Philosophy here and now 2nd edition pdf

HERE AND NOW THIRD EDITION

POWERFUL IDEAS IN

EVERYDAY LI FE Lewis Vaughn

HERE AND NOW

WHAT PEOPLE ARE SAYING ABOUT PHILOSOPHY HERE AND NOW:

"Above all, Vaughn's text does ,vhac few ochers are able co do, namely, co show chat ph ilosophy actually matters ,vich respect co ho,v we ch ink and live in the wo rld. For all its brevity the book 1nanages co run the gamut of critical topics, and to offer real-world (a nd often hu1norous) examples of each . He does not offer the luxury of viewing d iffic ult questions fro1n a position of abstracted detachment and safety. Rather, he hurls readers straight into the teeth of the sconn and allows che1n co feel the raw terror, wonder, and exh ilaration chat rightly belong co the st udy of philosophy."

- Daniel Bramer, Holy Family University

"Vaughn has chosen the mos t important topics in philosophy. His 1nenu can not be improved upon. W ith a beautiful open ing chapter on the nature of ph ilosophical ch inking and remarkably concise chap ters on the 1n osc engaging issues in philosophy, and with a nice 1n ix of classic and conce1nporary philosophers, chis is a terri fic text. It is visually appealing as well."

- Paul Herrick, Shoreline Community College

"Philosophy Here and Now is written in a clear, engagi ng, and lively style. The author does an excellent job of explain ing abstract and conceptually intricate material to novices. The book introduces students to philosophy as a living enterprise, full of intellectual surprises and relevance to everyday hu1nan concerns."

- Phil ip Robbi ns, University of Missouri

"I can't imagine not using Philosophy Here and Now. My experience w ith the textbook has been completely posit ive. When st udents lee you know how much they like reading the text you know you 1n ade the right decision in adopting the book."

- Teresa Cantrell, University of Louisville

"Th is is the bes t text I have fou nd fo r my int roductory class. Q uest ions and exercises engage the st udents' lives di rectly and ask chem co explain their own understand ing/beliefs about a matter. The appendix on writing ph ilosophy papers can easily stand on its o,vn as the mos t valuable cool I use in my class. I have yet co find anyth ing at chis price with a comparable content."

- Stephen Orr, Solano Community College

PH L PHY HERE AND NOW

POWER FUL IDEAS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

THIRD EDITJC)~

Lewis Vaughn

NEWYORK [ OXFORD OXFORD UN IVERS ITY PRESS

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Names: Vaughn, Lewis} auth o r.

Title: Philosophy here and now : powerful ideas in everyday li fe I Lewis Vaughn. Description: T H IRD EDITION. J New York : Oxford University Press, 20 18. Identifiers: LCCN 20 18014409 I IS BN 9780 190852344 (pbk.) SubjecLs: LCSH: Philosophy- Textbooks. Classificatio n: LCC 8 031 .V38 2018 I DOC 100-dc23 LC record available ar https://lccn.loc.gov/20 180 14409

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• PREFACE XXI

CHAPTER 1 PHILOSOPHY AND YOU 1

CHAPTER 2 GOD AND RELIGION 57

CHAPTER 3 MORALITY AND THE MORAL LIFE 135

CHAPTER 4 MIND AND BODY 205

CHAPTER s FREE WILL AND DETERM INISM 240

CHAPTER 6 KNOWLEDGE AND SKEPTICISM 274

CHAPTER 7 AESTHETICS 332

CHAPTER 8 THE JUST SOCIETY 354

CHAPTER 9 THE MEAN ING OF LIFE 406

APPENDIX A THE TRUTH ABOUT PH ILOSOPHY MAJORS 431

APPENDIX B ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 437

APPENDIX c HOW TO WRITE A PHILOSOPHY PAPER 441

NOTES 451

GLOSSARY 457

CRED ITS 461

INDEX of MARGINAL

QUOTATIONS 463

GENERAL IN DEX 465

VII

Preface xxi

CHAPTER 1 PH I LOSOPHY AND YOU l

1.1 PHILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING 2

The Good of Philosophy 2

Philoso phical Terra in 4 What Do You Believe? Your Philosophica l Beliefs 5 Essay/Discussion Questions 7

1.2 SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE 8

Philosophers at Work: Pl ato 9

PLATO: The Republic 10 Philosophers at Work: The Pre-Socratics 12

Essay/Discussion Questions 14

1.3 THINKING PHILOSOPHICALLY 14

Reasons and Arguments 15 Philosophy Lab 16

Philosophers at Work: Phi losophy Takes on Racism 20

Reading Phil osophy 27 Philosophers at Work: Hypatia 29 Philosophers at Work: Early Women

Philoso phe rs: Themisto cl ea, Ar ignote,

and Theano 31

Fallacious Reason ing 33 Philosophy Now: Phi losophy in the News 34 Essay/Discussion Questions 40

REVIEW NOTES 40

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 42

KEY TERMS 42

ARGUMENT EXERCISES 43 ix

x Cont ents

NARRATIVE: Plato, The Trial and Death of Socrates 47

PROBING QUESTIONS SS

FOR FURTHER READING SS

CHAPTER 2 GOD AND RELIGION 57

2.1 OVERVIEW: COD AND PHILOSOPHY 58

Why Religion Mat te rs 59

Ove rview: The Phi losopher's Quest 59 Philosophy Now: Who Believes in God? 60 What Do You Believe? H ard-W ired for God? 63

Belief and D isbelief 64

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph i losophica l Views 66

2.2 ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF COD 66

Cosmological Arguments 66

AQUINAS: Summa Theologica 67 Philosophers at Work: St. T homas Aquinas 68 Philosophy Now: Science an d the Uncaused

Universe 69

CRAIG: Reasonable Faith 70

Design Argumen t s 72

PALEY: Natural Theology 72

HUME: Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 74 Philosophy Now: Do Scientists Reject Religion? 78

On to logical Arguments 79

ANSELM: Proslogium 79 Philosophy Now: Evo lution and Intelligent

Des ign 80

KANT: Critique of Pure Reason 83 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph i losophica l

Views 83

2.3 COD AND THE PROBLEM OF EVIL 84

Rowe's Argumen t f rom Evil 84

ROWE: Philosophy of Religion 84

The Free W ill Defense 87

SWINBURNE: Is There a God? 87

The Sou l-Making Defense 88

HICK: Evil and the God of Love 88 Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 91

2.4 THEISM AND RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE 92

ST. TERESA OF AVILA: The Life of Teresa of Jesus 92

MACKIE: The Miracle of Theism 93 Philosophy Lab 94

ROWE: Philosophy of Religion 95 Philosophy Now: Proof of the Power of Prayer? 96

SWINBURNE: The Existence of God 97 Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 98

2.5 BELIEF WITHOUT REASON 98

James: Pragmatic Fait h 99

JAMES: "The W ill t o Believe" 100

MARTIN: Atheism: A Philosophical

Justification 106

Pasca l: Betting on God 106

What Do You Believe? Do You Live by Faith? 107

PASCAL: Pensees and Other Writings 107 Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 109

2.6 EASTERN RELIGIONS 109

Buddh i sm 109

SUMEDHO: Buddha-Nature 11 2

RAHULA: What the Buddha Taught 11 2 Philosophy Now: Bu ddhi sm and Science 114

H induism 116

Philosophy Now: The Caste System 120

Daoism 123

CHUANG TZU: All Things Are One 123

LAO-TZU: Tao -te ching 124 Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 126

Contents x 1

x i i Contents

REVIEW NOTES 126

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 129

KEY TERMS 129

FICTION: Art hur C. Clarke, "The St ar" 131

PROBING QUESTIONS 133

FOR FURTHER READING 134

CHAPTER 3 MORALITY AND THE MORAL LIFE 135

3.1 OVERVIEW: ETHICS AND THE MORAL DOMAIN 136

Eth ics and Moralit y 136

Moral Theo ries 139

Philosophy Now: Morality and the Low 141 Philosophy Now: The Moral ity of Human

Cloni ng 144

Religion an d Morality 146

SHAFER-LANDAU: Whatever Happened

to Good and Evil? 147 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph i losophica l

Vi ews 148

3.2 MORAL RELATIVISM 148

Su bjective Relativism 149

Cultural Relativism 151

What Do You Believe? Cu ltu ral Re lativi sm

an d Women's Rights 152

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph i losophica l

Vi ews 155

3.3 MORALITY BASED ON CONSEQUENCES 155

Utilitar ian ism 156

MILL: "Wh at Uti lit arian ism Is" 158 Philosophy Now: Util ita riani sm an d the Death

Penalty 160

Philosophy Lab 164

Eth ical Ego ism 165

Philosophers at Work: John Stuart Mill 165 Philosophy Now: To rture and the Tick ing Bomb

Ter ro rist 166

Writing to Understand: Criti qui ng Philosoph ica l Views 169

3.4 M ORALITY BASED ON DUTY AND RIGHTS 169

KANT: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals 170 Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 175

3.5 MORALITY BASED ON CHARACTER 175

ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics 176

SHAFER-LANDAU: The Fundamentals of Ethics 180

Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Philosoph ica l Views 181

3.6 FEMINIST ETHICS AND THE ETHICS OF CARE 181

JAGGAR: "Femin ist Eth ics" 182

CROSTHWAITE: "Gender and Bioethics" 182

HELD: The Ethics of Care 184

Philosophers at Work: M ar y Wo ll stonecraft 186

BAIER: "The Need for More T han Justice" 188 Writing to Understand: Critiqui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 188

3.7 ALBERT CAMUS: AN EXISTENTIALIST VOICE 188

CAMUS: The Myth of Sisyphus 190 Writing to Understand: Criti qui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 192

3.8 CONFUCIANISM 192

CONFUCIUS: Analects 193

NOSS: A History of the World's Religions 195 Writing to Understand: Criti qui ng Philosoph ica l

Views 195

REVIEW NOTES 196

Writing to Understand: A rguing You r Own Views 198

KEY TERMS 198

FICTION: Ursula K. Le Guin, " The Ones Who Wa lk Away

from Ornelas" 200

PROBING QUESTIONS 203

FOR FURTHER READING 203

Contents xi ii

x iv Contents

CHAPTER 4 MIND AND BODY 205

4.1 OVERVIEW: T HE M IND-BODY PROBLEM 206

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph iloso phica l

Vi ews 211

4.2 SUBSTANCE DUALISM 211

DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method of Rightly

Conducting the Reason 2 12

SCHICK: Doing Philosophy 212

DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 213 What Do You Believe? T he Immortal Soul 2 14

SEARLE: Mind 216

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph iloso phica l Vi ews 217

4.3 MIND-BODY IDENTITY 217

SMART: "Sensations and Brain Processes" 217

CHALMERS: The Conscious Mind 2 18

NAGEL: "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?" 220 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph iloso phica l

Vi ews 221

4.4 THE M IND AS SOFTWARE 222

FODOR: "T he Mind-Body Problem" 222

BLOCK: "Troubles with Functionalism" 223

What Do You Believe? Al an d Human Rights 224

SEARLE: Mind 226

Philosophers at Work: Alan Turing 227 Philosophers at Work: John R. Searle 228 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph iloso phica l

Vi ews 229

Philosophy Now: A l, Ethics , an d War 230

4.5 THE MIND AS PROPERTIES 230

CHALMERS: The Conscious Mind 232 Philosophy Lab 233 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Ph iloso phica l

Vi ews 234

REVIEW NOTES 234

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 235

KEY TERMS 236

FICTION: Terry Bisson, "They're Made out of Meat" 237

PROBING QUESTIONS 238

FOR FURTHER READING 238

CHAPTER 5 FREE WILL AND DETERMIN ISM 240

5.1 OVERVIEW: THE FREE WILL PROBLEM 241

What Do You Believe? Fate 245 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losoph ica l

Views 246

5.2 DETERMINISM AND INDETERMINISM 246

D'HOLBACH: "Of the System of Man's Free Agency" 246

Philosophers at Work: Will iam James 248

JAMES: "The Dilemma of Determin ism" 249 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losoph ica l

Views 250

5.3 COMPATIBILISM 250

LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 251

STACE: Religion and the Modern Mind 251 Philosophy Now: Does Belief in Free Will Matter? 252

ROWE: "Two Conce pts of Freedom" 254 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losoph ica l

Views 255

5.4 LIBERTARIANISM 255

Philosophy Now: Science and Free Will 256

VAN INWAGEN: An Essay on Free Will 257 Philosophy Lab 258

TAYLOR: Metaphysics 258 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losoph ica l

Views 261

5.5 SARTRE' S PROFOUND FREEDOM 261

SARTRE: "Existen tialism Is a Humanism" 262

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losoph ica l Views 266

Contents xv

xvi Contents

REVIEW NOTES 266

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own V iews 268

KEY TERMS 268

FICTION: Thomas D. Davis, "A Little Omniscience Goes

a Long Way" 270

PROBING QUESTIONS 273

FOR FURTHER READING 273

CHAPTER 6 KNOWLEDGE AND SKEPTICISM 274

6.1 OVERVIEW: THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE 275

What Do You Believe? Cognitive Re lativism Undone 277

Writing to Understand: Critiqu i ng Ph i losophica l

V i ews 280

6.2 THE RATIONALIST ROAD 281

Plat o's Rat iona lism 281

PLATO: Meno 283

Desca rt es' Dou bt 284

DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 285 Philosophy Now: Livi ng in The Matrix 287 Philosophy Lab 288

Desca rt es' Ce rt ainty 288

DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 288

Philosophers at Work: Rene Desca rtes 290 Writing to Understand: Critiqu i ng Ph i losophica l

V i ews 292

6.3 THE EMPIRICIST TURN 293

Locke 293

LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human

Understanding 293

Ber keley 299

BERKELEY: Of the Principles of Human Knowledge 300

Hume 303 Philosophers at Work: David Hume 304

HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 305

Writing to Understand: Crit iqui ng Phi losoph ica l Views 310

6.4 THE KANTIAN COMPROMISE 311

KANT: Critique of Pure Reason 312 Philosophers at Work: Immanuel Kant 313 Philosophy Now: Conceptua lizing the World 316 Writing to Understand: Crit i qui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 319

6.5 A FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ON KNOWLEDGE 319

AINLEY: "Femin ist Phi losophy" 320

ANTONY: " Embod iment and Epistemology" 320

ANDERSON: "Fem inist Epi st emology an d Ph iloso phy of Science" 321

COLE: Philosophy and Feminist Criticism 321 Writing to Understand: Crit iqui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 325

REVIEW NOTES 325

Writing to Understand: A rguing You r Own Views 328

KEY TERMS 329

FICTION: Lewis Carroll, "Through the Looking- Glass" 330

PROBING QUESTIONS 330

FOR FURTHER READING 331

CHAPTER 7 AESTHETICS 332

7.1 OVERVIEW: PHILOSOPHY OF BEAUTY 333

Writing to Understand: Crit i qui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 333

7.2 WHAT IS ART? 333

Philosophy Now: Is It Art? 334

BELL: Art 335 Writing to Understand: Crit i qui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 335

Philosophy Now: Controve rsia l Ar t 336

Contents xv ii

xvii i Contents

7.3 AESTHETIC VALUE 338

Philosophers at Work: Ar thu r C. Dante 339 Writing to Understand: Critiqu i ng Ph i losophica l

Vi ews 34 0

7.4 PLATO, ARISTOTLE, AND HUME 340

ARISTOTLE: The Poetics 340 Philosophy Lab 341

HUME: Of the Standard of Taste 343 Philosophy Now: Fem ini st Art 344 Writing to Understand: Critiqu i ng Ph i losophica l

Vi ews 34 8

REVIEW NOTES 349

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own

Views 350

KEY TERMS 350

FICTION : Edgar All an Poe, "The Oval Portrait" 351

PROBING QUESTIONS 352

FOR FURTHER READING 352

CHAPTER 8 THE JUST SOCIETY 354

8.1 OVERVIEW: JUSTICE AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY 355

What Do You Believe? Polit ica l Vi ews in

Flux 358 Writing to Understand: Critiqu i ng Ph i losophica l

Vi ews 359

8.2 PLATO 'S THEORY: JUSTICE AS MERIT 360

PLATO: The Republic 361 Philosophy Now: Merit or Equa lity: Who Gets

to Live? 363

Writing to Understand: Critiqu i ng Ph i losophica l Vi ews 364

8.3 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORIES 364

Hobbes 365

Philosophers at Work: Thomas Hobbes 365

HOBBES: Leviathan 366

Locke 370

LOCKE: Second Treatise of Government 371

Rawls 375 Philosophers at Work: John Locke 375

RAWLS: A Theory of justice 376 Writing to Understand: Crit i qui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 378

8.4 SOCIALIST THEORIES 379

Philosophy Lab 380 Philosophy Now: Is the Unit ed States a Socialist

Country? 381

MARX and ENGELS: Manifesto of the Communist

Party 381 Writing to Understand: Crit i qui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 387

8.5 FEMINISM ANO SOCIAL JUSTICE 387

OKIN: Justice, Gender, and the Family 388

MILLER: Political Philosophy 392 Writing to Understand: Crit iqui ng Phi losoph ica l

Views 392

REVIEW NOTES 393

Writing to Understand: Argui ng You r Own

Views 395

KEY TERMS 395

FICTION: Willi am Golding, "Lord of the Flies" 397

PROBING QUESTIONS 405

FOR FURTHER READING 405

CHAPTER 9 THE MEAN ING OF LIFE 406

9.1 OVERVIEW: PHILOSOPHY ANO THE MEAN ING

O F LIFE 407

Philosophy Lab 410

9.2 PESSIMISM: LI FE HAS NO MEANING 411

TOLSTOY: My Confession 411

Contents xix

xx Content s

SCHOPENHAUER: "On the Suffe rings of the Wo rl d" 413

BAGG/NI: What's It All About? 414 Philosophy Now: N ietzsche: Reflections

on Meani ng 415

9.3 OPTIMISM : LIFE CAN HAVE MEANING 416

Meaning from Above 416

TOLSTOY: My Confession 416 Philosophy Now: Is Re li gion Necessary

fo r a Meaningful Life? 4 19

BAGG/NI: What's It All About? 420

Meaning from Below 4 21

EDWARDS: The Encyclopedia of Philosophy 421

REVIEW NOTES 426

What Do You Believe? What Can and Cannot Give Life Meaning? 427

Writing to Understand: Argu ing Your Own Vi ews 428

FICTION: Voltaire, "The Good Brahmin " 429

PROBING QUESTIONS 430

FOR FURTHER READING 430

Append ix A: The Truth about Ph ilosophy Majors 431

Append ix B: Answe rs to Exerc ises 437

Append ix C: How t o Write a Phil osophy Pa per 4 41

Notes 451

Glossary 457

Credits 461

Index of Margina l Quotat ions 463

General Index 465

PREFACE ................................... _. ........ _. .... .._ ............ ._ ............................................................... .-................................ _. ........ __. ._ ....................... __. ............... ............ __. ........ __. .......... ........... ......... ................. .... ..... _. ... .

Th is third ed ition of Philosophy Here and Now stays true to the aspirations and char- acter of the first and second. From the beginning, the text has been designed to p rov ide a n extraordina ry amount of encouragement an d guidance to students \vho a re encountering p h ilosophy for the first (and perhaps last) time. !rs ambitious aim is to get such students to take some big steps tO\vard understa nd ing, appreciating, and even doi ng p hilosophy. Philosophy Here and Now thus tries to do a great deal more th an most other texts o r readers. To foster a serious understanding of philosophy, it includes solid coverage of critical th inking skills a nd argument basics as well as guid- a nce and p ractice in read ing p hilosoph ical works. Studenrs of cou rse can appreciate the point and power of philosophy as they comprehend p h ilosoph ical \vritings, but their app reciation blossoms when they see ho\v ph ilosoph ical issues and reason ing play out in contempora ry society a nd how ph ilosophical insig hts apply to their O\vn lives. So the book's coverage a nd pedagogical features help students grasp philoso- phy's relevance and t imel iness. Studenrs learn how to do ph ilosophy-to think a nd write p h ilosophically-\vhen they get encouragement and practice in analyzing a nd critiq u ing their own vie\vS a nd those of the ph ilosophers they study. To this end, Phiwsophy Here and Now emphasizes philosophical writi ng, reinforced with step- by-step coach ing in how to \vrite argumentative essays a nd supported by multiple opport unities to hone basic sk ills.

I n add ition to these core elements, Philosophy Here and Now further engages today's learners \Vith abunda nt illustrations a nd colo r graph ics; marginal notes, questions, and quotes; p rofi les of a diverse a rray of p h ilosophers; and ample repre- sentation of non-Western and nont raditional sources.

TOPICS AND READINGS

N ine chapters cover the existence of God, morality and the moral life, mind and body, free wi ll and determinism, knowledge and skepticism, aesthetics, political philosophy, and the meaning of life. These topics are explored in read ings from seventy-five traditional a nd contemporary ph ilosophers integrated into the main text, featuring both indispensable standards a nd ne\ver selections. The standards include Plato, Aristotle, Aqu inas, Pascal, Anselm, Descartes, Hume, H obbes, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, d'H olbach, Paley, James, Sa rtre, Marx, and others. Among t he more recent voices are Sea rle, C halmers, C raig, Swinburne, H ick, Mack ie, Rowe, Ga rd- ner, Blu m, Dersho\vitz, Rahula, Jaggar, H eld, Baier, Nagel, Block, Van l n\vagen, Taylo r, D u Sau toy, Ducasse, Cole, Ainley, Rawls, O kin, a nd Schopen hauer.

All these selections are juxtaposed with e nd-of-chapter pieces of fiction or narrative-stories meant to explore and d ramatize the philosoph ical issues encou ntered

xxi

xxii Preface

in the chapters. They include some classic sto ries such as "The Good Brahmin" by Volta ire, "The Ones Who Walk Away from Ornelas" by Ursula Le Gu in, and "They're Made Out of Meat" by Terry Bisson, as \veil as lesser-kno\vn fiction by notable writers like Arthur C. Clarke and William Golding. Each story is accompanied by discus- sion/essay questions designed to dra\v out irs philosophical implications.

MAIN FEATURES

• A comprehensive introductory chapter that lays the groundwork for philo- sophical thinking. Through examples drawn from philosophical literature and everyday life, th is chapter explains clearly the nature and scope of philosophy and ho\v it relates to students' lives. This much, of course, is \vhat any good text in this field should do. But this first chapter also shows how to devise and evalu- ate arguments and gu ides students in critically thinking, reading, and \vriting about philosoph ical issues.

• Critical thinking questions that correspond to relevant passages in the main text or readings. These questions, located in the margins of the text, invite stu- dents to ponder the implications of the material and to th ink critical ly about the assumptions and arguments found there. The questions are numbered and highlighted and easily lend themselves to both \vriting assignments and class d iscussion. The po int of their marginal placement is to prompt students to think carefully and analytically as they read.

• Four types o f text boxes that d emonstrate the value and relevance of philoso - phy in the modern world:

• "Philoso p h y Now" -These boxes contain news items and research reports that illustrate ho\v each chapter's philosoph ical issues permeate everyday life. They demonstrate that philosophical concerns arise continual ly in science, society, eth ics, religion, politics, medicine, and more. Each box ends \vith questions that prompt critical thinking and philosophical reflection.

• "What Do You Believe?"-Prompting student engagement and reflec- tion, these boxes explore issues related to the chapter's topics and challenge students' beliefs.

• "P hiloso p hers at Work'' -These boxes profi le the lives and wo rk of com- pelling figu res in philosophy, past and present, Western and non-Western or nontraditional, men and women. Some feature philosophers from the past \vhose story adds a human and historical dimension to the ideas discussed in the chapter, and some profile contempo rary thinkers who are g rappling \vith the important issues of the day. The point of these features is, of course, to sho\v that philosophy is very much a living, relevant enterprise.

• " Philoso p h y Lab"-These boxes present simple thought experiments chal- lenging students to think through scenarios that can reveal deeper philo- sophical insights or perspectives.

• In-d epth coverage of philosophical writing includes step-by-step coaching in argument basics and multiple opportunities to hone critical thinking skills.

• "Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical Views" -These boxes appear at the end of each section and cons ist of essay questio ns that p rompt st udents to critically exam ine the strengths and weaknesses of th e vie\vS dis- cussed in the sections.

• "Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views" - These boxes prompt studen ts to explain a nd defen d thei r O\vn views on the chapter's topics in short essays.

• " How to Write a Philosophy Paper" -This append ix offers concise, step- by-step guidance in crafting an effective philosoph ical essay.

• A final chapter on ''The Meaning of Life." Th is chapter discusses how philoso- p hers have clarified and explored the topic of life's meani ng. It covers th e main p hilosophical perspectives on the subject an d samples the views of ph ilosophers past and p resent.

All these feat ures a re supplemented \Vith other elemen ts to make the material even more engaging and accessible:

• Marginal quotes. These pithy, compelli ng quotes from an array of ph ilosophers appear th roughou t the text, inviting students to join the ongo ing conversation of philosophy.

• Key Terms, m arginal d efinitions, and end -of-book Glossary. Key Terms in each chapter appear in boldface at their first appearance in a chapter, an d mar- gi nal defi nitions help st udenrs learn the terms with in th eir immediate context. A list of the chapter's Key Terms appears at the end of each chapter, along \vith th e page n umbers o n which the term and irs definition fi rst appear. Last, a Glossary of those Key Terms and defi nitions provides an essential reference for st udents as they review and prepare fo r tesrs as well as draft their own p hilosophical essays and argumenrs.

• Chapter O bjectives. This list at the begin ning of each chapter helps to scaffold st udent learni ng by provid ing both structure and suppo rt for previewing, note taking, an d retention of content.

• End-of-chapter reviews. Concluding each ch apter, th is feature revisits th e Chapter Objectives, e ncouraging students to reflect an d revie\v.

• An index o f marginal quotes. This supplemental index helps studen ts locate th e wo rds of ph ilosophers th at seem especially insightful or inspiri ng to th em.

• For Further reading. Located at the end of each chapter, these useful referen ces poi nt studen ts to sources that \viii enhance thei r understan d ing of chapter issues and argumenrs.

• Tim eline. Featuring ph ilosophers' lives and important events, this visual learn- ing tool helps studen ts appreciate the histo ric significan ce of philosoph ical ideas by placi ng them \vithi n a larger context.

• Charts, tables, and color photos. Appearing th roughout the book, these have been selected o r created to deepen studen t engagement with and u nderstanding of complex ideas and abstract co nceprs. In additio n, captions fo r these images incl ude b rief, open-ended questions to help studen rs "read" visuals \Vith the same critical attentio n they learn to b ring to written texrs.

Preface xx11 1

xxiv Preface

NEW TO THIS EDITION

• An expanded chapter on aesthetics ( Chapter 7). Jc covers issues relating to the definition of art, objective and subjective standards, femi nist art, controvers ial artworks, on line art, and the philosophical exam inatio n of art by Plato, Aristotle, Hume, Gardner, Ducasse, and D an to. Several new photos illustrate fem inist art, co ntroversial art, and art that p rovokes discussion about what art is and isn't.

• Expanded coverage in Chapter 9 {The Meaning of Life) . In addition to in- cluding readings by Tolstoy, Schopenhauer, Baggini, and Ed\vards {and com- mentary on Niet2Sche), the text now adds four more philosophers who debate the objectivity of meaning in life. Klemke and Lucretius lay o ut their case for subjectivist mean ing, and Wolf and Belshaw argue fo r objectivist meaning.

• More history of philos ophy in Chapter 1. No\v there's coverage of the pre- Socratics Thales, Empedocles, and Parmenides, as well as fou r early women ph i- losophers: Hypatia, Themistoclea, Arignote, and Theano.

• More text boxes adding depth to discussions or demonstrating how philo- sophical thinking can tackle tough contemporary issues. These cover human rights for robots, to rturing terrorists, racism, Buddhism and science, belief in God, and scientists and religion.

ANCILLARIES

The Oxford University Press Ancillary Resou rce Center {ARC) {www.oup-a rc.com/ vaughn-philosophy-here-and-no\v) houses a \vealth of instructor resources, includ- ing an Instructor's Manual with sample syllabi, read ing summaries, essay/discussion questions, s uggested Web links, and a glossary of key terms from the text; a Com- puterized Test Bank \Vith fifty or more multiple-cho ice and true/false questions per chapter {also available as a traditional "pencil-and-paper" Test Bank in the Instruc- tor's Manual); and PowerPoint lecture outlines.

A compa nion website {www.oup.com/us/vaughn) contains study materials for students, including level-one and level-nvo practice quizzes with multiple-choice and true/false questions taken from the Test Bank, essay/discussion questions, read- ing s ummaries, flashcards of key terms from the text, and suggested Web links.

All instructor and student resources are a lso available as cartridges for Learning Management Systems. For more information, please contact your Oxford University Press Sales Representative at 1-800-280-0280.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A text like th is is not possible \Vithout the help of a lot of talented and consci- entio us people. At the top of the list a re my fine editors at Oxford University Press-most notably Robert Miller and Meg Botteon, as well as Alyssa Palazzo

and Sidney Keen. Throughout the fo rmative stages of this text, many astute re- viewers provided invaluable suggestions and criticisms, and the book is much the better for it. Many thanks to:

Kristin Borgwald Miami Dade College

Dan iel Bramer Holy Family University

Jeremy Byrd Tarrant County College

Teresa Cantrell University of Louisville

A lberto Gonzalez College of the Canyons

Aaron Rizzieri Yavapai College

Stephen Russell Orr Solano Community College

A llen Shonvell Ivy Tech Community College

John Shuford Lin.field College

Russell S\vanson Florida South Western State College

Rabbi Doug Weber Castleton University

Steve Wyre Mohave Community College

Preface xxv

CHAPTER

PHILOSOPHY AND YOU

CHAPT ER OBJECTIVES

1.1 PH ILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTAND ING

• Know the p ractical and theoretica l benefits of studying philosophy.

• Take an inventory of your philosophical belie fs.

• Know the four main d ivisions of philosophy and the kinds of questions they examine.

1.2 SOCRATES ANO THE EXAMINED LIFE

• Understand why Socrates declared that "the unexam ined life is not worth living."

• Explain the Socratic method and how Socrates used it in search of understand ing.

• Relate how Socrates showed that Thrasymachus's notion o f justice was wrong.

• Exp lain how reductio ad absurdum arguments work.

1.3 THINKING PHILOSOPHICALLY

• Define argument, statement, conclusion, and premise.

• Know the two conditions that must be met for an argument to be good.

• Define deductive argument, inductive argument, valid, sound, cogent, strong, and weak. Understand inferences to the best explanat ion and how their strengt h is evaluated .

• Be able to ident ify arguments in the fo rm o f modus ponens, modus to/lens, affirm ing the consequent, and denying the antecedent .

• Be able to ident ify arguments in various contexts and tell whether they a re valid o r invalid , sound or not sound , strong or weak, and cogent or n ot cogent.

• Understand the guidelines for reading and appreciating philosophy.

• Be aware o f common fa llacies and know how to identify them in various contexts .

2 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

Science gives us know·

ledge, bur o nly philosoph y can give us wisd o m. -Will Durant

1 Suppose you had a fundamen tal belief that t he mind, or soul, does not survive the death of the body. What other beliefs would this fundamen- tal belief be like ly to support?

Philosophy sho uld be responsive ro human ex·

pcricncc and yet c ritical of the defective thinking it sometimes encounte rs.

-Martha Nussbaum

1.1 PHILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING

The title of chis text, Philosophy Here and Now, is meant co emphas ize chat philoso- phy is, well, here and now-chat is, relevant and current. This means chat philoso- phy, even with its ancient lineage and seemingly remote concerns, applies co your li fe and you r times and your world. Philosophy achieves chis immediacy by being many good t hings at once: it is enlightening, choughc-provoking, life-changing, liberating, theoretical, and practical. The world is fu ll of scudencs and teachers ,vho can attest co these clai ms. More importantly, you will find p roof of chem in the remainder of chis text-and in the writings of the great philosophers, in you r g rasping what they say and the reasons they give fo r saying it, and in your o,vn honest accempcs co app ly philosophy co your life.

Philosophy is the name chat philosophers have given co both a d iscipline and a process. As a discipline, philosophy is one of the humanities, a field of study out of which several ocher fields have evolved-physics, b iology, political science, and many ochers. As a p rocess, philosophy is a penetrating mode of reflection fo r understanding life's most important truths. This mode is what ,ve may call the philosophical method-the systemat ic use of critical reason ing co cry co find answers co fundamenta l questions about reality, morality, and kno,vledge. The method, however, is not a master key used exclusively by professional philosophers co unlock mysteries hidden from com mon fo lk. The philosophical method is the birthright of every person, fo r ,ve are all born with the cap acity co reason, co ques- tion, co discover. For thousands of years, great minds like Ar iscocle, Plato, Confu- cius, Descartes, Aqu inas, and Sa rtre have used it in their search for wisdom, and ,vhac they found has changed countless lives. Bue amateur philosophers like you have also used it-and continue co u se it-to ach ieve life-alte ring understanding chat ,vould have eluded chem othe rwise.

The Good of Philosophy

Ph ilosophy is not just about ideas; it's about fundamental ideas, chose upon which ocher ideas depend. A fundamental belief logically supporcs ocher bel iefs, and the mo re beliefs it supporcs the more fundamental it is. Your belief or disbelief in God, fo r exa mple, might support a hose of ocher beliefs about mora lity, life after death, heaven, hell, free will, science, evolution, p rayer, abortion, m iracles, homo- sexualit y, and more. Thanks co your upbringing, your culture, your peers, and ocher influences, you alread y have a head fu ll of fundam ental beliefs, some of chem true, some false. Whether true o r false, they constitute the framewo rk of your ,vhole belief system, and as such they help you make sense of a wide range of important iss ues in life-issues concern ing what exists and what doesn't, what actions a re right or ,vrong (or neither), and ,vhac kinds of things we can k no,v and not kno,v. Funda- mental beliefs, therefore, make up your "philosophy of life," wh ich informs your chinking and guides your actions.

Perhaps now you can better app reciate philosophy's greatest practical benefit: it gives us che intellectual wherewithal co improve ou r lives by improv ing our

Phi losophy: The Quest for Understand ing 3

philosophy of life. A faulty philosophy of life-that is, o ne that comprises a great many false fundamental beliefs-can lead to a misspent or m isdirected life, a life less mean ingful than it could be. Philosophy is the most powerful instrument we have for evaluating the worth of our fundamental beliefs and fo r ch anging them fo r the better. Through philosophy we exert control over the t rajectory of our lives, making major course corrections by reason and refl ection.

The G reek philosopher Socrates (469-399 BCE), one of Wester n civil ization's great intellectual heroes, says, "An unexamined life is not \VOrth living." To examine your life is to scrutinize the core ideas that shape it, and the d eepest fo rm of scr utiny is exercised through philosophy. This search for answers goes to the heart of the tradi- tio nal conception of philosophy as a search for wisdom (the term phiwsophy is d erived from G reek words meaning " love of wisdom"). With the attainment of wisdom, we come to understand the true nature of reality and how to apply that understanding to living a good life.

Philosophy's chief theoretical ben efit is the same one that most other fields of inqu iry pu rsue: understanding for its own sake. Even if philosophy had no p ract ical applications at a ll , it wou ld sti ll hold great value fo r us. We want to know how the wo rld works, what t ruths it hides, just for the sa ke of know ing. And philoso-

Figure 1.1 Socrates (469-399 ace).

phy obliges. Astronomers sea rch the s ky, physicists study subatomic part icles, and a rch aeologists search fo r ancient ruins, all the while knowing that what they find may have no practical implications at all . We humans wonder, and that's often all the reason we need to search for ans\vers. As the great ph ilosophe r Aristotle says, "Fo r it is owing to thei r wonde r that people both no\v begin and at first began to philosoph ize."

For many people, the quest for understand ing through philosophy is a spiri- tual, transformative endeavo r, an ennobling pu rsuit of truths at the core of life. Thus, several philosophers speak of ph ilosophy as something that e nriches or nur- tu res the soul o r mind. Socrates, speaking to the jurors who condemned him fo r practicing philosophy on the streets of Athens, asked, "Are you not ash amed that, while you take care to acquire as much wea lth as poss ible, with honor and glory as \vell , yet you take no care or thought for understanding o r t ruth, or for the best poss ible state of your soul?" In a similar vein, the Greek ph ilosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE) said , "Let no young man delay the study of philosophy, and let no old man beco me \veary of it; for it is never too early no r too late to ca re fo r the well-bei ng of the sou l." And in our own era, the philosopher Walter Kaufmann (1921- 1980) declared, "Ph ilosophy means liberation from the two d imensions of ro utine, soa ring above the well kno\vn, seei ng it in ne\v perspectives, a rousing wonder and the wish to fl y."

Along with ph ilosophical inquiry comes freedom. We begin our lives at a partic- u lar place and time, steeped in the ideas and values of a particular culture, fed ready- made beliefs that may or may not be true and that \Ve may never think to question.

2 Is it possib le to lead a mean ingfu l life w ith· out se lf-exam ination?

Philosophy is the highest music.

-Plato

4 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

If you pass ively accept such beliefs, then those beliefs are not really yours. If they are not really yours, and you let them guide your choices and actions, then they-not you-a re in cha rge of you r life. You thus forfeit your personal freedom. But phi- losophy helps us rise above th is p red icament, to transcend the narro,v and obstructed standpoint from which we may vie,v everything. It helps us s ift our hand-me-dow n beliefs in the light of reason, look beyond the prejudices that blind us, and see what's real and true. By using the ph ilosophical method, we may learn that some of our beliefs a re on solid g round and some a re not. In either case, through philosophy ou r beliefs become truly and authentically our own.

Philosophical Terrain

Figure 1.2 Aristotle (384-322 BCE).

Philosophy's sphere of interest is vast, encompassing funda- mental beliefs drawn from many places. Philosophical ques- tions can arise anywhere. Part of the reason for th is is that ordinary bel iefs that seem to have no connection with philoso- phy can become philosophical in short order. A physiologist may ,vant to know ho,v our brains ,vork, but she ventu res into the philosophical a rena ,vhen she wonders ,vhether the bra in is the same th ing as the m ind-a quest ion that science alone

To teach how to live

w itho u t certainty and ycr

w itho u t being paralysed by h esitation is perhaps ,he

c hief thing that p hiloso· phy, in our age, can do fo r those wh o srudy it.

-Benrand Russell

3 Has your thin king recent ly led you to reflect on p hilosophi- cal questions? If so, how d id the thought process beg in, and what f undamental belief d id you end u p contemplating?

Metaphysics is the study of reality in ,he broadest

sense, an inquiry into rhc clcmcnral naru rc of rhc

u niverse a n d the things JO It.

cannot answer. A lawyer studies how the death penalty is ad- min istered in Texas, but he does philosophy when he cons iders whether capital pun- ishment is ever morally perm iss ible. A med ical scientist wants to kno,v ho,v a human fetus develops, but she finds it d ifficult to avoid the ph ilosoph ical query of ,vhat the moral status of the fetus is. An astrophysicist studies the Big Bang, the cataclysmic explosion thought to have brought the un iverse into being-but then asks whether the Big Bang shows that God cause.cl the universe to ex ist. On CNN you see the horrors of ,var and famine, but then you find you rself g rappling with ,vhether they can be squared with the existence of an all-po,verful, all-knowing, and all-good God. Or you ,vonder ,vhat your mora l obligations a re to the poor and hungry of the ,vorld. O r you ponder whether government shou ld help people in need or leave them to fend for themselves.

We can div ide philosophy's subject matter into four main divisions, each of ,vhich is a branch of inquiry in its o,vn right ,vith many subcategories. H ere's a b rief rundown of these divis ions and a sampling of the kinds of quest ions that each asks.

Metaphysics is the study of reality in the broadest sense, an inqui ry into the elemental nature of the un iverse and the things in it. Though it must take into ac- count the findings of science, metaphysics generally focuses on basic questions that science ca nnot add ress. Questions of interest: Does the ,vorld consist on ly of matter, or is it made up of other basic things, such as ideas or minds? Is there a spiritual, ideal real m that exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the body?

Phi losophy: The Quest for Understand ing 5

WHAT DO YOU BELIEVE?

Your Philosophical Beliefs

Where do you stand on the fun d amencal issues in philosophy? Here is your chance co cake inventory of your vie,vs. After you finish chis course, cake the survey again co see if your perspective has changed or become ,nore nuanced. AnS\ver ,vich chese numbers: 5 = true; 4 = probably crue; 3 = neither probable nor i1nprobable; 2 = probably false; I = false.

I. Ac lease so,ne 1noral nonns or principles are objectively true or valid for everyone.

2. Mora l standards are relative co what individuals or cu ltures bel ieve. __ 3. Mi nd and body consist of nvo fu nda,nencally d iffere nt kinds of scuff- non physical

scuff and physica l scuff. __ 4. The 1n ind, or sou l, can exist ,vichouc che body. __ 5. Our mental scares are nothing bu r bra in scares (,n ind scares are identical co bra in scares).

6. No one has free ,vi ii. __ 7. Persons have free will (so,ne of our actions are free). __ 8. Although our actions are determined, they can still be free (free ,viii and decenn inis,n

are nor in confl ict). __ 9. The God of crad icional Western religions (an all-knowing, all-po,verful, all-good deity)

exists. __ 10. The a pparent design of the universe shows char it had an intell igent designer. __ 11. Right actions are chose co,nmand ed by God; ,vrong actions are chose forbidden by

God. __

12. God does nor ,na ke actions right or ,vrong by comma nd ing chem co be so. __ 13. We can know some th ings a bout che external world. __ 14. We cannot know anything about che externa l world. __ 15. The theory of evolution is a beccer explanation of t he apparent design of biologica l life

chan che theory of "incelligenc design." __ 16. Truth about someth ing depends on what a person or culture believes. __ 17. Libercarianis,n is che correct political t heory. __ 18. Welfare liberalis,n is che correct moral theory. __ 19. Mean ing in life comes from outside ourselves, fro,n God or so,ne o cher transcendent

real ity. __ 20. Mean ing in life comes from ,vich in ourselves. __

How are mind and body related? Do people have immortal souls? Do humans have free wi ll, or are o u r actions determ ined by forc es beyo nd our control? Can actions be both free and deter mined ? Does God exist? How ca n both a good God and evil exist simultaneously? What is the nat ure of causality? Can an effect ever precede its cause? What is the nature of time? Is time travel possible?

And w hat, Socrates, is the food of che soul> Surely, I said, knowledge is the food of che soul. - Plato

6 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

DIVISION

Metaphysics

Epistemology

A xiology

Log ic

Epistemology is the study of knowledge.

Axiology is the study of value, including bo th aesthetic value and moral

value. Ethics is the study of moral value using the methods of philosophy.

QUESTIONS

Does the world consist only of matter, or is it made up of other basic th ings, such as ideas or mind? Is there a spiritual, ideal realm that exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the body? How are mind and body related? Do people have immorta l souls? Do humans have free wi ll, or are our actions determ ined by forces beyond our control? Can actions be both free and deter- mined? Does God exist? How can both a good God and evi l exist simultaneously? What is the nature of causal ity? Can an effect ever precede its cause? What is the nature of time? Is time trave l possible?

What is knowledge? What is truth? Is knowledge possible- can we ever know any- thing? Does knowledge require certa inty? What are the sources of knowledge? Is experience a source of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain knowledge of the empirical world through reason a lone? If we have knowledge, how much do we have? When are we justified in saying that we know something? Do we have good reasons to believe that the world exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds constitute reality?

What makes an action right (or wrong)? What th ings are intrinsically good? What is the good life? What gives life mean ing? What makes someone good (or bad)? What moral principles shou ld gu ide our actions and choices? Wh ich is the best moral theory? Is killing ever mora lly perm issible? If so, why? Are mora l standards objective or subjective? Is an action right merely because a culture endorses it? Does morality depend on God? What makes a society just?

What are the ru les for drawing correct inferences? What are the nature and struc- ture of deductive arguments? How can propositional or predicate log ic be used to evaluate arguments? Upon what log ical principles does reason ing depend? Does logic describe how the world is- or just how our minds work? Can conclusions reached through inductive logic be rationally justified?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Questions of interest: What is knowl- edge? What is truth? Is kno\vledge possible-can \Ve ever kno\v anythi ng? Does knowledge require certainty? What are the sources of kno\vledge? Is experience a sou rce of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we ga in kno\vledge of the empi rical \vorld through reason alone? If \Ve have kno\vledge, how much do \Ve have? When are we justified in saying that \Ve know something? Do we have good reasons to believe that the \vorld exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds con- stitute reality?

Axiology is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value. The study of moral value is kno\vn as eth ics. Ethics involves inquiries into the nature of moral judgments, virtues, values, obligations, and theories. Questions of interest: What makes an action right (or wrong)? What things are intrinsically good? What is the good life? What gives life meaning? What makes someone good (or bad)? What moral principles should guide our actions and cho ices? Which is the best moral

Phi losophy: The Quest for Understand ing 7

theory? Is ki lling ever morally perm issible? If so, why? A re moral standa rds objective or subjective? Is a n ac- t io n right merely because a cultu re end orses it? Does morality depend o n God? W hat makes a society just?

Logic is the st udy of correct reasoning. Ques- tions of interest: W hat are the rules for d raw ing cor- rect inferences? W h at are the nature and structure of deductive a rgumen ts? How can propositio nal o r pred- icate logic be used to evaluate a rgumenrs? Upon wh at logical principles does reasoning depend? D oes logic describe ho,v the world is-or just ho,v our minds work? Can conclusions reached through induct ive logic be rationally justifi ed?

I n additio n to these divisions, there are subdivi- s io ns of ph ilosophy whose job is to examine critically the ass umptions a nd principles that u nderlie other fi elds. Thus ,ve have the p h ilosophy of science, the ph ilosophy of la,v, the ph ilosophy of mathematics, the ph ilosophy of h istory, the ph ilosophy of language, a nd many others. When those labo ring in a discipline beg in question ing irs most basic ideas-ideas that define irs subject matter and principles of inquiry- ph ilosophy, the most elemental mode of investigation, steps 1n.

Figure 1.3 Plat o, point ing u pward t oward t h e h igher realm of i deas, and Aristotle, gesturing down toward t h e t h ings of t his earth.

ESSAY/ DISCUSS IO N QUESTIO N S SECTION 1.1

1. W h at is the ph ilosophical method ? W ho can make use of this app roach to important questions? Can on ly p hilosophers use it? H ave you used it? H o,v?

2. W h at a re some funda mental beliefs that are part of your ph ilosophy of life? H o,v do these beliefs influence you r life?

3. W h at is ph ilosophy's greatest practical benefit? Do you think studying ph ilosophy could ch ange you r life goals or your fundamental beliefs? W hy or why not?

4. H ow can p hilosophy enhance you r personal freedom? What are some of you r fu ndamental beliefs that you have never fully examined? What might be the result of never examining a fu ndamental belief?

5. W h ich of the fo ur mai n divisions of ph ilosophy interests you the most? W hy? W hat ph ilosophical ques tions listed in this section would you most ,vant to have ans,vers to?

Logic is t he study of correct reasoning.

There's a d ifference

between a philosophy and a bumper sticker.

- Charles M. Schulz

8 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

The point of philosophy

is to start with something so simple as not to seem worrh stating. and to end with something so para-

doxical that no one will believe it. - Bertrand Russell

4 Socrates says that a good man can never be harmed. W hat do you t hink h e means by this?

The Soc ratic m ethod is a q ucstion -and .. answcr

d ialogue in w hich proposi- tions a rc method ically scru tinized to uncover the

tru rh.

The chicfbcncfir, which rcsuk< from philosophy, arises in an indirect man ..

ncr, and proceeds more

from its secret> insensible

inAucncc, than from its immediate application.

- David Hume

1.2 SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE

There is no better way to understand and appreciate the philosoph ical quest for knowledge than to study the life and work of Socrates, one of philosophy's greatest practitioners and the most revered figure in irs history. Socrates wrote no ph ilosophy, but ,ve know about his thinking and character through his famous pupil Plato, who portrayed him in severa l dialogues, or conversations (notably in Euthyphro, Crito, and Apology). For two and a half millennia Socrates has been inspi ring generations by his devotion to philosophical inquiry, his relentless search for ,visdom , and his deter mination to live according to his o,vn high standards. As mentioned earl ier, he famously said that "the unexam ined life is not worth living," and he became the best

example of someone living h is life by that maxim. Thus, at a time when most phi- losophy was di rected at cosmological specu lations, he turned to critically examin ing people's basic conceprs, common beliefs, and moral thinking.

For Socrates, an unexamined life is a tragedy because it resulrs in grievous harm to the soul, a person's true self or essence. The sou l is harmed by lack of kno,vledge- ignorance of one's o,vn self and of the most important values in life (the good). But knowledge of these things is a mark of the soul's excellence. A clear sign that a per- son has an unhealthy soul is her exclusive pursuit of social status, ,vealth, po,ver, and pleasure instead of the good of the sou l. The good of the soul is attained on ly through an uncomprom ising search for what's true and real, through the wisdom to see what is most vital in life. Such ins ight comes from rational self-exam ination and critical questioning of facile assumptions and unsupported beliefs. To get to the truth, Socrates thought, we must go around the fa lse certitudes of custom, tradition, and superstition and let reason be our guide. Thus he played the role of philosophi- cal gadfly, an annoying pest to the people of Athens, prodding them to wake up and seek the wisdom within thei r g rasp.

We know very little about Socrates' life. H e spent a ll his days in Athens except for a term of military service in which he sold iered in the Peloponnesian War. H e ,vas married and had three sons. He spent much of his time roaming the streets of Athens, speaking ,vith anyone who would listen. His habit was to ask people seem- ingly simple questions about their views on virtue, religion, justice, or the good, challenging them to think critically about their bas ic assumptions. This sort of question-and-answer dialogue in which propositions are methodically scrutinized to uncover the truth has become known as the Socratic method. Usually when Socrates used it in conversations, or dialogues, with his fellow Athenians, thei r views ,vou ld be exposed as false or confused. The main point of the exercise for Socrates, ho,vever, was not to w in arguments but to get closer to the truth. He thought people ,vho pursued this noble aim as he did should not be embarrassed by being sho,vn to be wrong; they should be delighted to be weaned from a false opinion. Nevertheless, the Socratic conversations often ended in the humiliation of eminent Athenians. They were enraged by Socrates, ,vhile many youths grav itated to him.

Eventually Socrates ,vas arrested and charged ,vith disrespecting the gods and corrupting the youth of the city. He was tried before five hundred jurors, a majority

PHILOSOPHERS AT WORK

Plato

No p h ilosopher- with che possible exception of Ariscocle-has had a deeper an d more lasting effect on Western choughr chan Plato (c. 427- 347 BCE). He ,vas born in Athens in to an inAuen cial ariscocracic fa,nily and grew up d uring che perilous years of che Peloponnesian War, a s truggle between Athens and the Pelopon nesian scares. He was a s tuden t and admirer of Socrates, who turned Plato's

Socrates and the Examined Life 9

Figure 1.4 Plat o (c. 427- 347 8C£).

m ind coward philosophy and che pursuit of wisdom. H e ,vas horrified by Socrates' execution in 399 for irnpiery and corruption of Athenian youth, so he left Athens and traveled ,videly, possibly co Sicily and Egypt. When he returned co Athens, he founded the Acad emy, a reaching college regard ed as che firs t university, and devoted che rest of his life co reach ing and writing p h ilosophy. (The Academy end ured for hun dreds of years until ic ,vas abo lished by che Eastern Roman ernperor Justi nian I.) The Acade,ny's ,nose renowned studen t ,vas Ariscocle, who en tered the school a r age seventeen and re,nained for C\ven ry years.

Plato's ch inking is e,nbod ied in his dia logues, nvenry-five of which exist in cheir co,nplece form. They were ,vrircen durin g a span of fifty years and have been d ivided into t h ree periods: early, midd le, a nd lace. The early dia logues include Eurhyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno , and Gorgias. Th ese early works portray Socrates as a brill ia nt and principled deAarer of h is contemporaries' bogus clai,ns ro k nowl- edge. The midd le d ialogues include Phaedo, Republic, a nd Theneretur; che lace ones consist of Critias, Pnrmenides, Sophirt, Laws, and ochers.

of whom voted co conv ic t h im . H is sentence was d eath o r exile; he chose death by poison rather than leave h is beloved Athen s. In h is d ialogues Crito a nd Phaedo, Plato recounts che events of che trial, including Socrates' ad dress co che ju rors. Socrates is portrayed as a man of brill iant intellect and unshakeable integrit y who wou ld not compromise his principles, even co escape death.

In one form or another, che Socratic method has been pare of Western e.ducacion fo r centuries. l e is one of che ways ch at ph ilosophy is done, a powerful procedure fo r applying critical chinking co many scacemencs chat seem out of reason's reach . As Socrates used it, che method typically ,vould go like chis: (1) someone poses a q ues- tio n abou t che meaning of a concept (for example, "What is justice?"); (2) Socrates' companion gives a n answer; (3) Socrates raises questions about che answer, proving chat che a nswer is inadequ ate; (4) co avoid che problems inherent in chis answer, che companion offers a second ans,ver; (5) seeps (3) a nd (4) are repeated a nu mber of

10 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

Figure 1.5 The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David.

times, ultimately revealing that the companion does not kno\v \vhat he thought he

knew. To Socrates, this negative outcome is actually a k ind of p rogress. False answers are elim inated, opinions are improved, and perhaps the truth is a little closer than before.

Let's watch Socrat es in action. Here is his conversation with Thrasymachus, a teacher eager to demonstrate that Socrates is not as \vise as people say he is. The ques- tion is "What is justice?" and Thrasymachus insisrs that justice is whatever is in the interest of the strongest-that is, might makes r ight.

Pl ato, The Republic

Listen, then, he [Thrasymachus] said; I proclaim t hat justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger. And now why do you not praise me? But of course you won't.

Let me first understand you, I [Socrates] replied. Justice, as you say, is the interest of the stronger. What, Thrasymachus, is the meaning of this? You can not mean to say that because Polydamas, the pancratiast [an athlete), is stronger t han we are, and fi nds the eating of beef conducive to his bod ily strength, that to eat beef is therefore equally for our good who are weaker than he is , and right and just for us?

That's abominable of you, Socrates; you take the words in the sense wh ich is most damaging to t he argument.

Not at all , my good sir, I sa id; I am trying to understand them; and I wish that you wou ld be a little clearer.

Socrates and the Examined Life 11

Well , he said, have you never heard that fo rms of government differ; there are tyrannies, and there are democracies, and there are aristocracies?

Yes, I know. And t he government is the ruli ng power in each state? Certai nly. And the different forms of government make laws democratical, aristocratical,

tyrannical, with a view to t heir several interests; and these laws, which are made by t he m for t heir own interests, are the j ustice which they deliver to their subjects, and him who t ransgresses them they punish as a breaker of the law and unj ust. And that is what I mean when I say that in all states there is the same principle of justice, which is the interest of the government; and as the government must be supposed to have power, the on ly reasonable conclusion is, that everywhere t he re is one principle of justice, which is the interest of the stronger.

Now I understand you, I said; and whether you are right or not I will try to discover. But let me re mark, t hat in defining justice you have yourself used the word " interest" which you forbade me to use. It is true, however, that in your definition the words "of t he stronger" are added.

A small addition, you must allow, he said. Great or small , never mind about tha t: we must first inqu ire whether what you are

saying is the truth. Now we are bot h agreed that justice is interest of some sort, but you go on to say "of the stronger"; about this addition I am not so sure, and must therefore consider further.

Proceed. I will; and first tell me, Do you admit that it is just for subjects to obey t he ir rulers? I do. But are the ru lers of states absolutely infallible, or are they sometimes liable to err? To be sure, he replied, they are liable to err. Then in ma king their laws they may sometimes make them rightly, and sometimes

not? True. When they make them rightly, they make them agreeably to their interest; when

t hey are mistaken, contrary to their in terest; you admit t hat? Yes. And the laws which they ma ke must be obeyed by t he ir subjects- and that is what

you call justice? Doubtless. Then justice, according to your argument, is not on ly obedience to the interest of

t he stronger but the reverse ? What is that you are saying? he asked. I am on ly repeating what you are saying, I believe. But let us consider: Have we not

admitted tha t the rulers may be mistaken about t heir own interest in what they com- mand, and also that to obey them is justice? Has not that been admitted?

Yes. Then you must also have acknowledged justice not to be for t he interest of t he

stronger, when the rulers un in tentionall y command things to be done which are to t he ir own injury. For if, as you say, just ice is the obedience which the subject renders to t he ir commands, in that case, 0 wisest of men, is there any escape fro m the conclusion t hat the weaker are commanded to do, not what is for t he interest, but what is for the injury of the stronger?•

Astonishment is chc root

of philosophy. -Paul Tillich

5 Socrates never seems adversaria l or combat- ive in h is d ia logues. What effect do you t h ink t h is approach has on those who enter into dialogue wit h h im?

12 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

PH I LOSO PH ERS AT WORK

The Pre-Socratics

Philosophy began in ancient Greece in rhe sixth century BCE a,nong thinkers ,vho broke with age-old tradition co ponder important ,narrers in an entirely novel ,vay. For centuries, hu,nans had been devising allS\vers co fundamental questions: What is rhe nature of the world? Whar is ir ,nade of-one kind of scuff or ,nany kinds? Does rhe ,vorld have an orig in or has it always existed? Why is the world rhe ,vay it is? What ,nakes things happen-gods, magic, or something else? What is rhe reality behind rhe appearances of reality? Their answers ,vere generally drawn fro,n 1nyrhology and rradirion, from old stories about rhe gods or from hand-me-down lore and law. But rhe first philosophers-called pre-Socratics because most of the,n came before Socrates (fifth century BCE)-refused to rake th is parh. It is mosrly rheir way of seeking answers about the world, rather rhan the answers the,nselves, char distinguished chem and 1nade chem rhe first philosophers. Once chis philo- sophical fire was lie, ir spread co lacer thinkers in rhe ancient ,vorld, a period of about a thousand years, from approximately 600 BCE co around 500 CE. Ir ,vas in chis era char Western phi losophy first established itself, defined almost all irs main areas of study, and gave us ph ilosophica l heroes (most notably, Socrates, Plaro, and Arisrorle) who continue co inAuence our ch inking on imporranr ideas and issues.

So,ne of rhe more notable pre-Socratics: Thales (c. 625-547 BCE). Accord ing co tradition, Thales ,vas rhe first philoso-

pher. In ancient Greece he and his new ,vay of chinking garnered a great deal of

Figure 1.6 Thales of Miletus (c. 625-547 ace).

respect for an odd reason: he ,vas said co have predicted rhe solar eclipse of 585 BCE and co have derived his prediction ,virhour appeals to d ivine or orherworldly forces. On th is account he has also been called rhe first scienrisr, for in chose ri,nes rhere ,vas no clear distinction between ph ilos- ophy and science. Thales' grearesr conrriburion to both philosophy and science ,vas his method. He sec out co look for natural-nor myth ic-explanations for natu- ral pheno,nena, and he insisted char such accounts be as simple as possible, preferably accounting for everyth ing by positing a sin- gle substance or element. This, as it turns our, is also rhe preferred approach of ,nodern science.

Empedocks (c. 495- c. 435 BCE). In rhe n inereenrh century Charles Danvin propounded rhe theory of bio logical evolution, explaining char evolution op- erates through whar he called "natural selection." The basic ourlines of natural selection, however, did n't originate ,virh Darwin. They ,vere first arriculared in rough fonn rwenry-five centuries ago by a pre-Socratic philosopher na,ned Em- pedodes. Using observation and imagi- nation, Empedocles ,nainrained char an i,na ls were nor created whole by a deiry and placed on rhe earrh-rhey evolved.

Parmenides (c. 515-450 BCE). Par- menides ,vas rhe ,nose groundbreaking and inAuenrial philosopher of rhe pre- Socrarics. We know lirrle about his life- nor much more rhan char he lived in Elea (a Greek colony on rhe southern coast of Italy) and raughr rhe famous master of par- adoxes, Zeno. We also kno,v char through rhe centuries he won rhe arrenrion and ad- m iration of several em inent thinkers, fro,n Plato co Plutarch co Hegel. Like rhe ocher pre-Socratics, he conrribured more co rhe shape of philosophica l inquiry rhan co its conrenr. Parmen ides' clai,n co fame rests mosrly on his sysremaric e1nploy1nenr of deductive argu,nenr. He seems co have been rhe first thinker outside rhe fiel d of marhe,narics co reason deductively and consisrenrly from basic prem ises co inrer- esring conclusions. In rhe process, he ce- mented basic d istinctions char have been essential co philosoph ica l inquiry co chis day. For one rhing, he conrrasred reason and rhe senses. He contended char knowl- edge of rhe world could be acquired only through reason, only through a deductive chain of reasoning such as he himself used.