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History

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. • www.NortonEbooks.com

SEVENTH EDITION

AMERICA

George Brown Tindall and David Emory Shi

A NARRATIVE HISTORY

Volume One

� AMERICA

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D E TA I L O F E N G R AV I N G B A S E D O N

T H E C H A S M O F T H E C O L O R A D O

B Y T H O M A S M O R A N

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AMERICA

Seventh Edition

Volume One

G E O R G E B R O W N T I N DA L L

DAV I D E M O R Y S H I

W .

W .

N O R T O N & C O M P A N Y .

N E W Y O R K .

L O N D O N

A N A R R A T I V E H I S T O R Y

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FO R BRU C E A N D SU S A N A N D F O R BL A I R

FO R JA S O N A N D JE S S I C A

W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The Nortons soon expanded their program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, col- lege, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.

Copyright © 2007, 2004, 1999, 1996, 1992, 1988, 1984 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Composition by TechBooks Manufacturing by Quebecor, Taunton

Book design by Antonina Krass Editor: Karl Bakeman

Manuscript editor: Abigail Winograd Project editor: Lory A. Frenkel

Director of Manufacturing, College: Roy Tedoff Editorial assistant: Rebecca Arata

Cartographer: CARTO-GRAPHICS/Alice Thiede and William Thiede

Acknowledgments and copyrights continue on page A104, which serves as a continuation of the copyright page.

The Library of Congress has cataloged the one-volume edition as follows:

Tindall, George Brown. America : a narrative history / George Brown Tindall,

David E. Shi.—7th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 13: 978-0-393-92820-4 ISBN 10: 0-393-11087-7 1. United States—History. I. Shi, David E. II. Title.

E178.1 .T55 2006 2006047300 973—dc22

ISBN 13: 978-0-393-92732-0 ISBN 10: 0-393-11087-7

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110 www.wwnorton.com

W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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� C O N T E N T S

List of Maps • xv

Preface • xix

Part One / A N E W W O R L D

1 | THE COLLISION OF CULTURES 5

PRE-COLUMBIAN INDIAN CIVILIZATIONS 7 • EUROPEAN VISIONS OF

AMERICA 12 • THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE 13 • THE VOYAGES OF

COLUMBUS 15 • THE GREAT BIOLOGICAL EXCHANGE 18

• PROFESSIONAL EXPLORERS 22 • THE SPANISH EMPIRE 23 •

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 35 • CHALLENGES TO THE SPANISH EMPIRE 38

• FURTHER READING 43

2 | BRITAIN AND ITS COLONIES 45

THE ENGLISH BACKGROUND 46 • SETTLING THE CHESAPEAKE 50

• SETTLING NEW ENGLAND 61 • INDIANS IN NEW ENGLAND 72

• THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR IN AMERICA 76 • SETTLING THE

CAROLINAS 77 • SETTLING THE MIDDLE COLONIES AND GEORGIA 83

• THRIVING COLONIES 94 • FURTHER READING 96

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3 | COLONIAL WAYS OF LIFE 98

THE SHAPE OF EARLY AMERICA 99 • SOCIETY AND ECONOMY IN THE

SOUTHERN COLONIES 107 • SOCIETY AND ECONOMY IN NEW

ENGLAND 118 • SOCIETY AND ECONOMY IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 131

• COLONIAL CITIES 134 • THE ENLIGHTENMENT 138 • THE GREAT

AWAKENING 141 • FURTHER READING 145

4 | THE IMPERIAL PERSPECTIVE 147

ENGLISH ADMINISTRATION OF THE COLONIES 148 • THE HABIT OF SELF-

GOVERNMENT 153 • TROUBLED NEIGHBORS 157 • THE COLONIAL

WARS 162 • FURTHER READING 173

5 | FROM EMPIRE TO INDEPENDENCE 174

THE HERITAGE OF WAR 175 • BRITISH POLITICS 176 • WESTERN LANDS 177

• GRENVILLE AND THE STAMP ACT 177 • FANNING THE FLAMES 184

• DISCONTENT ON THE FRONTIER 188 • A WORSENING CRISIS 189

• SHIFTING AUTHORITY 195 • INDEPENDENCE 202

• FURTHER READING 206

Part Two / B U I L D I N G A N A T I O N

6 | THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 213

1776: WASHINGTON’S NARROW ESCAPE 214 • AMERICAN SOCIETY AT

WAR 218 • 1777: SETBACKS FOR THE BRITISH 221 • 1778: BOTH SIDES

REGROUP 225 • THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 229 • NEGOTIATIONS 234

• THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION 235 • THE SOCIAL REVOLUTION 239

• THE EMERGENCE OF AN AMERICAN CULTURE 246 • FURTHER READING 248

x • Contents

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7 | SHAPING A FEDERAL UNION 249

THE CONFEDERATION 250 • ADOPTING THE CONSTITUTION 263

• FURTHER READING 277

8 | THE FEDERALIST ERA 279

A NEW NATION 280 • HAMILTON’S VISION 285 • THE REPUBLICAN

ALTERNATIVE 293 • CRISES FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC 295 • SETTLEMENT OF

NEW LAND 303 • TRANSFER OF POWER 307 • THE ADAMS YEARS 308

• FURTHER READING 319

9 | THE EARLY REPUBLIC 320

JEFFERSONIAN SIMPLICITY 322 • JEFFERSON IN OFFICE 324

• DIVISIONS IN THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 333 • WAR IN EUROPE 334

• THE WAR OF 1812 339 • FURTHER READING 351

Part Three / A N E X P A N S I V E N A T I O N

10 | NATIONALISM AND SECTIONALISM 357

ECONOMIC NATIONALISM 358 • “GOOD FEELINGS” 362 • CRISES

AND COMPROMISES 367 • JUDICIAL NATIONALISM 371 • NATIONALIST

DIPLOMACY 374 • ONE-PARTY POLITICS 376 • FURTHER READING 384

11 | THE JACKSONIAN IMPULSE 385

SETTING THE STAGE 387 • NULLIFICATION 389 • JACKSON’S INDIAN

POLICY 396 • THE BANK CONTROVERSY 400 • VAN BUREN AND THE NEW

PARTY SYSTEM 406 • ASSESSING THE JACKSON YEARS 412 • FURTHER

READING 414

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12 | THE DYNAMICS OF GROWTH 416

AGRICULTURE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY 417 • TRANSPORTATION

AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY 421 • A COMMUNICATIONS REVOLUTION 430

• THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 432 • THE POPULAR CULTURE 439

• IMMIGRATION 443 • ORGANIZED LABOR 449 • THE RISE OF THE

PROFESSIONS 452 • JACKSONIAN INEQUALITY 455

• FURTHER READING 456

13 | AN AMERICAN RENAISSANCE: RELIGION, ROMANTICISM, AND REFORM 458

RATIONAL RELIGION 459 • THE SECOND GREAT AWAKENING 460

• ROMANTICISM IN AMERICA 466 • THE FLOWERING OF AMERICAN

LITERATURE 470 • EDUCATION 475 • ANTEBELLUM REFORM 479

• FURTHER READING 487

14 | MANIFEST DESTINY 489

THE TYLER YEARS 490 • THE WESTERN FRONTIER 492 • MOVING

WEST 501 • ANNEXING TEXAS 507 • POLK’S PRESIDENCY 511

• THE MEXICAN WAR 515 • FURTHER READING 524

Part Four / A H O U S E D I V I D E D

15 | THE OLD SOUTH 531

THE DISTINCTIVENESS OF THE OLD SOUTH 532 • WHITE SOCIETY IN THE

SOUTH 538 • BLACK SOCIETY IN THE SOUTH 543 • THE CULTURE OF THE

SOUTHERN FRONTIER 554 • ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENTS 556

• FURTHER READING 563

16 | THE CRISIS OF UNION 565

SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES 566 • THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 572

• FOREIGN ADVENTURES 580 • THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA CRISIS 581

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• THE DEEPENING SECTIONAL CRISIS 591 • THE CENTER COMES

APART 599 • FURTHER READING 606

17 | THE WAR OF THE UNION 607

THE END OF THE WAITING GAME 608 • THE BALANCE OF FORCE 612

• THE WAR’S EARLY COURSE 614 • EMANCIPATION 629

• REACTIONS TO EMANCIPATION 630 • BLACKS IN THE MILITARY 632

• WOMEN AND THE WAR 634 • GOVERNMENT DURING THE WAR 635

• THE FALTERING CONFEDERACY 640 • THE CONFEDERACY’S DEFEAT 645

• A MODERN WAR 655 • FURTHER READING 657

18 | RECONSTRUCTION: NORTH AND SOUTH 659

THE WAR’S AFTERMATH 659 • THE BATTLE OVER RECONSTRUCTION 664

• RECONSTRUCTING THE SOUTH 673 • THE RECONSTRUCTED SOUTH 679

• THE GRANT YEARS 686 • FURTHER READING 698

GLOSSARY A1

APPENDIX A43

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE A45 • ARTICLES OF

CONFEDERATION A50 • THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES A58

• PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS A80 • ADMISSION OF STATES A88

• POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES A89 • IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED

STATES, FISCAL YEARS 1820–2005 A90 • IMMIGRATION BY REGION AND

SELECTED COUNTRY OF LAST RESIDENCE, FISCAL YEARS 1820–2004 A92

• PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND SECRETARIES OF STATE A99

CREDITS A104

INDEX A108

Contents • xiii

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� M A P S

The First Migration 6

Pre-Columbian Civilizations in Middle

and South America 8

Pre-Columbian Civilizations in North America 10

Norse Discoveries 12

Columbus’s Voyages 17

Spanish and Portuguese Explorations 23

Spanish Explorations of the Mainland 30

English, French, and Dutch Explorations 39

Land Grants to the Virginia Company 53

Early Virginia and Maryland 61

Early New England Settlements 64

The West Indies, 1600–1800 67

Early Settlements in the South 79

The Middle Colonies 88

European Settlements and Indian Tribes in Early America 92–93

The African Slave Trade, 1500–1800 113

Atlantic Trade Routes 124

Major Immigrant Groups in Colonial America 133

The French in North America 160

Major Campaigns of the French and Indian War 164

North America, 1713 170

North America, 1763 171

Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775 196

Major Campaigns in New York and New Jersey, 1776–1777 216

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Major Campaigns in New York and Pennsylvania, 1777 222

Western Campaigns, 1776–1779 227

Major Campaigns in the South, 1778–1781 231

Yorktown, 1781 231

North America, 1783 236

Western Land Cessions, 1781–1802 253

The Old Northwest, 1785 254

The Vote on the Constitution, 1787–1790 275

Treaty of Greenville, 1795 300

Pinckney’s Treaty, 1795 303

The Election of 1800 317

Explorations of the Louisiana Purchase, 1804–1807 330

Major Northern Campaigns of the War of 1812 343

Major Southern Campaigns of the War of 1812 345

The National Road, 1811–1838 361

Boundary Treaties, 1818–1819 364

The Missouri Compromise, 1820 369

The Election of 1828 383

Indian Removal, 1820–1840 398

The Election of 1840 412

Population Density, 1820 420

Population Density, 1860 421

Transportation West, about 1840 422–423

The Growth of Railroads, 1850 428

The Growth of Railroads, 1860 429

The Growth of Industry in the 1840s 437

The Growth of Cities, 1820 440

The Growth of Cities, 1860 441

The Mormon Trek, 1830–1851 466

The Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842 492

Wagon Trails West 503

The Election of 1844 512

The Oregon Dispute, 1818–1846 516

Major Campaigns of the Mexican War 521

Cotton Production, 1821 534

Population Growth and Cotton Production, 1821–1859 535

The Slave Population, 1820 546

The Slave Population, 1860 547

xvi • Maps

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The Compromise of 1850 576

The Gadsden Purchase, 1853 582

The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854 584

The Election of 1856 590

The Election of 1860 603

Secession, 1860–1861 610

The First Battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861 615

Campaigns in the West, February–April 1862 621

The Peninsular Campaign, 1862 625

Campaigns in Virginia and Maryland, 1862 626

The Vicksburg Campaign, 1863 642

Campaigns in the East, 1863 643

Grant in Virginia, 1864–1865 649

Sherman’s Campaigns, 1864–1865 652

Reconstruction, 1865–1877 685

The Election of 1876 696

Maps • xvii

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� P R E F A C E

Just as history is never complete, neither is a historical textbook. We have

learned much from the responses of readers and instructors to the first six

editions of America: A Narrative History. Perhaps the most important and

reassuring lesson is that our original intention has proved valid: to provide a

compelling narrative history of the American experience, a narrative ani-

mated by human characters, informed by analysis and social texture, and

guided by the unfolding of events. Readers have also endorsed the book’s

distinctive size and format. America is designed to be read and to carry a

moderate price. While the book retains its classic look, America sports a new

color design for the Seventh Edition. We have added new eye-catching maps

and included new art in full color. Despite these changes, we have not raised

the price between the Sixth and the Seventh Editions.

As in previous revisions of America, we have adopted an overarching theme

that informs many of the new sections we introduce throughout the Seventh

Edition. In previous editions we have traced such broad-ranging themes as

immigration, the frontier and the West, popular culture, and work. In each

case we blend our discussions of the selected theme into the narrative, where

they reside through succeeding editions.

The Seventh Edition of America highlights environmental history, a rela-

tively new field that examines how people have shaped—and been shaped

by—the natural world. Geographic features, weather, plants, animals, and

diseases are important elements of environmental history. Environmental

historians study how environments have changed as a result of natural

processes such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, hurricanes, wildfires,

droughts, floods, and climatic changes. They also study how societies have

used and abused their natural environment through economic activities such

as hunting, farming, logging and mining, manufacturing, building dams, and

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irrigation. Equally interesting is how different societies over time have per-

ceived nature, as reflected in their religion, art, literature, and popular cul-

ture, and how they have reshaped nature according to those perceptions

through the creation of parks, preserves, and designed landscapes. Finally,

another major area of inquiry among environmental historians centers on

the development of laws and regulations to govern the use of nature and

maintain the quality of the natural environment.

Some of the new additions to the Seventh Edition related to environmen-

tal history are listed below.

• Chapter 1 includes discussions of the transmission of deadly infectious

diseases from Europe to the New World and the ecological and social im-

pact of the arrival of horses on the Great Plains.

• Chapter 3 examines the ways in which European livestock reshaped

the New World environment and complicated relations with Native

Americans.

• Chapters 5 and 6 describe the effects of smallpox on the American armies

during the Revolution.

• Chapter 12 details the impact of early industrialization on the environment.

• Chapter 17 describes the impact of the Civil War on the southern land-

scape.

• Chapter 19 includes new material related to the environmental impact of

the sharecrop-tenant farm system in the South after the Civil War, indus-

trial mining in the Far West, and the demise of the buffalo on the Great

Plains.

• Chapter 21 describes the dramatic rise of large cities after the Civil War

and the distinctive aspects of the urban environment.

• Chapter 24 surveys the key role played by sportsmen in the emergence of

the conservation movement during the late nineteenth century and de-

tails Theodore Roosevelt’s efforts to preserve the nation’s natural re-

sources.

• Chapter 28 surveys the environmental and human effects of the “dust

bowl” during the Great Depression.

• Chapter 37 discusses President George W. Bush’s controversial environ-

mental policies and describes the devastation in Mississippi and

Louisiana wrought by Hurricane Katrina.

xx • Preface

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Beyond these explorations of environmental history we have introduced

other new material throughout the Seventh Edition. Fresh insights from im-

portant new scholarly works have been incorporated, and we feel confident

that the book provides students with an excellent introduction to the Amer-

ican experience.

To enhance the pedagogical features of the text, we have added Focus

Questions at the beginning of each chapter. Students can use these review

tools to remind themselves of the key themes and central issues in the chap-

ters. These questions are also available online as quizzes, the results of which

students can e-mail to their instructors. In addition, the maps feature new

Enhanced Captions designed to encourage students to think analytically

about the relationship between geography and American history.

We have also revised the outstanding ancillary package that supplements

the text. For the Record: A Documentary History of America, Third Edition, by

David E. Shi and Holly A. Mayer (Duquesne University), is a rich resource

with over 300 primary source readings from diaries, journals, newspaper ar-

ticles, speeches, government documents, and novels. The Study Guide, by

Charles Eagles (University of Mississippi), is another valuable resource. This

edition contains chapter outlines, learning objectives, timelines, expanded

vocabulary exercises, and many new short-answer and essay questions.

America: A Narrative History Study Space is an online collection of tools for

review and research. It includes chapter summaries, review questions and

quizzes, interactive map exercises, timelines, and research modules, many

new to this edition. Norton Media Library is a CD-ROM slide and text re-

source that includes images from the text, four-color maps, additional

images from the Library of Congress archives, and audio files of significant

historical speeches. Finally, the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank, by Mark

Goldman (Tallahassee Community College) and Steven Davis (Kingwood

College) includes a test bank of short-answer and essay questions, as well as

detailed chapter outlines, lecture suggestions, and bibliographies.

In preparing the Seventh Edition, we have benefited from the insights and

suggestions of many people. Some of these insights have come from student

readers of the text and we encourage such feedback. Among the scholars and

survey instructors who offered us their comments and suggestions are: James

Lindgren (SUNY Plattsburgh), Joe Kudless (Raritan Valley Community Col-

lege), Anthony Quiroz (Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi), Steve Davis

(Kingwood College), Mark Fiege (Colorado State University), David Head

(John Tyler Community College), Hutch Johnson (Gordon College), Charles

Preface • xxi

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Eagles (University of Mississippi), Christina White and Eddie Weller at the

South campus of San Jacinto College, Blanche Brick, Cathy Lively, Stephen

Kirkpatrick, Patrick Johnson, Thomas Stephens, and others at the Bryan

Campus of Blinn College, Evelyn Mangie (University of South Florida),

Michael McConnell (University of Alabama – Birmingham), Alan Lessoff

(Illinois State University), Joseph Cullon (Dartmouth University), Keith Bo-

hannon (University of West Georgia), Tim Heinrichs (Bellevue Community

College), Mary Ann Heiss (Kent State University), Edmund Wehrle (Eastern

Illinois University), Adam Howard (University of Florida), David Parker

(Kennesaw State University), Barrett Esworthy (Jamestown Community Col-

lege), Samantha Barbas (Chapman University), Jason Newman (Cosumnes

River College), Paul Cimbala (Fordham University), Dean Fafoutis (Salisbury

University), Thomas Schilz (Miramar Community College), Richard Frucht

(Northwest Missouri State University), James Vlasich (Southern Utah Uni-

versity), Michael Egan (Washington State University), Robert Goldberg (Uni-

versity of Utah), Jason Lantzer (Indiana University), and Beth Kreydatus

(College of William & Mary). Our special thanks go Tom Pearcy (Slippery

Rock University) for all of his work on the timelines. Once again, we thank

our friends at W. W. Norton, especially Steve Forman, Steve Hoge, Karl Bake-

man, Neil Hoos, Lory Frenkel, Roy Tedoff, Dan Jost, Rebecca Arata, and Matt

Arnold, for their care and attention along the way.

—George B. Tindall —David E. Shi

xxii • Preface

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Part One

� A N E W W O R L D

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History is filled with ironies. Luck and accident often shape humanaffairs. Long before Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered the New World in his effort to find a passage to Asia, the tribal peoples he mis- labeled Indians had occupied and shaped the lands of the Western Hemi- sphere. The first people to settle the New World were nomadic hunters and gatherers who had migrated from northeastern Asia during the last glacial advance of the Ice Age, nearly 20,000 years ago. By the end of the fifteenth century, when Columbus began his voyage west, there were mil- lions of Native Americans living in the Western Hemisphere. Over the centuries they had developed diverse and often highly sophisticated soci- eties, some rooted in agriculture, others in trade or imperial conquest.

The Native American cultures were, of course, profoundly affected by the arrival of peoples from Europe and Africa. Indians were exploited, enslaved, displaced, and exterminated. Yet this conventional tale of conquest over- simplifies the complex process by which Indians, Europeans, and Africans interacted. The Indians were more than passive victims; they were also trading partners and rivals of the transatlantic newcomers. They became enemies and allies, neighbors and advisers, converts and spouses. As such they fully participated in the creation of the new society known as America.

The Europeans who risked their lives to settle in the New World were themselves quite varied. Young and old, men and women, they came from Spain, Portugal, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Italy, and the various German states. A variety of motives inspired them to under- take the often harrowing transatlantic voyage. Some were adventurers and fortune seekers eager to find gold and spices. Others were fervent Christians determined to create kingdoms of God in the New World. Still others were convicts, debtors, indentured servants, or political or religious exiles. Many were simply seeking a piece of land, higher wages, and greater economic opportunity. A settler in Pennsylvania noted that “poor people (both men and women) of all kinds can here get three times the wages for their labour than they can in England or Wales.”

Yet such enticements were not sufficient to attract enough workers to keep up with the rapidly expanding colonial economies. So the Euro- peans began to force Indians to work for them. But there were never enough laborers to meet the unceasing demand. Moreover, captive Indians often escaped or were so rebellious that several colonies banned their use. The Massachusetts legislature did so because it claimed that Indians were of such “a malicious, surly and revengeful spirit; rude and insolent in their behavior, and very ungovernable.”

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Beginning early in the seventeenth century more and more colonists turned to the African slave trade for their labor needs. In 1619 white traders began transporting captured Africans to the English colonies. This development would transform American society in ways that no one at the time envisioned. Few Europeans during the colonial era saw the contradiction between the New World’s promise of individual free- dom and the expanding institution of race-based slavery. Nor did they reckon with the problems associated with introducing into the new society people they considered alien and unassimilable.

The intermingling of peoples, cultures, and ecosystems from the continents of Africa, Europe, and North America gave colonial American society its distinctive vitality and variety. In turn, the diversity of the environment and the climate led to the creation of quite different economies and patterns of living in the various re- gions of North America. As the original settlements grew into pros- perous and populous colonies, the transplanted Europeans had to fashion social institutions and political systems to manage growth and control tensions.

At the same time, imperial rivalries among the Spanish, French, English, and Dutch produced numerous intrigues and costly wars. The monarchs of Europe struggled to manage and exploit this fluid and often volatile colo- nial society. Many of the colonists, they discovered, had brought with them to the New World a feisty inde- pendence that led them to re- sent government interference in their affairs. A British official in North Carolina reported that the residents of the Piedmont region were “without any Law or Order. Impudence is so very high [among them], as to be past bearing.” As long as the reins of imperial control were loosely applied, the two parties maintained an uneasy partner- ship. But as the British authori- ties tightened their control dur- ing the mid–eighteenth century, they met resistance, which be- came revolt and culminated in revolution.

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The “New World” discovered by Christopher Columbus wasin fact home to civilizations thousands of years old. Until re-cently archaeologists had long assumed that the first humans in the Western Hemisphere were Siberians who some 12,000 to 15,000 years ago had crossed the Bering Strait on a land bridge to Alaska made accessible by receding waters during the last Ice Age. These nomadic hunters and their descendants had then drifted south in pursuit of grazing herds of large mammals: mammoths, musk oxen, bison, and woolly rhinoceroses. Over the next 500 years these people had fanned out in small bands across the entire hemisphere, from the Arctic Circle to the tip of South America. Recent archaeological discoveries in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Chile, however, suggest that ancient humans may have arrived by sea much earlier (perhaps 18,000 to 40,000 years ago) from various parts of Asia—and some may even have crossed the Atlantic Ocean from southwestern Europe.

T H E C O L L I S I O N

O F C U L T U R E S

1

F O C U S Q U E S T I O N S

• What civilizations existed in pre-Columbian America? What were their origins?

• What were the goals of the European voyages of discovery and of the explorers who probed the shorelines of America?

• What were the consequences of the exchanges and clashes that accompanied European contact with the plants, animals, and people of the New World?

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6 • THE COLLISION OF CULTURES (CH. 1)

When did people first cross the Bering Sea? What evidence have archaeologists and anthropologists found from the lives of the first people in America? Why did they travel to North America?

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P R E - C O L U M B I A N I N D I A N C I V I L I Z AT I O N S

The first humans in North America discovered an immense continent with extraordinary climatic and environmental diversity. Coastal plains, broad grasslands, harsh deserts, and soaring mountain ranges generated dis- tinct environments, social structures, and cultural patterns. By the time Columbus happened upon the New World, the native peoples of North America had developed a diverse array of communities in which more than 400 languages were spoken. Yet despite the distances and dialects separating them, the Indian societies created extensive trading networks that helped spread ideas and innovations. Contrary to the romantic myth of early Indian civilizations living in perfect harmony with nature and one another, the na- tive societies exerted great pressure on their environment and engaged in frequent warfare with one another.

E A R L Y C U LT U R E S After centuries of nomadic life, the ancient Indians settled in more permanent villages. Thousands of years after people first ap- peared in North America, climatic changes and extensive hunting had killed off the largest mammals. Global warming diminished grasslands and stimu- lated forest growth, which provided plants and small animals for human consumption. The ancient Indians adapted to the new environments by in- venting fiber snares, basketry, and mills for grinding nuts, and they domesticated the dog and the turkey. A new cultural stage arrived with the introduction of farming, fishing, and pottery making. Hunting now focused on faster and more elusive mammals: deer, antelope, elk, moose, and caribou. Already by about 5000 B.C., Indians of the Mexican highlands were consum- ing plant foods that became the staples of the New World: chiefly maize (corn), beans, and squash but also chili peppers, avocados, and pumpkins.

T H E M AYA S , A Z T E C S , C H I B C H A S , A N D I N C A S Between about 2000 and 1500 B.C., permanent farming towns appeared in Mexico. The more settled life in turn provided time for the cultivation of religion, crafts, art, science, administration—and warfare. From about A.D. 300 to 900, Mid- dle America (Mesoamerica) developed great city centers complete with gi- gantic pyramids, temples, and palaces, all supported by the surrounding peasant villages. Moreover, the Mayas developed enough mathematics and astronomy to devise a calendar more accurate than the one the Europeans were using at the time of Columbus.

In about A.D. 900 the complex Mayan culture collapsed. The Mayas had overexploited the rain forest upon whose fragile ecosystem they depended.

Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations • 7

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As an archaeologist has explained, “Too many farmers grew too many crops on too much of the landscape.” Deforestation led to hillside erosion and a catastrophic loss of farmland. Overpopulation added to the strain on Mayan society. Unrelenting civil wars erupted among the Mayas. Mayan war parties destroyed one another’s cities and took prisoners, who were then sacrificed to the gods in theatrical rituals. Whatever the reasons for the weakening of Mayan society, it succumbed to the Toltecs, a warlike people who conquered most of the region in the tenth century. But around A.D. 1200 the Toltecs mysteriously withdrew.

8 • THE COLLISION OF CULTURES (CH. 1)

A T L A N T I C

O C E A N

P A C I F I C

O C E A N SOUTH AMERICA

MIDDLE AMERICA

Tenochtitlán

Monte Alban

Teotihuacán

C A R I B B E A N S E A

G U L F O F M E X I C O

0 250

0 500 Kilometers250

500 Miles

CHIBCHAS

PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATIONS IN MIDDLE AND

SOUTH AMERICA

MEXICO

M A

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S

A Z T E C S

IN C

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(Q U

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A N

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OF PANAMA

TOLTECS

What were the major pre-Columbian civilizations? What factors caused the demise of the Mayan civilization? When did the Aztecs build Tenochtitlán?

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The Aztecs arrived from the northwest to fill the vacuum, founded the city of Tenochtitlán (twenty-five miles north of what is now Mexico City) in 1325, and gradually expanded their control over central Mexico. When the Spanish invaded in 1519, the Aztec Empire under Montezuma II ruled over perhaps 5 million people—though estimates range as high as 20 million.

Farther south, in what is now Colombia, the Chibchas built a similar em- pire on a smaller scale. Still farther south the Quechuas (better known as the Incas, from the name for their ruler) controlled an empire that by the fif- teenth century stretched 1,000 miles along the Andes Mountains from Ecuador to Chile. It was crisscrossed by an elaborate system of roads and or- ganized under an autocratic government.

I N D I A N C U LT U R E S O F N O R T H A M E R I C A The Indians of the present-day United States developed three identifiable civilizations: the Adena-Hopewell culture of the Northeast (800 B.C.–A.D. 600), the Mississippian culture of the Southeast (A.D. 600–1500), and the Pueblo-Hohokam culture of the Southwest (400 B.C.–present). None of these developed as fully as the civilizations of the Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas to the south.

Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations • 9

Mayan Society

A fresco depicting the social divisions of Mayan society. A Mayan lord, at the center, receives offerings.

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The Adena-Hopewell culture, centered in the Ohio River valley, left be- hind enormous earthworks and burial mounds—some of them elaborately shaped like great snakes, birds, or other animals. Evidence from the mounds suggests a complex social structure and a specialized division of labor. More- over, the Hopewell Indians developed an elaborate trade network that spanned the continent.

The Mississippian culture, centered in the Mississippi River valley, resem- bled the Mayan and Aztec societies in its intensive agriculture, substantial towns built around central plazas, temple mounds (vaguely resembling pyra- mids), and death cults, which involved human torture and sacrifice. The Mis- sissippians developed a specialized labor force, an effective government, and an extensive trading network. They worshipped the sun. The Mississippian

10 • THE COLLISION OF CULTURES (CH. 1)

0

0 500 Kilometers

500 Miles

PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATIONS

IN NORTH AMERICA

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

A T L A N T I C

O C E A N

G U L F O F M E X I C O

N O R T H

A M E R I C A

R O

C K

Y M

O U

N T

A I

N S

Mesa Verde

ANASAZI

PUEBLO-HOHOKAM

M IS

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What were the three dominant pre-Columbian civilizations in North America? Where was the Adena-Hopewell culture centered? How was the Mississippian civi- lization similar to that of the Mayans or Aztecs? What made the Anasazi culture dif- ferent from the other North American cultures?

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culture peaked in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and finally succumbed to diseases transmit- ted from Europe.

The arid Southwest hosted irrigation-based cultures, elements of which persist today and heirs of which (the Hopis, Zunis, and others) still live in the adobe pueblos erected by their ances- tors. The most widespread and best known of the cultures, the Anasazi (“enemy’s ancestors” in the Navajo language), developed in the “four corners,” where the states of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah meet.

The Anasazis lived in baked-mud adobe structures built four or five sto- ries high. In contrast to the Mesoamerican and Mississippian cultures,

Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations • 11

Mississippian Artifacts

Mississippian people produced finely made pottery, such as this deer-effigy jar.

Cliff Dwellings

Ruins of Anasazi cliff dwellings in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.

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Anasazi society lacked a rigid class structure. The religious leaders and war- riors labored much as the rest of the people did. In fact, they engaged in war- fare only as a means of self-defense (Hopi means “Peaceful People”), and there is little evidence of human sacrifice or human trophies. Environmental factors shaped Anasazi culture and eventually caused its demise. Toward the end of the thirteenth century, a lengthy drought and the pressure of new ar- rivals from the north began to restrict the territory of the Anasazis. Into their peaceful world came the aggressive Navajos and Apaches, followed two centuries later by Spaniards marching up from the south.

E U R O P E A N V I S I O N S O F A M E R I C A

The European discovery of America was fueled by curiosity. People had long imagined what lay beyond the western horizon. Norse expeditions to the New World during the tenth and eleventh centuries are the earliest

12 • THE COLLISION OF CULTURES (CH. 1)

N O R T H

A M E R I C A

EUROPE

AFRICA

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

Norse settlements

NORSE DISCOVERIES

GREENLAND HELLULAND (Baffin Island)

IRELAND

ICELAND

SCOTLAND

ENGLAND

NORWAY

VINLAND (Newfoundland)

MARKLAND (Labrador)

L’Anse aux Meadows

FAROE ISLANDS

SHETLAND ISLANDS

CAPE COD

When did the first Norse settlers reach North America? What was the symbolic sig- nificance of these lands of the Western Hemisphere? How far south in North Amer- ica did the Norse explorers travel?

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that can be verified, and even they have dissolved into legend. Around A.D. 985 an Icelander named Erik the Red—the New World’s first real-estate booster—colonized the west coast of a rocky, fogbound island he deceptively called Greenland, and about a year later a trader missed Greenland and sighted land beyond. Knowing of this, Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, sailed out from Greenland about A.D. 1001 and sighted the coasts of Hellu- land (Baffin Island), Markland (Labrador), and Vinland (Newfoundland), where he settled for the winter. The Norse settlers withdrew from North America in the face of hostile natives, and the Greenland colonies vanished mysteriously in the fifteenth century. Nowhere in Europe had the forces yet developed that would inspire adventurers to subdue the New World.

T H E E X PA N S I O N O F E U R O P E

During the late fifteenth century, Europeans developed the maritime technology to venture around the world and the imperial ambitions to search for riches, colonies, and pagans to convert. This age of discovery coin- cided with the rise of an inquiring spirit; the growth of trade, towns, and modern corporations; the decline of feudalism and the formation of na- tional states; the Protestant and Catholic Reformations; and the resurgence of some old sins—greed, conquest, exploitation, oppression, racism, and slavery—that quickly defiled the fancied innocence of the New World.

R E N A I S S A N C E G E O G R A P H Y For more than two centuries before Columbus, the mind of Europe quickened with the so-called Renaissance— the rediscovery of ancient texts, the rebirth of secular learning, the spirit of inquiry, all of which spread more rapidly after Johannes Gutenberg’s inven- tion of a printing press with movable type around 1440. Learned Europeans of the fifteenth century held in almost reverential awe the authority of an- cient learning. The age of discovery was especially influenced by ancient con- cepts of geography. As early as the sixth century B.C., the Pythagoreans had taught the sphericity of the earth, and in the third century B.C. the earth’s size was computed very nearly correctly. All this was accepted in Renaissance universities on the word of Aristotle, and the myth that Columbus was try- ing to prove this theory is one of those falsehoods that will not disappear even in the face of evidence. No informed person at that time thought the earth was flat.

Progress in the art of navigation accompanied the revival of learning. In the fifteenth century, mariners employed new instruments to sight stars and

The Expansion of Europe • 13

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find the latitude. Steering across the open sea, however, remained a matter of dead reckoning. A ship’s captain set his course along a given latitude and cal- culated it from the angle of the North Star or, with less certainty, the sun, es- timating speed by the eye. Longitude remained a matter of guesswork since accurate timepieces were needed to determine it. Ship’s clocks remained too inaccurate until the development of more precise chronometers in the eigh- teenth century.

T H E G R O W T H O F T R A D E , T O W N S , A N D N AT I O N - S TAT E S The forces that would invade and reshape the New World found their focus in Europe’s rising towns, the centers of a growing trade that slowly broadened the narrow horizons of feudal culture. In its farthest reaches this commerce moved either overland or through the eastern Mediterranean all the way to east Asia, where Europeans acquired medicine, silks, precious stones, dye- woods, perfumes, and rugs. There they also purchased the spices—pepper, nutmeg, clove—so essential to the preserving of food and for enhancing its flavor. The trade gave rise to a merchant class and to the idea of corporations through which stockholders would share risks and profits.

The foreign trade was chancy and costly. Goods commonly passed from hand to hand, from ships to pack trains and back to ships along the way, sub- ject to tax levies by all sorts of princes and potentates. The Muslim world, from Spain across North Africa into central Asia, straddled the important trade routes, adding to the hazards. Muslims tenaciously opposed efforts to “Christianize” their lands. Little wonder, then, that Europeans should dream of an all-water route to the coveted spices of east Asia and the Indies.

Another spur to exploration was the rise of national states, ruled by kings and queens who had the power and the money to sponsor the search for foreign riches. The growth of the merchant class went hand in hand with the growth of centralized political power. Merchants wanted uniform currencies, trade laws, and the elimination of trade barriers. They thus be- came natural allies of the monarchs who could meet their needs. In turn, merchants and university-trained professionals supplied the monarchs with money, lawyers, and government officials. The Crusades to capture the Holy Land (1095–1270) had also advanced the process of international trade and exploration. They had brought Europe into contact with the Middle East and had decimated the ranks of the feudal lords. And new means of warfare—the use of gunpowder and standing armies—further weakened the independence of the nobility relative to royal power.

By 1492 the map of western Europe showed several united kingdoms: France, where in 1453 Charles VII had emerged from the Hundred Years’

14 • THE COLLISION OF CULTURES (CH. 1)

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War as head of a unified state; England, where in 1485 Henry VII had emerged victorious after thirty years of civil strife known as the Wars of the Roses; Portugal, where John I had fought off the Castilians to ensure na- tional independence; and Spain, where in 1469 Ferdinand of Aragon and Is- abella of Castile had ended an era of chronic civil war when they united two great kingdoms in marriage. The Spanish king and queen were crusading expansionists. On January 1, 1492, after nearly eight centuries of religious warfare between Spanish Christians and Moorish Muslims on the Iberian peninsula, Ferdinand and Isabella declared victory at Granada, the last Muslim stronghold. They gave the defeated Muslims a desperate choice: convert to Christianity or leave Spain. Soon thereafter the Christian mon- archs gave Sephardi, Jews from Spain or Portugal, the same awful ultima- tum: baptism or exile.

These factors—urbanization, world trade, the rise of centralized national states, and advances in knowledge, technology, and firepower—combined with natural human curiosity, greed, and religious zeal to create an outburst of energy, spurring the discovery and conquest of the New World. Beginning in the late fifteenth century, Europeans set in motion the events that, as one historian has observed, bound together “four continents, three races, and a great diversity of regional parts.”