication decision making. The accountant does not intuitively enter a transaction as a debit or credit. She makes a series of analytical decisions to ensure that every transaction is correct. Unfortunately, the same accountant may communicate in a critical situation in a style that seems correct without making a similar strategic analysis.

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A Strategic Approach

The following discussion analyzes separate elements of a strategic approach to communication. However, these variables do not actually occur separately, nor can they be analyzed separately in the managerial context. They are highly interdependent and affect each other concurrently. For instance, the power of the person sending the message, the intended receiver, the message’s purpose, and the organizations involved are all interrelated. Each strategic component is reciprocally interdependent. Although the following discussion considers each of the components separately, remember that each variable affects the others.

The strategic approach could be compared to an onion. The strategy is at the very core of the onion, but one must peel away several layers to get to the core. The outer layer of the onion, which we will examine first, can be compared to the context in which the communication event occurs.

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The First Layer

The first layer consists of communication context. Context includes a consideration of the organization’s climate and culture, both of which are discussed in the following subsections.

Communication Climate

Past communication, such as whether employees and managers have been trusting and open or closed and defensive, has a cumulative effect.4 A trusting, open climate makes it much easier to communicate in an organization. And there seems to be a positive correlation between communication openness and trust. Major events in an organization’s life cycle can affect the communication climate. For example, often when a company is restructuring or a merger is planned, managers reduce the amount of information flowing through the formal channels. The result of this information “vacuum” is employee anxiety and distrust. In such a climate, employees turn to each other, relying on the rumor mill to learn about impending changes and layoffs. Not surprisingly, productivity drops off.

On the other hand, success breeds success. Effective communicating results in trust and openness, which generally improve job performance.5 In turn, future effective communication will get easier because of the trust and openness that have developed. A positive climate is fragile, however. After only one or two critical errors, a positive environment can quickly change to one of distrust and closed communication, making future communication more difficult. This is why the skills and principles discussed in the following chapters are so critical—managers must avoid communication errors that may result in a negative climate.

Cultural Context

The second factor in the outermost layer of our model is culture. All communication occurs within a culture. Culture is the social glue that binds members of nations and organizations together through shared values, symbols, and social ideals. Culture generally remains below the threshold of conscious awareness because it involves taken-for-granted assumptions about how one should perceive, think, and feel. But it is ubiquitous.