Powerful ideas an introduction to philosophy 2nd edition pdf free

HERE AND NOW THIRD EDITION

POWERFUL IDEAS IN

EVERYDAY LI FE Lewis Vaughn

HERE AND NOW

WHAT PEOPLE ARE SAYING ABOUT PHILOSOPHY HERE AND NOW:

"Above all, Vaughn's text does ,vhac few ochers are able co do, namely, co show chat ph ilosophy actually matters ,vich respect co ho,v we chink and live in the world. For all its brevity the book 1nanages co run the gamut of critical topics, and to offer real-world (and often hu1norous) examples of each. He does not offer the luxury of viewing d ifficult questions fro1n a position of abstracted detachment and safety. Rather, he hurls readers straight into the teeth of the sconn and allows che1n co feel the raw terror, wonder, and exhilaration chat rightly belong co the study of philosophy."

- Daniel Bramer, Holy Family University

"Vaughn has chosen the most important topics in philosophy. His 1nenu cannot be improved upon. With a beautiful opening chapter on the nature of ph ilosophical chinking and remarkably concise chapters on the 1nosc engaging issues in philosophy, and with a nice 1nix of classic and conce1nporary philosophers, chis is a terri fic text. It is visually appealing as well."

- Paul Herrick, Shoreline Community College

"Philosophy Here and Now is written in a clear, engaging, and lively style. The author does an excellent job of explain ing abstract and conceptually intricate material to novices. The book introduces students to philosophy as a living enterprise, full of intellectual surprises and relevance to everyday hu1nan concerns."

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PH L PHY HERE AND NOW

POWERFUL IDEAS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

THIRD EDITJC)~

Lewis Vaughn

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Names: Vaughn, Lewis} autho r.

Title: Philosophy here and now : powerful ideas in everyday li fe I Lewis Vaughn. Description: T H IRD EDITION. J New York : Oxford University Press, 2018. Identifiers: LCCN 2018014409 I IS BN 9780190852344 (pbk.) SubjecLs: LCSH: Philosophy- Textbooks. Classification: LCC 8 031 .V38 2018 I DOC 100-dc23 LC record available ar https://lccn.loc.gov/2018014409

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• PREFACE XXI

CHAPTER 1 PHILOSOPHY AND YOU 1

CHAPTER 2 GOD AND RELIGION 57

CHAPTER 3 MORALITY AND THE MORAL LIFE 135

CHAPTER 4 MIND AND BODY 205

CHAPTER s FREE WILL AND DETERM INISM 240

CHAPTER 6 KNOWLEDGE AND SKEPTICISM 274

CHAPTER 7 AESTHETICS 332

CHAPTER 8 THE JUST SOCIETY 354

CHAPTER 9 THE MEANING OF LIFE 406

APPENDIX A THE TRUTH ABOUT PHILOSOPHY MAJORS 431

APPENDIX B ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 437

APPENDIX c HOW TO WRITE A PHILOSOPHY PAPER 441

NOTES 451

GLOSSARY 457

CREDITS 461

INDEX of MARGINAL

QUOTATIONS 463

GENERAL INDEX 465

VII

Preface xxi

CHAPTER 1 PHILOSOPHY AND YOU l

1.1 PHILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING 2

The Good of Philosophy 2

Philosophical Terrain 4 What Do You Believe? Your Philosophical Beliefs 5 Essay/Discussion Questions 7

1.2 SOCRATES AND THE EXAMINED LIFE 8

Philosophers at Work: Plato 9

PLATO: The Republic 10 Philosophers at Work: The Pre-Socratics 12

Essay/Discussion Questions 14

1.3 THINKING PHILOSOPHICALLY 14

Reasons and Arguments 15 Philosophy Lab 16

Philosophers at Work: Phi losophy Takes on Racism 20

Reading Philosophy 27 Philosophers at Work: Hypatia 29 Philosophers at Work: Early Women

Philosophers: Themistoclea, Arignote,

and Theano 31

Fallacious Reasoning 33 Philosophy Now: Phi losophy in the News 34 Essay/Discussion Questions 40

REVIEW NOTES 40

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 42

KEY TERMS 42

ARGUMENT EXERCISES 43 ix

x Contents

NARRATIVE: Plato, The Trial and Death of Socrates 47

PROBING QUESTIONS SS

FOR FURTHER READING SS

CHAPTER 2 GOD AND RELIGION 57

2.1 OVERVIEW: COD AND PHILOSOPHY 58

Why Religion Matters 59

Overview: The Philosopher's Quest 59 Philosophy Now: Who Believes in God? 60 What Do You Believe? Hard-Wired for God? 63

Belief and Disbelief 64

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical Views 66

2.2 ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF COD 66

Cosmological Arguments 66

AQUINAS: Summa Theologica 67 Philosophers at Work: St. Thomas Aquinas 68 Philosophy Now: Science and the Uncaused

Universe 69

CRAIG: Reasonable Faith 70

Design Arguments 72

PALEY: Natural Theology 72

HUME: Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 74 Philosophy Now: Do Scientists Reject Religion? 78

Onto logical Arguments 79

ANSELM: Proslogium 79 Philosophy Now: Evolution and Intelligent

Design 80

KANT: Critique of Pure Reason 83 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 83

2.3 COD AND THE PROBLEM OF EVIL 84

Rowe's Argument f rom Evil 84

ROWE: Philosophy of Religion 84

The Free Will Defense 87

SWINBURNE: Is There a God? 87

The Soul-Making Defense 88

HICK: Evil and the God of Love 88 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 91

2.4 THEISM AND RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE 92

ST. TERESA OF AVILA: The Life of Teresa of Jesus 92

MACKIE: The Miracle of Theism 93 Philosophy Lab 94

ROWE: Philosophy of Religion 95 Philosophy Now: Proof of the Power of Prayer? 96

SWINBURNE: The Existence of God 97 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 98

2.5 BELIEF WITHOUT REASON 98

James: Pragmatic Fait h 99

JAMES: "The W ill to Believe" 100

MARTIN: Atheism: A Philosophical

Justification 106

Pascal: Betting on God 106

What Do You Believe? Do You Live by Faith? 107

PASCAL: Pensees and Other Writings 107 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 109

2.6 EASTERN RELIGIONS 109

Buddhism 109

SUMEDHO: Buddha-Nature 112

RAHULA: What the Buddha Taught 112 Philosophy Now: Buddhism and Science 114

H induism 116

Philosophy Now: The Caste System 120

Daoism 123

CHUANG TZU: All Things Are One 123

LAO-TZU: Tao-te ching 124 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 126

Contents x1

x i i Contents

REVIEW NOTES 126

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 129

KEY TERMS 129

FICTION: Arthur C. Clarke, "The Star" 131

PROBING QUESTIONS 133

FOR FURTHER READING 134

CHAPTER 3 MORALITY AND THE MORAL LIFE 135

3.1 OVERVIEW: ETHICS AND THE MORAL DOMAIN 136

Eth ics and Morality 136

Moral Theories 139

Philosophy Now: Morality and the Low 141 Philosophy Now: The Morality of Human

Cloning 144

Religion and Morality 146

SHAFER-LANDAU: Whatever Happened

to Good and Evil? 147 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 148

3.2 MORAL RELATIVISM 148

Subjective Relativism 149

Cultural Relativism 151

What Do You Believe? Cultural Relativism

and Women's Rights 152

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 155

3.3 MORALITY BASED ON CONSEQUENCES 155

Utilitar ianism 156

MILL: "What Uti litarianism Is" 158 Philosophy Now: Util itarianism and the Death

Penalty 160

Philosophy Lab 164

Eth ical Egoism 165

Philosophers at Work: John Stuart Mill 165 Philosophy Now: Torture and the Ticking Bomb

Terrorist 166

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical Views 169

3.4 M ORALITY BASED ON DUTY AND RIGHTS 169

KANT: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals 170 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 175

3.5 MORALITY BASED ON CHARACTER 175

ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics 176

SHAFER-LANDAU: The Fundamentals of Ethics 180

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical Views 181

3.6 FEMINIST ETHICS AND THE ETHICS OF CARE 181

JAGGAR: "Feminist Ethics" 182

CROSTHWAITE: "Gender and Bioethics" 182

HELD: The Ethics of Care 184

Philosophers at Work: Mary Wollstonecraft 186

BAIER: "The Need for More Than Justice" 188 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 188

3.7 ALBERT CAMUS: AN EXISTENTIALIST VOICE 188

CAMUS: The Myth of Sisyphus 190 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 192

3.8 CONFUCIANISM 192

CONFUCIUS: Analects 193

NOSS: A History of the World's Religions 195 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 195

REVIEW NOTES 196

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 198

KEY TERMS 198

FICTION: Ursula K. Le Guin, " The Ones Who Walk Away

from Ornelas" 200

PROBING QUESTIONS 203

FOR FURTHER READING 203

Contents xiii

xiv Contents

CHAPTER 4 MIND AND BODY 205

4.1 OVERVIEW: THE M IND-BODY PROBLEM 206

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 211

4.2 SUBSTANCE DUALISM 211

DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method of Rightly

Conducting the Reason 2 12

SCHICK: Doing Philosophy 212

DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 213 What Do You Believe? The Immortal Soul 2 14

SEARLE: Mind 216

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical Views 217

4.3 MIND-BODY IDENTITY 217

SMART: "Sensations and Brain Processes" 217

CHALMERS: The Conscious Mind 2 18

NAGEL: "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?" 220 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 221

4.4 THE M IND AS SOFTWARE 222

FODOR: "The Mind-Body Problem" 222

BLOCK: "Troubles with Functionalism" 223

What Do You Believe? Al and Human Rights 224

SEARLE: Mind 226

Philosophers at Work: Alan Turing 227 Philosophers at Work: John R. Searle 228 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 229

Philosophy Now: Al, Ethics, and War 230

4.5 THE MIND AS PROPERTIES 230

CHALMERS: The Conscious Mind 232 Philosophy Lab 233 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 234

REVIEW NOTES 234

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 235

KEY TERMS 236

FICTION: Terry Bisson, "They're Made out of Meat" 237

PROBING QUESTIONS 238

FOR FURTHER READING 238

CHAPTER 5 FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM 240

5.1 OVERVIEW: THE FREE WILL PROBLEM 241

What Do You Believe? Fate 245 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 246

5.2 DETERMINISM AND INDETERMINISM 246

D'HOLBACH: "Of the System of Man's Free Agency" 246

Philosophers at Work: Will iam James 248

JAMES: "The Dilemma of Determinism" 249 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 250

5.3 COMPATIBILISM 250

LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 251

STACE: Religion and the Modern Mind 251 Philosophy Now: Does Belief in Free Will Matter? 252

ROWE: "Two Concepts of Freedom" 254 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 255

5.4 LIBERTARIANISM 255

Philosophy Now: Science and Free Will 256

VAN INWAGEN: An Essay on Free Will 257 Philosophy Lab 258

TAYLOR: Metaphysics 258 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 261

5.5 SARTRE'S PROFOUND FREEDOM 261

SARTRE: "Existentialism Is a Humanism" 262

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical Views 266

Contents xv

xvi Contents

REVIEW NOTES 266

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 268

KEY TERMS 268

FICTION: Thomas D. Davis, "A Little Omniscience Goes

a Long Way" 270

PROBING QUESTIONS 273

FOR FURTHER READING 273

CHAPTER 6 KNOWLEDGE AND SKEPTICISM 274

6.1 OVERVIEW: THE PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE 275

What Do You Believe? Cognitive Relativism Undone 277

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 280

6.2 THE RATIONALIST ROAD 281

Plato's Rationalism 281

PLATO: Meno 283

Descartes' Doubt 284

DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 285 Philosophy Now: Living in The Matrix 287 Philosophy Lab 288

Descartes' Certainty 288

DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy 288

Philosophers at Work: Rene Descartes 290 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Phi losophical

Views 292

6.3 THE EMPIRICIST TURN 293

Locke 293

LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human

Understanding 293

Berkeley 299

BERKELEY: Of the Principles of Human Knowledge 300

Hume 303 Philosophers at Work: David Hume 304

HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 305

Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical Views 310

6.4 THE KANTIAN COMPROMISE 311

KANT: Critique of Pure Reason 312 Philosophers at Work: Immanuel Kant 313 Philosophy Now: Conceptualizing the World 316 Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 319

6.5 A FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ON KNOWLEDGE 319

AINLEY: "Feminist Philosophy" 320

ANTONY: " Embodiment and Epistemology" 320

ANDERSON: "Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science" 321

COLE: Philosophy and Feminist Criticism 321 Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 325

REVIEW NOTES 325

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 328

KEY TERMS 329

FICTION: Lewis Carroll, "Through the Looking-Glass" 330

PROBING QUESTIONS 330

FOR FURTHER READING 331

CHAPTER 7 AESTHETICS 332

7.1 OVERVIEW: PHILOSOPHY OF BEAUTY 333

Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 333

7.2 WHAT IS ART? 333

Philosophy Now: Is It Art? 334

BELL: Art 335 Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 335

Philosophy Now: Controversial Ar t 336

Contents xv ii

xvii i Contents

7.3 AESTHETIC VALUE 338

Philosophers at Work: Arthur C. Dante 339 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 340

7.4 PLATO, ARISTOTLE, AND HUME 340

ARISTOTLE: The Poetics 340 Philosophy Lab 341

HUME: Of the Standard of Taste 343 Philosophy Now: Feminist Art 344 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 348

REVIEW NOTES 349

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own

Views 350

KEY TERMS 350

FICTION: Edgar Allan Poe, "The Oval Portrait" 351

PROBING QUESTIONS 352

FOR FURTHER READING 352

CHAPTER 8 THE JUST SOCIETY 354

8.1 OVERVIEW: JUSTICE AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY 355

What Do You Believe? Polit ica l Views in

Flux 358 Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical

Views 359

8.2 PLATO'S THEORY: JUSTICE AS MERIT 360

PLATO: The Republic 361 Philosophy Now: Merit or Equality: Who Gets

to Live? 363

Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical Views 364

8.3 SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORIES 364

Hobbes 365

Philosophers at Work: Thomas Hobbes 365

HOBBES: Leviathan 366

Locke 370

LOCKE: Second Treatise of Government 371

Rawls 375 Philosophers at Work: John Locke 375

RAWLS: A Theory of justice 376 Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 378

8.4 SOCIALIST THEORIES 379

Philosophy Lab 380 Philosophy Now: Is the United States a Socialist

Country? 381

MARX and ENGELS: Manifesto of the Communist

Party 381 Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 387

8.5 FEMINISM ANO SOCIAL JUSTICE 387

OKIN: Justice, Gender, and the Family 388

MILLER: Political Philosophy 392 Writing to Understand: Crit iquing Philosophical

Views 392

REVIEW NOTES 393

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own

Views 395

KEY TERMS 395

FICTION: William Golding, "Lord of the Flies" 397

PROBING QUESTIONS 405

FOR FURTHER READING 405

CHAPTER 9 THE MEAN ING OF LIFE 406

9.1 OVERVIEW: PHILOSOPHY ANO THE MEAN ING

OF LIFE 407

Philosophy Lab 410

9.2 PESSIMISM: LIFE HAS NO MEANING 411

TOLSTOY: My Confession 411

Contents xix

xx Contents

SCHOPENHAUER: "On the Sufferings of the World" 413

BAGG/NI: What's It All About? 414 Philosophy Now: Nietzsche: Reflections

on Meaning 415

9.3 OPTIMISM : LIFE CAN HAVE MEANING 416

Meaning from Above 416

TOLSTOY: My Confession 416 Philosophy Now: Is Religion Necessary

for a Meaningful Life? 4 19

BAGG/NI: What's It All About? 420

Meaning from Below 4 21

EDWARDS: The Encyclopedia of Philosophy 421

REVIEW NOTES 426

What Do You Believe? What Can and Cannot Give Life Meaning? 427

Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views 428

FICTION: Voltaire, "The Good Brahmin" 429

PROBING QUESTIONS 430

FOR FURTHER READING 430

Appendix A: The Truth about Philosophy Majors 431

Appendix B: Answers to Exercises 437

Appendix C: How to Write a Philosophy Paper 441

Notes 451

Glossary 457

Credits 461

Index of Marginal Quotations 463

General Index 465

PREFACE ................................... _. ........ _. .... .._ ............ ._ ............................................................... .-................................ _. ........ __. ._ ....................... __. .............. . ............ __. ........ __. .......... ........... ......... ................. .... ..... _. ... .

This third edition of Philosophy Here and Now stays true to the aspirations and char- acter of the first and second. From the beginning, the text has been designed to provide an extraordinary amount of encouragement and guidance to students \vho are encountering philosophy for the first (and perhaps last) time. !rs ambitious aim is to get such students to take some big steps tO\vard understand ing, appreciating, and even doing philosophy. Philosophy Here and Now thus tries to do a great deal more than most other texts or readers. To foster a serious understanding of philosophy, it includes solid coverage of critical thinking skills and argument basics as well as guid- ance and practice in reading philosophical works. Studenrs of course can appreciate the point and power of philosophy as they comprehend philosophical \vritings, but their appreciation blossoms when they see ho\v philosophical issues and reasoning play out in contemporary society and how philosophical insights apply to their O\vn lives. So the book's coverage and pedagogical features help students grasp philoso- phy's relevance and t imeliness. Studenrs learn how to do philosophy-to think and write philosophically-\vhen they get encouragement and practice in analyzing and critiquing their own vie\vS and those of the philosophers they study. To this end, Phiwsophy Here and Now emphasizes philosophical writing, reinforced with step- by-step coaching in how to \vrite argumentative essays and supported by multiple opportunities to hone basic skills.

In addition to these core elements, Philosophy Here and Now further engages today's learners \Vith abundant illustrations and color graphics; marginal notes, questions, and quotes; profiles of a diverse array of philosophers; and ample repre- sentation of non-Western and nont raditional sources.

TOPICS AND READINGS

Nine chapters cover the existence of God, morality and the moral life, mind and body, free wi ll and determinism, knowledge and skepticism, aesthetics, political philosophy, and the meaning of life. These topics are explored in read ings from seventy-five traditional and contemporary philosophers integrated into the main text, featuring both indispensable standards and ne\ver selections. The standards include Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Pascal, Anselm, Descartes, Hume, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, d'Holbach, Paley, James, Sartre, Marx, and others. Among t he more recent voices are Searle, Chalmers, Craig, Swinburne, H ick, Mackie, Rowe, Gard- ner, Blum, Dersho\vitz, Rahula, Jaggar, Held, Baier, Nagel, Block, Van l n\vagen, Taylor, D u Sautoy, Ducasse, Cole, Ainley, Rawls, O kin, and Schopenhauer.

All these selections are juxtaposed with end-of-chapter pieces of fiction or narrative-stories meant to explore and dramatize the philosophical issues encountered

xxi

xxii Preface

in the chapters. They include some classic stories such as "The Good Brahmin" by Volta ire, "The Ones Who Walk Away from Ornelas" by Ursula Le Guin, and "They're Made Out of Meat" by Terry Bisson, as \veil as lesser-kno\vn fiction by notable writers like Arthur C. Clarke and William Golding. Each story is accompanied by discus- sion/essay questions designed to dra\v out irs philosophical implications.

MAIN FEATURES

• A comprehensive introductory chapter that lays the groundwork for philo- sophical thinking. Through examples drawn from philosophical literature and everyday life, th is chapter explains clearly the nature and scope of philosophy and ho\v it relates to students' lives. This much, of course, is \vhat any good text in this field should do. But this first chapter also shows how to devise and evalu- ate arguments and guides students in critically thinking, reading, and \vriting about philosophical issues.

• Critical thinking questions that correspond to relevant passages in the main text or readings. These questions, located in the margins of the text, invite stu- dents to ponder the implications of the material and to th ink critically about the assumptions and arguments found there. The questions are numbered and highlighted and easily lend themselves to both \vriting assignments and class discussion. The point of their marginal placement is to prompt students to think carefully and analytically as they read.

• Four types of text boxes that demonstrate the value and relevance of philoso- phy in the modern world:

• "Philosophy Now" -These boxes contain news items and research reports that illustrate ho\v each chapter's philosophical issues permeate everyday life. They demonstrate that philosophical concerns arise continually in science, society, ethics, religion, politics, medicine, and more. Each box ends \vith questions that prompt critical thinking and philosophical reflection.

• "What Do You Believe?"-Prompting student engagement and reflec- tion, these boxes explore issues related to the chapter's topics and challenge students' beliefs.

• "Philosophers at Work'' -These boxes profi le the lives and work of com- pelling figures in philosophy, past and present, Western and non-Western or nontraditional, men and women. Some feature philosophers from the past \vhose story adds a human and historical dimension to the ideas discussed in the chapter, and some profile contemporary thinkers who are grappling \vith the important issues of the day. The point of these features is, of course, to sho\v that philosophy is very much a living, relevant enterprise.

• " Philosophy Lab"-These boxes present simple thought experiments chal- lenging students to think through scenarios that can reveal deeper philo- sophical insights or perspectives.

• In-depth coverage of philosophical writing includes step-by-step coaching in argument basics and multiple opportunities to hone critical thinking skills.

• "Writing to Understand: Critiquing Philosophical Views" -These boxes appear at the end of each section and consist of essay questions that prompt students to critically examine the strengths and weaknesses of the vie\vS dis- cussed in the sections.

• "Writing to Understand: Arguing Your Own Views" - These boxes prompt students to explain and defend thei r O\vn views on the chapter's topics in short essays.

• " How to Write a Philosophy Paper" -This appendix offers concise, step- by-step guidance in crafting an effective philosophical essay.

• A final chapter on ''The Meaning of Life." This chapter discusses how philoso- phers have clarified and explored the topic of life's meaning. It covers the main philosophical perspectives on the subject and samples the views of philosophers past and present.

All these features are supplemented \Vith other elements to make the material even more engaging and accessible:

• Marginal quotes. These pithy, compelling quotes from an array of philosophers appear throughout the text, inviting students to join the ongoing conversation of philosophy.

• Key Terms, marginal definitions, and end-of-book Glossary. Key Terms in each chapter appear in boldface at their first appearance in a chapter, and mar- ginal definitions help studenrs learn the terms within their immediate context. A list of the chapter's Key Terms appears at the end of each chapter, along \vith the page numbers on which the term and irs definition fi rst appear. Last, a Glossary of those Key Terms and definitions provides an essential reference for students as they review and prepare fo r tesrs as well as draft their own philosophical essays and argumenrs.

• Chapter Objectives. This list at the beginning of each chapter helps to scaffold student learning by providing both structure and support for previewing, note taking, and retention of content.

• End-of-chapter reviews. Concluding each chapter, this feature revisits the Chapter Objectives, encouraging students to reflect and revie\v.

• An index of marginal quotes. This supplemental index helps students locate the words of philosophers that seem especially insightful or inspiring to them.

• For Further reading. Located at the end of each chapter, these useful referen ces point students to sources that \viii enhance thei r understanding of chapter issues and argumenrs.

• Timeline. Featuring philosophers' lives and important events, this visual learn- ing tool helps students appreciate the historic significance of philosophical ideas by placing them \vithin a larger context.

• Charts, tables, and color photos. Appearing throughout the book, these have been selected or created to deepen studen t engagement with and understanding of complex ideas and abstract conceprs. In addition, captions fo r these images include brief, open-ended questions to help studenrs "read" visuals \Vith the same critical attention they learn to bring to written texrs.

Preface xx11 1

xxiv Preface

NEW TO THIS EDITION

• An expanded chapter on aesthetics ( Chapter 7). Jc covers issues relating to the definition of art, objective and subjective standards, femi nist art, controversial artworks, on line art, and the philosophical examination of art by Plato, Aristotle, Hume, Gardner, Ducasse, and Dan to. Several new photos illustrate fem inist art, controversial art, and art that provokes discussion about what art is and isn't.

• Expanded coverage in Chapter 9 {The Meaning of Life). In addition to in- cluding readings by Tolstoy, Schopenhauer, Baggini, and Ed\vards {and com- mentary on Niet2Sche), the text now adds four more philosophers who debate the objectivity of meaning in life. Klemke and Lucretius lay out their case for subjectivist meaning, and Wolf and Belshaw argue fo r objectivist meaning.

• More history of philosophy in Chapter 1. No\v there's coverage of the pre- Socratics Thales, Empedocles, and Parmenides, as well as four early women phi- losophers: Hypatia, Themistoclea, Arignote, and Theano.

• More text boxes adding depth to discussions or demonstrating how philo- sophical thinking can tackle tough contemporary issues. These cover human rights for robots, to rturing terrorists, racism, Buddhism and science, belief in God, and scientists and religion.

ANCILLARIES

The Oxford University Press Ancillary Resource Center {ARC) {www.oup-arc.com/ vaughn-philosophy-here-and-no\v) houses a \vealth of instructor resources, includ- ing an Instructor's Manual with sample syllabi, reading summaries, essay/discussion questions, suggested Web links, and a glossary of key terms from the text; a Com- puterized Test Bank \Vith fifty or more multiple-choice and true/false questions per chapter {also available as a traditional "pencil-and-paper" Test Bank in the Instruc- tor's Manual); and PowerPoint lecture outlines.

A companion website {www.oup.com/us/vaughn) contains study materials for students, including level-one and level-nvo practice quizzes with multiple-choice and true/false questions taken from the Test Bank, essay/discussion questions, read- ing summaries, flashcards of key terms from the text, and suggested Web links.

All instructor and student resources are also available as cartridges for Learning Management Systems. For more information, please contact your Oxford University Press Sales Representative at 1-800-280-0280.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A text like th is is not possible \Vithout the help of a lot of talented and consci- entious people. At the top of the list are my fine editors at Oxford University Press-most notably Robert Miller and Meg Botteon, as well as Alyssa Palazzo

and Sidney Keen. Throughout the formative stages of this text, many astute re- viewers provided invaluable suggestions and criticisms, and the book is much the better for it. Many thanks to:

Kristin Borgwald Miami Dade College

Daniel Bramer Holy Family University

Jeremy Byrd Tarrant County College

Teresa Cantrell University of Louisville

Alberto Gonzalez College of the Canyons

Aaron Rizzieri Yavapai College

Stephen Russell Orr Solano Community College

Allen Shonvell Ivy Tech Community College

John Shuford Lin.field College

Russell S\vanson Florida South Western State College

Rabbi Doug Weber Castleton University

Steve Wyre Mohave Community College

Preface xxv

CHAPTER

PHILOSOPHY AND YOU

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1.1 PH ILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING

• Know the practical and theoretica l benefits of studying philosophy.

• Take an inventory of your philosophical beliefs.

• Know the four main divisions of philosophy and the kinds of questions they examine.

1.2 SOCRATES ANO THE EXAMINED LIFE

• Understand why Socrates declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living."

• Explain the Socratic method and how Socrates used it in search of understand ing.

• Relate how Socrates showed that Thrasymachus's notion of justice was wrong.

• Exp lain how reductio ad absurdum arguments work.

1.3 THINKING PHILOSOPHICALLY

• Define argument, statement, conclusion, and premise.

• Know the two conditions that must be met for an argument to be good.

• Define deductive argument, inductive argument, valid, sound, cogent, strong, and weak. Understand inferences to the best explanat ion and how their strength is evaluated.

• Be able to ident ify arguments in the form of modus ponens, modus to/lens, affirming the consequent, and denying the antecedent .

• Be able to ident ify arguments in various contexts and tell whether they are valid or invalid, sound or not sound, strong or weak, and cogent or not cogent.

• Understand the guidelines for reading and appreciating philosophy.

• Be aware of common fallacies and know how to identify them in various contexts .

2 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

Science gives us know·

ledge, bur only philosophy can give us wisdo m. -Will Durant

1 Suppose you had a fundamental belief that the mind, or soul, does not survive the death of the body. What other beliefs would this fundamen- tal belief be likely to support?

Philosophy should be responsive ro human ex·

pcricncc and yet critical of the defective thinking it sometimes encounters.

-Martha Nussbaum

1.1 PHILOSOPHY: THE QUEST FOR UNDERSTANDING

The title of chis text, Philosophy Here and Now, is meant co emphasize chat philoso- phy is, well, here and now-chat is, relevant and current. This means chat philoso- phy, even with its ancient lineage and seemingly remote concerns, applies co your li fe and your times and your world. Philosophy achieves chis immediacy by being many good things at once: it is enlightening, choughc-provoking, life-changing, liberating, theoretical, and practical. The world is fu ll of scudencs and teachers ,vho can attest co these claims. More importantly, you will find proof of chem in the remainder of chis text-and in the writings of the great philosophers, in your grasping what they say and the reasons they give for saying it, and in your o,vn honest accempcs co apply philosophy co your life.

Philosophy is the name chat philosophers have given co both a d iscipline and a process. As a discipline, philosophy is one of the humanities, a field of study out of which several ocher fields have evolved-physics, biology, political science, and many ochers. As a process, philosophy is a penetrating mode of reflection for understanding life's most important truths. This mode is what ,ve may call the philosophical method-the systematic use of critical reasoning co cry co find answers co fundamental questions about reality, morality, and kno,vledge. The method, however, is not a master key used exclusively by professional philosophers co unlock mysteries hidden from common folk. The philosophical method is the birthright of every person, fo r ,ve are all born with the capacity co reason, co ques- tion, co discover. For thousands of years, great minds like Ariscocle, Plato, Confu- cius, Descartes, Aquinas, and Sartre have used it in their search for wisdom, and ,vhac they found has changed countless lives. Bue amateur philosophers like you have also used it-and continue co use it-to achieve life-altering understanding chat ,vould have eluded chem otherwise.

The Good of Philosophy

Philosophy is not just about ideas; it's about fundamental ideas, chose upon which ocher ideas depend. A fundamental belief logically supporcs ocher bel iefs, and the more beliefs it supporcs the more fundamental it is. Your belief or disbelief in God, for example, might support a hose of ocher beliefs about morality, life after death, heaven, hell, free will, science, evolution, prayer, abortion, miracles, homo- sexuality, and more. Thanks co your upbringing, your culture, your peers, and ocher influences, you already have a head full of fundamental beliefs, some of chem true, some false. Whether true or false, they constitute the framework of your ,vhole belief system, and as such they help you make sense of a wide range of important issues in life-issues concerning what exists and what doesn't, what actions are right or ,vrong (or neither), and ,vhac kinds of things we can kno,v and not kno,v. Funda- mental beliefs, therefore, make up your "philosophy of life," which informs your chinking and guides your actions.

Perhaps now you can better appreciate philosophy's greatest practical benefit: it gives us che intellectual wherewithal co improve our lives by improving our

Phi losophy: The Quest for Understanding 3

philosophy of life. A faulty philosophy of life-that is, one that comprises a great many false fundamental beliefs-can lead to a misspent or misdirected life, a life less meaningful than it could be. Philosophy is the most powerful instrument we have for evaluating the worth of our fundamental beliefs and for changing them for the better. Through philosophy we exert control over the t rajectory of our lives, making major course corrections by reason and reflection.

The Greek philosopher Socrates (469-399 BCE), one of Western civil ization's great intellectual heroes, says, "An unexamined life is not \VOrth living." To examine your life is to scrutinize the core ideas that shape it, and the deepest form of scrutiny is exercised through philosophy. This search for answers goes to the heart of the tradi- tional conception of philosophy as a search for wisdom (the term phiwsophy is derived from Greek words meaning " love of wisdom"). With the attainment of wisdom, we come to understand the true nature of reality and how to apply that understanding to living a good life.

Philosophy's chief theoretical benefit is the same one that most other fields of inquiry pursue: understanding for its own sake. Even if philosophy had no pract ical applications at all , it would sti ll hold great value fo r us. We want to know how the world works, what t ruths it hides, just for the sake of knowing. And philoso-

Figure 1.1 Socrates (469-399 ace).

phy obliges. Astronomers search the sky, physicists study subatomic part icles, and archaeologists search fo r ancient ruins, all the while knowing that what they find may have no practical implications at all . We humans wonder, and that's often all the reason we need to search for ans\vers. As the great philosopher Aristotle says, "For it is owing to thei r wonder that people both no\v begin and at first began to philosophize."

For many people, the quest for understand ing through philosophy is a spiri- tual, transformative endeavor, an ennobling pursuit of truths at the core of life. Thus, several philosophers speak of philosophy as something that enriches or nur- tu res the soul or mind. Socrates, speaking to the jurors who condemned him fo r practicing philosophy on the streets of Athens, asked, "Are you not ashamed that, while you take care to acquire as much wealth as possible, with honor and glory as \vell , yet you take no care or thought for understanding or t ruth, or for the best possible state of your soul?" In a similar vein, the Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE) said , "Let no young man delay the study of philosophy, and let no old man become \veary of it; for it is never too early nor too late to care fo r the well-being of the soul." And in our own era, the philosopher Walter Kaufmann (1921- 1980) declared, "Philosophy means liberation from the two d imensions of routine, soaring above the well kno\vn, seeing it in ne\v perspectives, arousing wonder and the wish to fly."

Along with philosophical inquiry comes freedom. We begin our lives at a partic- ular place and time, steeped in the ideas and values of a particular culture, fed ready- made beliefs that may or may not be true and that \Ve may never think to question.

2 Is it possible to lead a meaningful life w ith· out self-examination?

Philosophy is the highest music.

-Plato

4 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

If you passively accept such beliefs, then those beliefs are not really yours. If they are not really yours, and you let them guide your choices and actions, then they-not you-are in charge of your life. You thus forfeit your personal freedom. But phi- losophy helps us rise above th is predicament, to transcend the narro,v and obstructed standpoint from which we may vie,v everything. It helps us sift our hand-me-down beliefs in the light of reason, look beyond the prejudices that blind us, and see what's real and true. By using the philosophical method, we may learn that some of our beliefs are on solid ground and some are not. In either case, through philosophy our beliefs become truly and authentically our own.

Philosophical Terrain

Figure 1.2 Aristotle (384-322 BCE).

Philosophy's sphere of interest is vast, encompassing funda- mental beliefs drawn from many places. Philosophical ques- tions can arise anywhere. Part of the reason for th is is that ordinary beliefs that seem to have no connection with philoso- phy can become philosophical in short order. A physiologist may ,vant to know ho,v our brains ,vork, but she ventures into the philosophical arena ,vhen she wonders ,vhether the brain is the same th ing as the mind-a quest ion that science alone

To teach how to live

w itho ut certainty and ycr

without being paralysed by hesitation is perhaps ,he

chief thing that philoso· phy, in our age, can do for those who srudy it.

-Benrand Russell

3 Has your thin king recent ly led you to reflect on philosophi- cal questions? If so, how did the thought process begin, and what f undamental belief did you end up contemplating?

Metaphysics is the study of reality in ,he broadest

sense, an inquiry into rhc clcmcnral narurc of rhc

universe and the things JO It.

cannot answer. A lawyer studies how the death penalty is ad- ministered in Texas, but he does philosophy when he considers whether capital pun- ishment is ever morally permiss ible. A medical scientist wants to kno,v ho,v a human fetus develops, but she finds it d ifficult to avoid the philosophical query of ,vhat the moral status of the fetus is. An astrophysicist studies the Big Bang, the cataclysmic explosion thought to have brought the universe into being-but then asks whether the Big Bang shows that God cause.cl the universe to exist. On CNN you see the horrors of ,var and famine, but then you find yourself grappling with ,vhether they can be squared with the existence of an all-po,verful, all-knowing, and all-good God. Or you ,vonder ,vhat your moral obligations are to the poor and hungry of the ,vorld. O r you ponder whether government should help people in need or leave them to fend for themselves.

We can div ide philosophy's subject matter into four main divisions, each of ,vhich is a branch of inquiry in its o,vn right ,vith many subcategories. Here's a brief rundown of these divis ions and a sampling of the kinds of quest ions that each asks.

Metaphysics is the study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it. Though it must take into ac- count the findings of science, metaphysics generally focuses on basic questions that science cannot address. Questions of interest: Does the ,vorld consist only of matter, or is it made up of other basic things, such as ideas or minds? Is there a spiritual, ideal realm that exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the body?

Phi losophy: The Quest for Understanding 5

WHAT DO YOU BELIEVE?

Your Philosophical Beliefs

Where do you stand on the fundamencal issues in philosophy? Here is your chance co cake inventory of your vie,vs. After you finish chis course, cake the survey again co see if your perspective has changed or become ,nore nuanced. AnS\ver ,vich chese numbers: 5 = true; 4 = probably crue; 3 = neither probable nor i1nprobable; 2 = probably false; I = false.

I. Ac lease so,ne 1noral nonns or principles are objectively true or valid for everyone.

2. Mora l standards are relative co what individuals or cu ltures bel ieve. __ 3. Mind and body consist of nvo fu nda,nencally different kinds of scuff- nonphysical

scuff and physica l scuff. __ 4. The 1nind, or soul, can exist ,vichouc che body. __ 5. Our mental scares are nothing bur bra in scares (,n ind scares are identical co bra in scares).

6. No one has free ,vi ii. __ 7. Persons have free will (so,ne of our actions are free). __ 8. Although our actions are determined, they can still be free (free ,viii and decenn inis,n

are nor in confl ict). __ 9. The God of crad icional Western religions (an all-knowing, all-po,verful, all-good deity)

exists. __ 10. The apparent design of the universe shows char it had an intell igent designer. __ 11. Right actions are chose co,nmanded by God; ,vrong actions are chose forbidden by

God. __

12. God does nor ,nake actions right or ,vrong by commanding chem co be so. __ 13. We can know some th ings about che external world. __ 14. We cannot know anything about che external world. __ 15. The theory of evolution is a beccer explanation of the apparent design of biologica l life

chan che theory of "incelligenc design." __ 16. Truth about something depends on what a person or culture believes. __ 17. Libercarianis,n is che correct political theory. __ 18. Welfare liberalis,n is che correct moral theory. __ 19. Meaning in life comes from outside ourselves, fro,n God or so,ne ocher transcendent

real ity. __ 20. Meaning in life comes from ,vichin ourselves. __

How are mind and body related? Do people have immortal souls? Do humans have free wi ll, or are our actions determined by forces beyond our control? Can actions be both free and determined? Does God exist? How can both a good God and evil exist simultaneously? What is the nat ure of causality? Can an effect ever precede its cause? What is the nature of time? Is time travel possible?

And what, Socrates, is the food of che soul> Surely, I said, knowledge is the food of che soul. - Plato

6 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

DIVISION

Metaphysics

Epistemology

Axiology

Logic

Epistemology is the study of knowledge.

Axiology is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral

value. Ethics is the study of moral value using the methods of philosophy.

QUESTIONS

Does the world consist only of matter, or is it made up of other basic th ings, such as ideas or mind? Is there a spiritual, ideal realm that exists beyond the material world? Is the mind the same thing as the body? How are mind and body related? Do people have immortal souls? Do humans have free wi ll, or are our actions determined by forces beyond our control? Can actions be both free and deter- mined? Does God exist? How can both a good God and evi l exist simultaneously? What is the nature of causal ity? Can an effect ever precede its cause? What is the nature of time? Is time trave l possible?

What is knowledge? What is truth? Is knowledge possible- can we ever know any- thing? Does knowledge require certainty? What are the sources of knowledge? Is experience a source of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain knowledge of the empirical world through reason alone? If we have knowledge, how much do we have? When are we justified in saying that we know something? Do we have good reasons to believe that the world exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds constitute reality?

What makes an action right (or wrong)? What th ings are intrinsically good? What is the good life? What gives life meaning? What makes someone good (or bad)? What moral principles should guide our actions and choices? Which is the best moral theory? Is killing ever mora lly permissible? If so, why? Are mora l standards objective or subjective? Is an action right merely because a culture endorses it? Does morality depend on God? What makes a society just?

What are the ru les for drawing correct inferences? What are the nature and struc- ture of deductive arguments? How can propositional or predicate logic be used to evaluate arguments? Upon what logical principles does reasoning depend? Does logic describe how the world is- or just how our minds work? Can conclusions reached through inductive logic be rationally justified?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Questions of interest: What is knowl- edge? What is truth? Is kno\vledge possible-can \Ve ever kno\v anything? Does knowledge require certainty? What are the sources of kno\vledge? Is experience a source of knowledge? Is mysticism or faith a source? Can we gain kno\vledge of the empirical \vorld through reason alone? If \Ve have kno\vledge, how much do \Ve have? When are we justified in saying that \Ve know something? Do we have good reasons to believe that the \vorld exists independently of our minds? Or do our minds con- stitute reality?

Axiology is the study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value. The study of moral value is kno\vn as eth ics. Ethics involves inquiries into the nature of moral judgments, virtues, values, obligations, and theories. Questions of interest: What makes an action right (or wrong)? What things are intrinsically good? What is the good life? What gives life meaning? What makes someone good (or bad)? What moral principles should guide our actions and choices? Which is the best moral

Phi losophy: The Quest for Understanding 7

theory? Is ki lling ever morally permissible? If so, why? Are moral standards objective or subjective? Is an ac- t ion right merely because a culture endorses it? Does morality depend on God? W hat makes a society just?

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. Ques- tions of interest: W hat are the rules for d rawing cor- rect inferences? What are the nature and structure of deductive arguments? How can propositional or pred- icate logic be used to evaluate argumenrs? Upon what logical principles does reasoning depend? Does logic describe ho,v the world is-or just ho,v our minds work? Can conclusions reached through induct ive logic be rationally justified?

In addition to these divisions, there are subdivi- sions of philosophy whose job is to examine critically the assumptions and principles that underlie other fields. Thus ,ve have the philosophy of science, the philosophy of la,v, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of history, the philosophy of language, and many others. When those laboring in a discipline begin questioning irs most basic ideas-ideas that define irs subject matter and principles of inquiry- philosophy, the most elemental mode of investigation, steps 1n.

Figure 1.3 Plat o, point ing upward t oward the h igher realm of ideas, and Aristotle, gesturing down toward the th ings of t his earth.

ESSAY/ DISCUSSION QUESTIONS SECTION 1.1

1. What is the philosophical method? W ho can make use of this approach to important questions? Can only philosophers use it? H ave you used it? Ho,v?

2. What are some fundamental beliefs that are part of your philosophy of life? Ho,v do these beliefs influence your life?

3. What is philosophy's greatest practical benefit? Do you think studying philosophy could change your life goals or your fundamental beliefs? Why or why not?

4. How can philosophy enhance your personal freedom? What are some of your fundamental beliefs that you have never fully examined? What might be the result of never examining a fundamental belief?

5. Which of the four main divisions of philosophy interests you the most? W hy? W hat philosophical ques tions listed in this section would you most ,vant to have ans,vers to?

Logic is the study of correct reasoning.

There's a difference

between a philosophy and a bumper sticker.

- Charles M. Schulz

8 Chapter 1 Philosophy and You

The point of philosophy

is to start with something so simple as not to seem worrh stating. and to end with something so para-

doxical that no one will believe it. - Bertrand Russell

4 Socrates says that a good man can never be harmed. What do you think he means by this?

The Socratic method is a qucstion-and .. answcr

dialogue in which proposi- tions arc methodically scrutinized to uncover the

trurh.

The chicfbcncfir, which rcsuk< from philosophy, arises in an indirect man ..

ncr, and proceeds more

from its secret> insensible

inAucncc, than from its immediate application.

- David Hume