Powerpoint inserts text to the _________________________ of the insertion point

Laboratory

Manual for

Anatomy &

Physiology

Connie Allen

Valerie Harper

5e

Start Here, Go Anywhere.

I dedicate this book to my new granddaughters, Gianna Leigh Madden and Taralyn Kay Thomas. —Connie Allen

I dedicate this book to my husband Chuck, who has supported and encouraged me, my children Scott and Kate, who were patient when I worked long hours, and my nieces Jessica and Kristina Fatigati,

who are interested in studying anatomy. —Valerie Harper

5th E D I T I O N

Laboratory Manual for Anatomy and Physiology

CONNIE ALLEN Edison State College

VALERIE HARPER Colorado Mesa University

VP & EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER Kaye Pace EXECUTIVE EDITOR Bonnie Roesch ASSOCIATE EDITOR Lauren Elfers EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Grace Bagley MARKETING MANAGER Maria Guarascio PRODUCTION MANAGER Juanita Thompson PRODUCTION EDITOR Barbara Russiello SENIOR DESIGNER/COVER DESIGNER Madelyn Lesure SENIOR PHOTO EDITOR MaryAnn Price ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Claudia Volano SENIOR PRODUCT DESIGER Linda Muriello MEDIA SPECIALIST Svetlana Barskaya COVER IIIustration by Bryan Christie Design

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Preface

Anatomy and physiology is a challenging course, and this laboratory manual is written to help students meet that challenge. It is written for students interested in allied health fields, such as nursing; physical, respiratory, cardiovascular, or occupational therapy; radiology; and den- tal hygiene. This manual may be used with any two-semester anatomy and physiology textbook.

The design of this laboratory manual is based on the au- thors’ experience as anatomy and physiology instructors and uses three learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. When students label diagrams, they focus on the structure rather than just the dot at the end of a line. Writing out the structure’s name and pronouncing it reinforces learning. Also, having students become subjects of laboratory exer- cises personalizes the learning process. Animal dissections give students an opportunity to physically manipulate struc- tures, comparing location and texture, and to observe how structures are supported, protected, and attached by connec- tive tissue.

Special features incorporated in this laboratory manual include:

• This lab manual can be used for online anatomy and physi- ology classes. New lab activities have been added that can be performed by students at home or used in the labora- tory. Online students can also use the Real Anatomy Virtual Dissection program and PowerPhys physiology activities to enhance their learning.

• Just enough text is provided to introduce concepts in each section and to set up and support the laboratory section. The exercises are written so students do not need their textbooks to complete the laboratory activities.

• New material is divided into small segments, starting with simple diagrams, illustrating the basic concepts and build- ing up to more complex diagrams. Subsequent activities add to the students’ knowledge in a stepwise fashion. This is especially noticed in the skeletal and muscular exercises.

• Each exercise contains a list of objectives, materials needed for the exercise, and easily identifiable laboratory activity sections.

• Unlabeled four-color drawings, photographs, and photomi- crographs are included for students to label either at home or in the laboratory. Students first write out the name of the structure to help learn it. Then the completed diagrams will be used to identify structures on models.

• Word derivatives for bolded terms are given in the text. • Phonetic pronunciation is included as new words are intro-

duced.

• Physiology experiments use students as subjects and can be completed with either simple, inexpensive equipment and materials or more complex lab setups.

• Experimental report sections after physiology experiments where students are asked to make predictions, collect and analyze data, and write simple lab reports.

• Discussion Questions are within the activities to make the students think about the material presented.

• An Answer Key is provided at the end of the laboratory manual for the activities in each exercise. Students receive immediate feedback, and they are not dependent on the in- structor for the correct answers.

• “Reviewing Your Knowledge” and “Using Your Knowl- edge” sections follow the activities at the end of each ex- ercise. “Reviewing Your Knowledge” provides a thorough review of the material in the exercise, whereas “Using Your Knowledge” requires students to apply information learned. Either or both of these sections may be handed in to the instructors for a grade, because neither section has answers in the back of the laboratory manual. Answers to these two sections are provided on the Instructor Companion site.

New Features to the Fifth Edition • Exercises are now organized into Before Going to Lab and

Lab Activities. Before Going to Lab sections are to be com- pleted at home or outside of class.

• Completely revised Exercise 15: Surface Anatomy and Exercise 26: Blood Components and Blood Tests.

• Suggested Real Anatomy activities are included throughout the lab manual.

• PowerPhys 3.0 is now tablet enabled and includes three new modules.

• New Biopac Laboratory Guide Experiments are available online for several Exercises. Activities include: ~ Recruitment and Fatigue ~ Isometric and Isotonic Contractions ~ Effect of Physical and Mental Distractions on Patellar

Reflex (Knee Jerk) Response ~ The Effect of Mental and Sensory Stimulations on Brain

Wave Patterns ~ Observing ANS Responses to Lying ~ Observing ANS Responses Following Meditation ~ Effect of Body Position and Exercise on ECG ~ Heart Sounds and Events of the Cardiac Cycle ~ Effect of Body Position on Resting Blood Pressure ~ Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure ~ Effect of Exercise on Lung Volumes and Capacities ~ Comparison of Predicted and Measured FVC and FEV1

v

vi P R E F A C E

PowerPhys 3.0 is Tablet Enabled and Fully Integrated with The New Edition

Each Lab Manual contains online access to Power- Phys 3.0 for students. PowerPhys 3.0 is physiologi- cal simulation software for the A & P laboratory that allows students to explore physiology principles through 14 self-contained activities. Each activity follows the scientific method containing objectives with illustrated and animated review material, pre- lab quizzes, pre-lab reports (including predictions and variables), data collection and analysis, and a full lab report with discussion and application questions. Experiments contain real data that is randomly gener- ated, allowing users to experiment multiple times, but still arrive at the same conclusions. These activities focus on core physiological concepts and reinforce techniques experienced in the laboratory. www.wiley. com/go/powerphys • Three New Activities: Hematocrit and Hemoglobin Concentration and

Blood Typing

Acid-Base Balance

Effect of Dietary Fiber on Transit Time and Bile • Now available on mobile devices

Dissection Manuals • Depending on your needs, a Cat Dissection Man-

ual or Fetal Pig Dissection Manual is available to accompany the main Lab Manual. Both dissection manuals contain dissection activities for use in the lab accompanied by full color photos and figures.

• All cat and pig photographs have been updated in the new editions.

• New cat and pig dissection videos accompany this edition, available in WileyPLUS. Dissections per- formed by Shawn Miller and photographs taken by Mark Nielsen of the University of Utah.

Resources That Power Success

Anatomy Drill and Practice lets you test your knowledge of structures with simple-to-use drag and drop labeling exercises, or fill-in-the-blank labeling. You can drill and practice on these ac- tivities using illustrations from the text, cadaver photographs, histology micrographs, or anatomi- cal models, so you can practice labeling these models outside of the lab.

Anatomy Drill and Practice in

Student and Instructor Companion Websites www.wiley.com/college/allen

Resources for Students:

• Audio Glossary • Rat Dissection video • Pig Dissection video • Answers to figure questions • Interactions Review Sheets • Real Anatomy Review Sheets • Lab Safety Guidelines • Experimental Reports • Blood Activities

Resources for Instructors:

• Anatomy and Physiology Visual Library • Editable PowerPoints that include all figures from

the Lab Manual • All tables from the Lab Manual in PowerPoint • All images from the Cat Dissection Manual • All images from the Pig Dissection Manual • Answer Keys for “Reviewing Your Knowledge” • Answer Keys for “Using Your Knowledge” • Interactions Review Sheets • Real Anatomy Review Sheets

vii

Mark Nielsen and Shawn Miller, University of Utah

Real Anatomy is 3-D imaging software that allows you to dissect through

multiple layers of a three-dimensional real human body to study and

learn the anatomical structures of all body systems.

Real Anatomy 2.0

• Now available on the Web, acces- sible by iPad and Android tablets.

• All possible highlight structures on an image are now accessible via a drop-down list as well as being searchable.

NEW to Real Anatomy 2.0

• New crumb trail navigation shows context of system, image, structure.

• Fully integrated into WileyPLUS for Anatomy.

• Dissect through up to 40 layers of the body and discover the relationships of the structures to the whole.

• Rotate the body as well as major organs to view the image from multiple perspectives.

• Use a built-in zoom feature to get a closer look at detail.

• A unique approach to highlighting and labeling struc- tures does not obscure the real anatomy on view.

viii

ix

Photographic Atlas of Human Anatomy, First Edition Mark Nielsen and Shawn Miller, University of Utah

This atlas, filled with outstanding photographs of me-

ticulously executed dissections of the human body, has

been developed to be a strong teaching and learning

solution, not just a catalog of photographs. Organized

around body systems, each chapter includes a narra-

tive overview of the body system followed by detailed

photographs that accurately and realistically represent

the anatomical structures. Histology is included. Pho-

tographic Atlas of Human Anatomy will work well in

your laboratories, as a study companion to your lab

manual, and as a print companion to the Real Anat-

omy DVD.

• Snapshots can be saved of any image for use in Power- Points, quizzes, or handouts

• Audio pronuncia- tion of all labeled structures is readily available

• Related Images provide mul- tiple views of structures being studied.

• Snapshots can be saved of any image for use in PowerPoints, quizzes, or handouts.

• View histology micrographs at varied levels of magnification with the virtual microscope.

• Audio pronunciation of all labeled structures is readily available.

For more information, visit www.wileyplus.com

WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence because it takes the guesswork out of studying by providing students with a clear roadmap:

• what to do • how to do it • if they did it right

It offers interactive resources along with a complete digital textbook that help students learn more. With WileyPLUS, students take more initiative so you’ll have

greater impact on their achievement in the classroom and beyond.

WileyPLUS is a research-based online environment for effective teaching and learning.

Now available for

http://www.wileyplus.com
ALL THE HELP, RESOURCES, AND PERSONAL SUPPORT YOU AND YOUR STUDENTS NEED!

www.wileyplus.com/resources

Technical Support 24/7 FAQs, online chat, and phone support

www.wileyplus.com/support

Student support from an experienced student user

Collaborate with your colleagues, find a mentor, attend virtual and live

events, and view resources

2-Minute Tutorials and all of the resources you and your students need to get started

Your WileyPLUS Account Manager, providing personal training

and support

www.WhereFacultyConnect.com

Pre-loaded, ready-to-use assignments and presentations

created by subject matter experts

Student Partner Program

Quick Start

© Courtney Keating/iStockphoto

Acknowledgments We deeply appreciate the support, instruction, and encour- agement from the members of our editorial, production, and marketing team at Wiley: Bonnie Roesch, Lauren Elfers, Barbara Russiello, MaryAnn Price, and Maria Guarascio. We also wish to thank Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson for producing a wonderful textbook that provided many illustra- tions and ideas for our laboratory manual. A special thank you to Susan Baxley for reviewing all the exercises, making suggestions and to Bob Clemence for allowing us to use his figure of the Respiratory Volumes and Capacities. A special thanks to Charles Harper for answering many clinical ques- tions. We also wish to thank Kierstan Hong at Imagineering Art for the artwork she provided for our laboratory manual.

Thank you to our colleagues at Edison State College: Bob Clemence, Colleen Swanson, Jody Gootkin, Richard McCoy,

Jeff Davis, Dick Felden, Lyman O’Neil, Kitty Gronlund, Tony Contino, Cheryl Black, Jed Wolfson, Jay Koepke, and Roy Hepner who encouraged us, answered our questions, and pro- vided critiques of exercises. We also wish to thank Nicole Yarbrough George for her critique of the skeletal muscle chapter. Thank you to Chaim Jay Margolin of Regional Radiology Associates and David Michie of Clinical Physiol- ogy Associates for providing images for this manual. Special thanks to SOMSO for providing images for our online Anat- omy Drill and Practice: Anatomical Models section. Thanks to contributors Jerri Lindsey, Tarrant County College, and Terry Thompson, Wor-Wic Community College.

WileyPLUS for Anatomy and Physiology is an innovative, research-based online environment—designed for both effec- tive teaching and learning. Utilizing WileyPLUS in your lab course provides your students with an accessible, affordable, and active learning platform and the tools and resources to efficiently build presentations for a dynamic laboratory expe- rience and to create and manage effective assessment strategies. The underlying principles of design, engagement, and mea- surable outcomes provide the foundation for this powerful, new release of WileyPLUS.

Design • New research-based design helps students manage their

time better and develop better study skills • Course Calendars help track assignments for both students

and teachers • New Course Plan makes it easier to assign pre- and post-lab

activities and assessment. Simple drag-and-drop tools make it easy to assign the course plan as-is or in any way that best reflects your course syllabus

The new design makes it easy for students to know what it is they need to do, boosting their confidence and preparing them for greater engagement in lab.

Engagement • Complete online version of the Lab Manual for seamless

integration of all content • Online version of the Lab Manual includes interactive figure

labeling exercises for students • Relevant student study tools and learning resources ensure

positive learning outcomes

• Immediate feedback boosts confidence and helps students see a return on investment for each study session

• Resources like Cadaver Videos, Anatomy Drill, and Prac- tice help students study for laboratory practicals

• Course materials, including editable PowerPoint stacks and Wiley’s Visual Library for Anatomy and Physiology, help you personalize lessons and optimize your time

Concept mastery in this discipline is directly related to stu- dents keeping up with the work and not falling behind. The new Concept Modules, Activities, Self Study, and Progress Checks in WileyPLUS will ensure that students know how to study effectively so they will remain engaged and stay on task.

Measurable Outcomes • Progress check enables students to hone in on areas of

weakness for increased success • Self-assessment and remediation for all learning objectives

lets students know exactly how their efforts have paid off • Instant reports monitor trends in class performance, use of

course materials, and student progress towards learning objectives

• New gradable versions of the PowerPhys 2.0 laboratory re- ports allow you to assign and grade these within WileyPLUS

With new detailed reporting capabilities students will know that they are doing it right. With increased confidence, motiva- tion is sustained so students stay on task, and success will fol- low. Please contact your Wiley representative for details about these and other resources or visit our website at www.wiley. com/college/sc/aandp and click on the laboratory text cover to explore the assets more fully.

WileyPLUS and You

xii

E X E R C I S E 5 T R A N S P O R T A C R O S S T H E P L A S M A M E M B R A N E 43

Contents Preface

INTRODUCTION EXERCISE 1 Anatomical Language 1

EXERCISE 2 Organ Systems and Body Cavities 13

CELL AND TISSUES EXERCISE 3 Compound Light Microscope 23

EXERCISE 4 Cell Structure and Cell Cycle 31

EXERCISE 5 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 41

EXERCISE 6 Tissues 51

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM EXERCISE 7 The Integumentary System Structure and

Function 83

SKELETAL SYSTEM AND JOINTS EXERCISE 8 Bone Structure and Function 95

EXERCISE 9 Axial Skeleton 105

EXERCISE 10 Appendicular Skeleton 137

EXERCISE 11 Joints and Synovial Joint Movements 159

MUSCULAR SYSTEM: SKELETAL MUSCLES EXERCISE 12 Skeletal Muscle Structure 173

EXERCISE 13 Contraction of Skeletal Muscle 185

EXERCISE 14 Skeletal Muscles and Their Actions 197

SURFACE ANATOMY EXERCISE 15 Surface Anatomy 233

NERVOUS SYSTEM EXERCISE 16 Nervous Tissue 255

EXERCISE 17 Spinal Cord Structure and Function 269

EXERCISE 18 Spinal Nerves 279

EXERCISE 19 Somatic Reflexes 289

EXERCISE 20 Brain Structure and Function 299

EXERCISE 21 Cranial Nerves 323

EXERCISE 22 Autonomic Nervous System Structure and Function 333

EXERCISE 23 General Senses 345 EXERCISE 24 Special Senses 359

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXERCISE 25 Endocrine Structure and Function 391

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM EXERCISE 26 Blood Components and Blood Tests 411

EXERCISE 27 Heart Structure and Function 431

EXERCISE 28 Cardiac Cycle 451

EXERCISE 29 Blood Vessel Structure and Function 463

EXERCISE 30 Blood Vessel Identification 479

LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS EXERCISE 31 Lymphatic System Structure and Immune

System Function 507

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM EXERCISE 32 Respiratory System Structure and Function 527

EXERCISE 33 Pulmonary Ventilation 545

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM EXERCISE 34 Digestive System Structure and Function 561

EXERCISE 35 Mechanical and Chemical Digestion 589

URINARY SYSTEM EXERCISE 36 Urinary System Structure and Function 597

EXERCISE 37 Urine Formation and Urinalysis 615

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS EXERCISE 38 Male Reproductive System Structure and

Function 627

EXERCISE 39 Female Reproductive System Structure and Function 643

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND HEREDITY EXERCISE 40 Human Development 661

EXERCISE 41 Heredity 675

Answer Key to Activities 689

APPENDIX A: Word Roots 709

APPENDIX B: Skeletal Muscle Origins and Insertions 711

APPENDIX C: Measurements 717

Photo Credits 719

Index 721

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E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E 1

Anatomical terms describe body positions, body regions, specific body areas, and land-marks. Most of these words are derived from Latin or Greek and are often part of the names of muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels. Learning these terms at this time will help you throughout the course.

A. Anatomical Terms

The anatomical position is the reference position anato- mists and people in medical fi elds use to describe the loca- tion of body parts or regions. In the anatomical position, the body is erect (vertical) and facing forward; the arms are straight and at the sides of the body with the palms facing forward; the legs are straight with the feet facing forward and fl at (Figure 1.1). In the supine position, the body is horizontal and lying on the back. In the prone position, the body is horizontal and lying on the stomach. Body regions refer to specifi c areas of the body. There are common misperceptions about the boundaries of a few body regions. Two common misconceptions are that the arm is the area between the shoulder and wrist and that the leg includes the

thigh. Actually, the arm is located between the shoulder and elbow, and the forearm is located from the elbow to wrist. The thigh is located between the groin and knee, and the leg is located between the knee and ankle. The chest is the area of the trunk between the neck and diaphragm and contains the heart and lungs. The abdomen is the area of the trunk between the diaphragm and hip bones and contains the digestive organs. The pelvis is the area of the trunk below the hip bones and contains internal reproductive organs and the urinary bladder. The groin is the area on the anterior (front) surface marked by a crease where the lower limb attaches to the pelvis. Many anatomical terms have one or more word roots with a prefi x and/or a suffi x added. For example, in the word antecubital, ante- is a prefi x meaning before or in front of, the word root cubit- means elbow, -al is a suffi x meaning pertaining to. Table 1.1 contains anatomical terms with four different suffi xes, all of which mean pertaining to. These suffi xes are -al, -ic, -ar, and -ary. When suffi xes like these are added to word roots they form adjectives, whereas nouns have different endings such as -um, -us, -is, and -a. For example, stern- is a word root meaning chest; sternum is the noun and sternal is the adjective. Anatomi- cal terms and their defi nitions are found in Table 1.1. Word roots and their defi nitions are found in Appendix A, as well as nouns and adjectives formed from the word roots.

O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S

• human models or anatomical charts • apples (1 per group) and plastic knives or

scalpels

• plastic tubing (eight-inch piece per group) or plastic straw

• 5 sheep brains (for class demonstration)

Anatomical Language 1

E X E R C I S E

1 Describe the anatomical position

2 Use anatomical and directional terms correctly

3 Identify the various body planes and sections

1

2 E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E

LAB ACTIVITY 1 Anatomical Terms

1 Use anatomical terms to identify the specific body regions or areas on models, anatomical charts, or yourself. ■

Before Going to Lab

1 Label Figure 1.1 with the appropriate anatomical terms for each body region or area. Refer to Table 1.1.

2 Refer to Appendix A to review how word roots, suf- fixes, and prefixes are combined to form nouns and adjectives.

TABLE 1 .1 Anatomical Terms

TERM

AXIAL

Cephalic (se-FAL-ik) • Cranial

• Facial • Frontal • Orbital • Otic (OH-tik) • Nasal • Buccal (BUCK-al) • Oral • Mental • Occipital (ox-SIP-i-tal)

Cervical Thoracic • Sternal • Pectoral • Mammary Abdominal • Umbilical (um-BIL-ih-cal) • Coxal (COX-al) Pelvic • Pubic (PYOO-bik) Dorsal • Scapular

• Vertebral (ver-TEE-brul)

• Lumbar

DEF IN IT ION

Pertaining to the central part of the body, the head and

trunk Pertaining to the head Pertaining to the portion of the skull surrounding the brain Pertaining to the face Pertaining to the forehead Pertaining to the eye Pertaining to the ear Pertaining to the nose Pertaining to the cheek Pertaining to the mouth Pertaining to the chin Pertaining to the back of head Pertaining to the neck Pertaining to the chest Pertaining to the breast bone Pertaining to the chest Pertaining to the breast Pertaining to the abdomen Pertaining to the navel Pertaining to the hip Pertaining to the pelvis Pertaining to the genital area Pertaining to the back Pertaining to the shoulder blade region Pertaining to the spinal column Pertaining to the area of the back between the lowest

rib and buttocks.

TERM

APPENDICULAR

Upper Limb (Appendage) • Acromial (a-KROM-ee-al)

• Axillary (AX-il-ary) • Brachial (BRAY-key-ul) • Antecubital (an-teh-

KYOO-bi-tul) • Olecranal (oh-LEK-ra-nul)

• Antebrachial • Carpal • Manual • Palmar

• Digital Lower Limb (Appendage) • Inguinal (ING-won-ul)

• Gluteal (GLUE-tee-ul) • Femoral (FEM-or-ul) • Patellar (pa-TEL-ur)

• Popliteal (pop-lih-TEE-ul)

• Crural (CROO-rul)

• Fibular (FIB-you-lur) or peroneal (peh-RONE-ee-ul)

• Sural (SIR-ul)

• Tarsal (TAR-sul) • Pedal • Plantar • Calcaneal (kal-KANE-ee-ul) • Digital

DEF IN IT ION

Pertaining to the extremities or limbs

Pertaining to the highest point of the shoulder Pertaining to the armpit Pertaining to the arm Pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the elbow Pertaining to the posterior (back) surface of the elbow Pertaining to the forearm Pertaining to the wrist Pertaining to the hand Pertaining to the palm of the hand Pertaining to the digits (fingers)

Pertaining to the groin where the thigh attaches to the

pelvis Pertaining to the buttocks Pertaining to the thigh Pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the knee Pertaining to the posterior (back) surface of the knee Pertaining to the anterior (front) surface of the leg Pertaining to the lateral side of the leg Pertaining to the posterior (back) surface of the leg Pertaining to the ankle Pertaining to the foot Pertaining to the sole of foot Pertaining to the heel Pertaining to the digits (toes)

E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E 3

Thoracic

Pelvic

Abdominal

(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

3

5

4

6

8

7

13

16

15

14

12 11

30

31

26

27

28

25 24

23 22 21 20 19 18 17

29

1

2

10

34

35

38

36

40 (sole)

39

37

32

33

42

9 41

TR U

N K

FIGURE 1.1 Anatomical terms.

(a) Anterior View

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

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24

25

26

27

28 ________________________

29

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31

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41

42

(b) Posterior View

4 E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E

TABLE 1 .2 Directional Terms

DIRECT IONAL TERM DEF IN IT ION EXAMPLE OF USE

Superior Above The head is superior to the neck. Inferior Below The neck is inferior to the head. Anterior (Ventral) Closer to front of body The lips are anterior to the teeth. Posterior (Dorsal) Closer to back of body The teeth are posterior to the lips. Medial Closer to midline of body The nose is medial to the eyes. Lateral Farther from midline of body The eyes are lateral to the nose. Intermediate Between two structures The elbow is intermediate between

the shoulder and wrist. Ipsilateral On same side of body The right arm and right leg are ipsilateral. Contralateral On opposite sides of body The right arm and left arm are contralateral. Proximal Nearer to point of attachment of The elbow is proximal to the wrist. limb to trunk Distal Farther from point of attachment The wrist is distal to the elbow. of limb to trunk Superficial Closer to surface of body The skin is superficial to the muscles. Deep Farther from surface of body The muscles are deep to the skin.

B. Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to describe the location of body structures relative to other structures. An example of a di- rectional term is inferior, which means below. It would be correct to say that the neck is inferior to the head but incorrect to say that the neck is inferior. The directional terms are listed in Table 1.2, along with an example of how they are used. Note that opposite terms are paired. The directional terms proximal and distal apply to the point of attachment of a limb to the torso or the point of origin of a structure such as a blood vessel or nerve. These terms refer to the location of structures relative to the point of attachment or point of origin, whether they are closer (proximal) or farther away (distal). More than one directional term can apply to describe the location of a body structure. For example, the ears are posterior and lateral to the nose.

Before Going to Lab

1 Label Figure 1.2 with the directional terms from the bulleted list by writing the term in the appropriate num- bered blank.

2 3

4

1

6 5

• anterior or ventral

• distal

• inferior

• posterior or dorsal

• proximal

• superior

1

2

3

4

5

6

FIGURE 1.2 Directional terms.

LAB ACTIVITY 2 Directional Terms

1 With your partner, complete the sentences using the appropriate directional term from Table 1.2. Refer to the anatomical terms in Table 1.1 and Appendix A as needed.

a. The sternum is ______________ to the vertebrae.

b. The nose is ___________ and __________ to the eyes.

c. The heart is ______________ to the lungs.

d. The wrist is ______________ to the arm.

e. The right lung and right kidney are _____________ .

f. The skin is ______________ to the bones. ■

E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E 5

C. Body Planes and Sections

Planes are fl at surfaces that divide the body or organs in order to expose internal structures (Figure 1.3). The exposed surfaces produced by planes are called sections. Sagittal (sagitta � arrow) planes pass vertically through the body or organs and divide them into right and left sections (sag- ittal sections). If a plane passes vertically through the midline and di- vides the body into equal right and left halves, the plane is a midsagittal plane, but if a plane divides the body into unequal right and left portions, it is a parasagittal plane. A frontal or coronal plane passes vertically through the body or organs and produces anterior and posterior sections (frontal sections). A transverse plane passes horizontally through the body and produces superior and inferior sections (transverse sections or cross-sections). Oblique planes pass through the body at an angle forming oblique sections. We often look at sections of individual organs, such as blood vessels, intestines, or long bones. Sections that are produced by a plane running along the long axis of a long narrow structure are called longitudinal sections. Sections that are produced by a plane running perpendicular to the long axis are called cross-sections. Because blood vessels and intestines twist and bend, one body plane may produce longitudinal sections, cross-sections, and oblique sections of these structures.

(a) Right anterolateral view

2

3

4

5

1

6 7

(b) Longitudinal and cross-sections

• cross-section

• frontal plane

• longitudinal section

• midsagittal plane

• oblique plane

• parasagittal plane

• transverse plane

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

FIGURE 1.3 Body planes and sections.

CLINICAL NOTE: Transverse sections observed with com- puted tomography (CT) scans or magnetic resonance imaging (MRIs) are called axial sections.

Before Going to Lab

1 Label the planes in Figures 1.3(a) and the sections in Figure 1.3(b) with the terms in the accompanying bul- leted list by writing the term in the appropriate numbered blank.

2 Identify the type of sections of the human brain in Figure 1.4.

6 E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E

• frontal

• midsagittal

• transverse

a

b

c

(a) (b)

(c)

FIGURE 1.4 Human brain sections.

into a longitudinal section and another area into a cross-section.

• Do not cut the tube unless instructed to do so. • Show your instructor where a cut would produce

both a longitudinal section and a cross-section.

3 Identify sagittal, frontal, transverse, and oblique sections on sheep brains. • Your instructor will display five sheep brains—one

whole brain and four brains that have been cut into different sections.

• Determine the anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior surfaces of the brains.

• Decide which brain has been cut into sagittal, frontal, transverse, or oblique sections.

• Compare the appearance of the different sections.

Brain 1—Whole brain

Brain 2 section

Brain 3 section

Brain 4 section

Brain 5 section ■

LAB ACTIVITY 3 Body Planes and Sections

1 Observe sagittal, frontal, and transverse sections using an apple. • Working in a group, draw a face on the apple. • Cut sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes through

the apple to make sagittal, frontal, and transverse sections.

• Compare the appearance of the apple core in each section. Describe any difference in shape, size, and number of seed chambers.

• Keep sections together to form a whole apple to show to your instructor.

2 Observe longitudinal sections and cross-sections using plastic tubing or plastic straw. • Observe a demonstration provided by your instructor

of a tube cut along its longitudinal axis to produce a longitudinal section and a tube cut perpendicular to its longitudinal axis to produce a cross-section.

• Obtain an eight-inch piece of plastic tubing or plastic straw and twist it so you can visualize one plane that would simultaneously divide one area of the tube

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

1 E X E R C I S E

7

Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Body Regions

Complete the following sentences.

1. The leg is to the lower limb as the ____ is to the upper limb.

2. The arm is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb.

3. The armpit is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb.

4. The tarsal bones are to the lower limb as the ____ bones are to the upper limb.

5. The elbow is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb.

6. The shoulder is to the upper limb as the ____ is to the lower limb.

7. True or False. The hand includes the wrist and fingers and the foot includes the ankles and toes.

8. True or False. The bones of the face are also part of the skull.

B. Anatomical Terms

Write the anatomical terms that the phrase or word describes. Phrases or words referring to nouns are indicated. All other phrases refer to adjectives.

1. Navel (noun)

2. Pertaining to the area between the neck and abdomen

3. Pertaining to the ear

4. Pertaining to the palm of hand

5. Pertaining to the high point of the shoulder

6. Pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow region

7. Pertaining to the face; anterior portion of the head

8. Pertaining to the nose

8 E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E

9. Pertaining to the neck

10. Pertaining to the posterior surface of the knee

11. Wrist (noun)

12. Pertaining to the area between the elbow and wrist

13. Back (noun)

14. Armpit area (noun)

15. Pertaining to the mouth

16. Pertaining to the anterior surface of the knee

17. Breast bone (noun)

18. Pertaining to the hip

19. Pertaining to the side of the leg

20. Pertaining to the calf

21. Pertaining to the area between the shoulder and elbow

22. Pertaining to the fingers or toes

23. Pertaining to the hand

24. Pertaining to the breast

25. Pertaining to the cheek

26. Pertaining to the heel

27. Pertaining to the sole of the foot

28. Pertaining to the groin where the thigh attaches to the pelvic region

29. Pertaining to the head

30. Pertaining to the chin

31. Pertaining to the foot

32. Pertaining to the eye

33. Pertaining to the genital area

34. Pertaining to the area between the hip and knee

35. Pertaining to the area that includes the bones enclosing the brain

36. Pertaining to the forehead

E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E 9

37. Pertaining to the spinal column

38. Pertaining to the inferior back of the head

39. Pertaining to the anterior surface of the leg

40. Pertaining to the area of the lower back or loin

41. Pertaining to the trunk below the abdomen

42. Pertaining to the area of the back that contains the shoulder blades

43. Pertaining to the posterior surface of the elbow

44. Arm (noun)

45. Pertaining to the chest

46.

C. Body Planes and Sections

Write the name of the plane that the phrase describes.

1. Divides body or organ into unequal right and left sections

2. Divides body or organ into anterior and posterior sections

3. Divides body or organ into superior and inferior sections

4. Divides body into right and left halves

5. Which planes when passed through the body would result in two sections, with each section containing a piece of the heart and a piece of each lung?

6. ¯̊ ˘̊

˙ ¯

˘ ˙

10 E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E

D. Directional Terms

Complete the sentences using directional terms. Use Figure 1.5 for reference.

1. The clavicle is to the ribs.

2. The ribs are to the sternum.

3. The humerus is to the radius.

4. The ulna is to the radius.

5. The tibia is to the femur.

6. The right humerus and the right radius are .

7. The pelvic girdle is to the ribs.

8. The sternum is to the vertebral column.

9. The scapula is to the clavicle.

10. The right fibula and left fibula are .

SUPERIOR SUPERIOR

Skull

Cranial portion

Facial portion

Pectoral (shoulder) girdle

Clavicle Scapula

Thorax Sternum

Ribs

Upper limb (extremity)

Humerus

Ulna Radius

Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges

Lower limb (extremity)

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges

Vertebral column

Pelvic (hip) girdle

Vertebral column

Pelvic (hip) girdle

(b) Posterior view(a) Anterior view

FIGURE 1.5 Human skeleton.

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

E X E R C I S E

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

11

A. Body Regions, Anatomical Terminology, and Directional Terms

1. A 55-year-old male presented with an irregularly shaped and abnormally pigmented mole in the left scapular region, just lateral to the vertebrae. Indicate on Figure 1.6 where this mole is likely to be found.

2. A 37-year-old female presented to the emergency room with a severe burn (3rd degree) on the right brachial region just proximal to the antecubital region. Indicate on Figure 1.6 where the laceration is likely to be found.

3. A 19-year-old female was identified by a tattoo on the fibular surface of the right leg just proximal to the tarsal region. Indicate on Figure 1.6 where the tattoo is likely to be found.

1 E X E R C I S EUsing Your Knowledge

Questions 4–7 have italicized words that are derived from word roots used to form the adjectives in Table 1.1. Using the locations suggested by the italicized words, answer questions 4–7.

4. Is the popliteal artery proximal or distal to the femoral artery?

5. Is the pectoralis major muscle anterior or posterior to the subscapularis muscle?

(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

FIGURE 1.6 Body regions, anatomical language, and directional terms.

12 E X E R C I S E 1 A N AT O M I C A L L A N G U A G E

6. Is the sternocleidomastoid muscle superior or inferior to the rectus abdominis muscle?

7. Are the thoracic vertebrae medial or lateral to the scapulae?

B. Body Planes and Sections

Figure 1.7 contains three different sections through the thorax. Indicate which section (view a, b, or c) is a

8. Frontal section ______

9. Sagittal section ______

10. Transverse (axial) section ______

FIGURE 1.7 Sections through the thorax.

Right lung

Liver Vertebral column

Left kidney

Small intestine

Stomach

(a)

Liver Vertebra Stomach Spleen

(b)

Spinal cord

Vertebral column Trachea

Heart

Sternum

(c)

E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S 13

Organ systems are like different depart-ments within a company. Within a company, departments work together to keep the com- pany functioning. Within the body, organ systems work together to keep the body alive. In this exercise, you will learn the basic function and location of each organ system.

A. Overview of Organ Systems and Major Organs

An organ system is a group of organs performing a com- mon function. All organ systems cooperate to maintain an optimal environment for body cells through a process called homeostasis (homeo- � same; stasis � standing). Failure to maintain homeostasis results in disorders, dis- ease, and possibly death.

O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S

• human torso models or charts • male and female human reproductive models or

charts

• paper or plastic large enough to outline student torsos, markers

• articulated skeleton • one-gallon zippered plastic bags (1 per group) • masking tape • rat dissection video in the Wiley Student

Companion Site

Organ Systems and Body Cavities 2

E X E R C I S E

1 Name the organ systems and describe the functions of each

2 Name and identify the major organs of each organ system

3 Describe the location of the body cavities and name the organs they contain

4 Describe the structure, location, and function of the serous membranes

5 Identify the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the major organs found in each

13

Before Going to Lab

1 Observe the organs in Figures 2.1(a) and (b). Refer to your textbook for a list of organ systems, their function, and the major organs in each organ system.

2 Write each labeled organ under the appropriate organ system. There may be organ systems that don’t have any organs in these figures, and some organs may function with more than one system.

14 E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S

FIGURE 2.1 Selected organs and organ systems.

Body Systems

Cardiovascular System

Digestive System

Endocrine System

Integumentary System

Lymphatic System

Muscular System

Nervous System

Reproductive System

Respiratory System

Skeletal System

Urinary System

Trachea

Bronchus

Thoracic aorta

Diaphragm

Lung

Esophagus

Stomach

Inferior vena cava

Pancreas (posterior to stomach) Kidney

Abdominal aorta

Spleen

Ureter

Urinary bladder

(b) Deeper organs

Trachea

Lung

Heart

Aorta

Liver

Large intestine

Small intestine

Diaphragm

(a) Superficial organs

E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S 15

8 Answer the following questions about the position of each organ on the torso model or Figure 2.1.

1. The stomach is _______ to the small intestine.

a. superior b. inferior c. medial d. lateral

2. The liver is _______ to the lungs.

a. superior b. inferior c. medial d. lateral

3. The lungs are _______ to the heart.

a. superior b. inferior c. medial d. lateral

4. The trachea is _______ to the esophagus.

a. medial b. inferior c. anterior d. posterior

5. The pancreas is _______ to the stomach.

a. superior b. anterior c. lateral d. posterior

6. The large intestine is _______ to the stomach.

a. superior b. inferior c. posterior d. lateral

7. The stomach is _______ to the spleen.

a. lateral b. medial c. superior d. inferior

8. The abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava are _______ to the kidneys.

a. medial b. lateral c. superior d. inferior

9. The kidneys are _______ to the small intestine.

a. anterior b. posterior c. superior d. inferior

10. The urinary bladder is _______ to the kidneys.

a. posterior and superior b. medial and inferior c. medial and superior d. lateral and posterior ■

LAB ACTIVITY 2 Organ Location

1 Draw the outline of a full-size torso on paper or plastic. 2 Using a marker, draw life-size outlines of all superficial

organs in the appropriate place on the paper or plastic torso. ■

LAB ACTIVITY 1 Identification of Organs on Torso

You will be identifying organs from anterior to posterior on a torso model and answering questions concerning their position relative to the organs around them.

1 Identify the following organs on the anterior surface of a torso model. Identify all the organs without removing any organs from the model. • brain • trachea • heart • lungs • liver • stomach (torso’s left side) • small intestine • large intestine (colon)

2 Remove the lungs, heart, liver, and stomach. Locate the gallbladder on the inferior surface of the liver.

3 Identify the following organs on the human torso model or chart: • esophagus • bronchi (right and left) • inferior vena cava • pancreas (posterior to stomach) • spleen

4 Remove the small intestine and large intestine. Locate the appendix at the inferior right end of the large intestine.

5 Identify the following organs on the human torso model: • abdominal aorta • adrenal glands (superior surface of kidneys) • kidneys • ureters • urinary bladder

6 Identify the female reproductive organs on a female reproductive model or chart. Observe the position of the urinary bladder relative to the uterus. • ovaries • uterus • urinary bladder

7 Identify the male reproductive organs on a male repro- ductive model or chart. • penis • scrotum (skin covering testes) • testes

16 E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S

peritoneal cavity. Although most abdominal organs are positioned within the peritoneal cavity, a few organs are retroperitoneal (retro- � backward), or located posterior to the peritoneum. These organs are the pancreas, kidneys, adrenal glands, and portions of the large intestine, small intestine, aorta, and inferior vena cava. The pelvic cavity is the inferior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity contains part of the large intestine, rectum, urinary bladder, female reproductive organs (ovaries, uter- ine tubes, uterus, vagina), and male reproductive organs (prostate, and part of ductus deferens). It is important to note that the testes and penis are not located in the pelvic cavity but are located inferior to it.

LAB ACTIVITY 3 Body Cavities

1 Locate the major body cavities on a skeleton and torso model. Identify the organs located in each body cavity.

2 Locate the mediastinum (meed-ee-uh-STINE-um) on a torso model or on Figure 2.1. Identify the organs located within the mediastinum. ■

Before Going to Lab

1 Label the major body cavities and the diaphragm on Figure 2.2(a) and (b).

• abdominal cavity • cranial cavity • diaphragm • pelvic cavity • thoracic cavity • vertebral canal

1

2

3

4

5

6

(a) Right lateral view (b) Anterior view

1

2

3

4

5

6

FIGURE 2.2 Body cavities.

B. Body Cavities

Many of the body’s organs are found within body cavities. The cranial cavity contains the brain, and it is continuous with the vertebral (vertebra � back) canal that contains the spinal cord. The thoracic cavity is a space enclosed by the ribs, sternum, and vertebral column. This cavity contains three small cavities: the pericardial cavity (peri- � around; -cardia � heart) and two pleural cavities (pleuro- � side or rib). The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, and each pleural cavity contains a lung. The mediastinum (media- � middle; -stinum � partition), a central area within the thoracic cavity, extends from the neck to the diaphragm and from the sternum to the vertebral column. The organs located in the mediastinum are the heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea, blood vessels, and bronchi. The pleural cavities are located on either side of the mediasti- num. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity consists of two continuous cavities: the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. The abdominal cavity is the superior portion located between the diaphragm and the brim of the pelvis (hip bones). This cavity contains the stomach, liver, gallbladder, pan- creas, spleen, small intestine, kidneys, appendix, and part of the large intestine. Within the abdominal cavity is the

E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S 17

C. Serous Membranes

Most of the organs in the ventral body cavity are covered with thin serous (serum � any clear, watery fl uid) mem- branes, which are composed of two layers: a visceral layer and a parietal layer. The visceral (viscera � internal organs) layer covers the organ, whereas the parietal (paries � wall) layer attaches to and covers the ventral body wall. These two layers make up one continuous sheet that folds to form a sac. Between the two layers is a poten- tial cavity containing a small amount of serous fl uid se- creted by the membranes. The clear, watery serous fl uid prevents friction as the organs move within the ventral body cavity. For example, the heart has movement within the thoracic cavity as it fi lls with and ejects blood. Serous membranes are named for the cavities they sur- round. Thoracic serous membranes include the pleura, which covers the lungs, and the pericardium, which cov- ers the heart. The serous membrane that covers the abdom- inal organs is the peritoneum ( peri- � around; teinein � to stretch).

Before Going to Lab

1 In Figure 2.3, observe how the serous pericardium folds to form a double layer.

2 Label the two layers of the serous pericardium in Figure 2.3.

LAB ACTIVITY 4 Serous Membranes

1 Make a replica or model of a serous membrane with your lab group. • Obtain a 1-gallon zippered plastic bag. • Push all the air out of the bag and zip the bag. • Have a lab partner place a fist (simulating an organ)

on the bottom edge of the bag and push up into the bag so the bag surrounds the fist.

• Remove the fist, unzip the bag, and add about 40 to 50 mL of water to the bag. Push out the extra air before rezipping the bag.

• Now have the same lab partner place a fist (simulat- ing an organ) on the bottom edge of the bag and push up into the bag so the bag surrounds the fist.

2 Clean up as directed by your instructor. 3 Answer the Discussion Questions with your lab group.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Serous Membranes

1 In the bag with water, what is the name of the simulated serous membrane layer that is touching the fist (organ)?

2 In the same bag, what is the name of the simulated outer serous membrane layer?

3 What does the water represent?

4 Was it easier to push a fist into the bag with no water or into the bag with water?

5 Based on your observations, does the presence of serous fluid make it easier for organs to move? Explain.

■

D. Organ Systems, Body Cavities, and Serous Membranes in the Rat

The organ systems, body cavities, and serous membranes of the rat are similar to those of humans. The rat dissec- tion will allow you to see the relationship of organs to each other, organ location within body cavities, and serous membranes.

• parietal • visceral

1

2

FIGURE 2.3 Serous pericardium folds to surround the heart.

Heart

Serous pericardium Pericardial cavity with serous fluid

2

1

Pericardial cavity

LAB ACTIVITY 5 Rat Dissection Video

Go to the Wiley Student Companion Site to view the rat dissection video. ■

18 E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S

e. pancreas

f. small intestine

g. spleen

h. stomach

4 Using four pieces of masking tape, divide the abdomino- pelvic cavity into regions on a human torso or on yourself.

5 Using the torso model or your textbook, identify in which abdominopelvic region each organ is primarily located.

a. appendix

b. gallbladder

c. left ovary

d. bifurcation of the abdominal aorta

e. spleen

f. stomach (majority of) ■

NOTE: Right and left always refer to the model’s or speci- men’s own right and left.

LAB ACTIVITY 6 Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

1 Using a piece of masking tape, mark the location of the diaphragm on a human torso or on yourself.

2 Using two pieces of masking tape, divide the abdominopel- vic cavity into quadrants on a human torso or on yourself.

3 Using the torso model or your textbook, identify in which abdominopelvic quadrant(s) each organ is pri- marily located. Use the abbreviations RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, and LLQ.

a. appendix

b. large intestine or colon

c. liver

d. ovaries

Before Going to Lab

1 Draw lines on Figure 2.4(a) separating the abdomino- pelvic cavity into quadrants and label the quadrants.

2 Draw lines on Figure 2.4(b) separating the abdomino- pelvic cavity into regions and label the regions.

FIGURE 2.4 Abdominopelvic cavity.

(a) Quadrants

Location of umbilicus

(b) Regions

Location of umbilicus

E. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

Anatomists divide the abdominopelvic cavity into nine regions using two vertical and two horizontal lines in a tic-tac-toe grid so that the location of any organ is simple to describe. The two vertical lines are drawn mid-clavicular (mid-collar bone) and just medial to the nipples, beginning at the diaphragm and extending inferiorly through the pelvic area. The upper horizontal line is drawn across the abdomen, inferior to the ribs and across the inferior portions of the liver and stomach. The lower horizontal line is drawn slightly in- ferior to the superior portion of the pelvic bones. These nine regions from the top right to the lower left are right hypo- chondriac (hypo- � under; chondro- � cartilage), epigastric (epi- � upon; gastro- � stomach), left hypochondriac, right lumbar (lumbar � loin), umbilical, left lumbar, right in- guinal or iliac (inguinal � groin), hypogastric or pubic, and left inguinal or iliac. Clinicians are more apt to divide this cavity into four quadrants that are formed by transverse and sagittal planes running through the umbilicus (navel). These quadrants are useful clinically when one is trying to describe abnormalities or to determine which organ may be the cause of pain. The four quadrants are right upper quad- rant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).

19

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

A. Functions and Identification of Organ Systems

Identify the organ system by its function as described below.

1. Maintains blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels

2. Controls muscles and glands by electrical impulses; helps control homeostasis

3. Causes movement of bones

4. Waterproof barrier that blocks the entrance of pathogens into the body and prevents the loss of water from the body

5. Transports nutrients, oxygen, and carbon dioxide throughout the body

6. Changes food into absorbable nutrients; expels wastes

7. Regulates composition of blood by eliminating nitrogenous wastes, excess water, and minerals

8. Uses hormones to control cell function; helps control homeostasis

9. Provides framework for the body and protects body organs

10. Produces gametes (sperm and egg)

11. Returns fluid to the bloodstream and provides protection against pathogens that have entered the body

B. Organ System Identification

Identify the correct organ system for the following organs.

1. spleen 6. kidney

2. liver 7. uterus

3. trachea 8. pituitary gland

4. blood vessels 9. spinal cord

5. hair 10. testes (2 systems)

Reviewing Your Knowledge

2 E X E R C I S E

20 E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S

11. prostate gland 14. adrenal gland

12. large intestine 15. thyroid

13. pancreas (2 systems)

C. Body Cavities

Identify all the cavities for each organ as follows: cranial (C), vertebral (V), thoracic (T), pleural (PL), pericardial (PC), peritoneal (PT), abdominal (A), or pelvic (P).

1. brain 7. spinal cord

2. small intestine 8. liver

3. heart 9. kidneys

4. lungs 10. uterus

5. bronchi 11. urinary bladder

6. stomach 12. ovaries

D. Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Name the quadrant(s) (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, and LLQ) and region(s) (right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal or iliac, hypogastric or pubic, and left inguinal or iliac) that the follow- ing organs predominantly occupy.

1. liver 5. appendix

2. stomach 6. left kidney

3. spleen 7. right ovary

4. gallbladder 8. uterus

E. Serous Membranes

Write the term the phrase describes.

1. Attaches the heart to the body cavity

2. Covers the surface of the lungs

3. Covers the surface of abdominal organs

4. The lubricating liquid in serous cavities

5. Circle the organs that are found within the peritoneal cavity: pancreas, liver, kidney, spleen, adrenal glands, abdominal aorta, inferior portions of vena cava, stomach

21

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

E X E R C I S E

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

A. Homeostatic Imbalances of Organ Systems

Using your textbook, identify the organ system that is homeostatically imbalanced in the following diseases or disorders.

1. muscular dystrophy

2. hypothyroidism

3. myocardial ischemia

4. infectious mononucleosis

B. Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

Identify all the cavities entered for each procedure, beginning with the largest cavity and ending with the most specific body cavity. Use these abbreviations for the body cavities: abdominal (A), cranial (C), pelvic (P), pericardial (PC), pleural (PL), peritoneal (PT), thoracic (T), and vertebral (V).

5. coronary bypass surgery

6. cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal)

7. spinal tap

C. Abdominopelvic Quadrants

8. A 44-year-old male went to the emergency room complaining of severe pain in his RLQ. The doctor palpated the area and determined that the pain was originating from an organ in that quadrant. Which organ might be involved?

(a) liver (b) appendix (c) gallbladder (d) spleen (e) stomach

9. A 23-year-old female went to the doctor with the chief complaint of RLQ pain. Which organ is most likely the cause?

(a) adrenal gland (b) ovary (c) gallbladder (d) pancreas (e) kidney

2 E X E R C I S EUsing Your Knowledge

22 E X E R C I S E 2 O R G A N S Y S T E M S A N D B O D Y C A V I T I E S

D. Organ Identification

Identify the organs in the color-enhanced medical images in Figure 2.5.

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

(a) MRI of head and neck, sagittal view

10

11

12 13 14

(b) Radiograph of thorax, anterior view

15 16

17

(c) MRI of abdomen, anterior view

18 19 20

(d) Radiograph of abdomen and pelvis, anterior view

FIGURE 2.5 Identification of organs on medical images.

E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E 23

Acompound light microscope is used to observe small structures such as cells and tissues. The term compound refers to the two types of lenses (ocular and objective) that are used simulta- neously to magnify the image. The term light refers to the necessity of using a light source to view the object. Most human cells must be magnified to be seen by the unaided human eye. The compound light microscope can magnify images up to approximately 1,000 times, depending on the magnifying power of the lenses. Microscopic examination of cells and tissues allows stu- dents to observe how cell and tissue structure determines function. Changes in normal cell and tissue structure cause changes in organ function that lead to a disorder or disease. Tissue biopsies are performed to observe whether normal cellular structure has changed, which would indicate the absence or presence of a disorder or disease.

O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S

• compound light microscopes, lens paper, immersion oil

• thin, clear plastic rulers • prepared microscope slides of the letter “e” • prepared microscope slides of the trachea

(or other organ)

• wet mount of cheek cells; clean microscope slides, coverslips, lens paper, flat toothpicks, and dropper bottle of dilute methylene blue, 0.9% saline solution, 10% bleach solution

Compound Light Microscope 3

E X E R C I S E

1 Describe and demonstrate how to carry, clean, use, and store a compound light microscope

2 Identify the parts of a compound light microscope and describe their function

3 Calculate total magnification for each objective lens

4 Demonstrate how to view an object with the microscope using all magnifications

5 Demonstrate how to measure the field of view

6 Measure the diameter of a cell

7 Prepare a wet-mount slide

23

A. Transporting the Microscope

The compound light microscope is an expensive, precision in- strument that must be handled appropriately. Demonstrate care in transporting, cleaning, using, and storing the microscope.

• Pick up the microscope with two hands, one holding the arm and the other supporting the base with the cord in a secure position.

• Carry the microscope upright so that a lens or eyepiece does not fall out, and carefully place the microscope on the lab table in front of you.

24 E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E

of the large knobs needs to be used, depending on whether one is right- or left-handed. The large knob is used for coarse focusing and either moves the stage up and down quickly or moves the objective lenses up and down quickly. This knob is to be used with scanning or low-power lenses. Does your stage or objective lens move? _______.

• Fine focus knob—The smaller knob on each side of the microscope that is used for precision focusing.

• Condenser—Located just below the stage is a lens that condenses light through the specimen on the slide above. If the condenser has an adjustment knob that raises and lowers the condenser, it usually needs to be in the highest position to focus the most light on the specimen.

• Iris diaphragm—Located beneath the condenser, the iris diaphragm works similarly to the iris of the eye. By adjusting its lever, the aperture changes diameter and regulates the amount of light that passes through the condenser. Decreasing the aperture size decreases the amount of light on the specimen and increases contrast.

• Substage light—The light source is usually built into the base of the microscope and typically has a dial or sliding bar on one side to control the light intensity.

LAB ACTIVITY 1 Parts of the Microscope

1 Identify the parts of your microscope as shown in Figure 3.1.

2 Compare your microscope with the one in Figure 3.1 and identify any differences with your lab group. ■

LAB ACTIVITY 2 Calculating Magnification

1 Calculate the total magnification by multiplying the magnifying powers of your microscope lenses.

scanning lens � ocular lens � total magnification

low-power lens � ocular lens � total magnification

high-dry lens � ocular lens � total magnification

oil immersion lens � ocular lens � total magnification ■

C. Calculating Magnification

Total magnifi cation is determined by multiplying the ocu- lar lens power times the objective lens power. Example: Ocular lens power � 10�; Objective lens power � 4�; Total magnifi cation � 40�.

NOTE: All other microscope parts attach to the base, arm, and head—the three basic parts of the framework.

• Ocular lens(es)—Removable eyepieces used to observe the microscope slide. Microscopes with one ocular lens are called monocular (mono- � one; ocu- � eye), and those with two ocular lenses are called binocular (bi- � two). Typically, these lenses magnify an object tenfold (10�). Look at an ocular lens and record the magnification power. _______ One of the ocular lenses may have a pointer used to identify a specific area on the slide. A micrometer, used to measure the field of view and object size, may also be present in one ocular lens. State whether your microscope has a pointer and/or a micrometer. If it has a pointer or micrometer, give the ocular lens (right or left) in which each is found.

Pointer _______ Micrometer _______ • Objective lenses—A microscope will usually have

three or four objective lenses mounted on a revolving nosepiece. Most microscopes have objective lenses that magnify an object 4� (scanning), 10� (low-power), 40� (high-dry), and 100� (oil immersion). List the magnification powers of the objective lenses on your microscope. ________________ As the barrel of the objective lens increases in length, the magnifying power also increases.

• Stage—The flat platform located beneath the objective lenses on which the microscope slide is placed. The stage has a hole in the middle, the light aperture, through which light is focused on the slide. The slide may be held onto the stage with either two spring clips or a mechanical stage clamp. Does your microscope have 2 spring clips or a mechanical stage? _______

• Mechanical stage—Holds the slide securely in place with a spring clamp for viewing and can be moved with precision by using the adjuster knobs. One knob moves the slide side to side, and the other forward and backward.

• Coarse focus knobs—On each side of the microscope toward the base is a large knob or dial that may or may not have a smaller knob in the middle. Only one

B. Parts of the Microscope

• Base—The wide bottom part that supports the microscope.

• Arm—The straight or curved vertical part that connects the base to the head.

• Head (or body tube)—The upper part of the microscope that extends from the arm and contains the ocular lens(es) and the rotating nosepiece with the objective lenses.

E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E 25

D. Using the Microscope

• Clean up your lab area and put nonessentials away so you will have plenty of room to use the microscope.

• Unwind the cord and plug it in. • Clean the ocular, objective lenses, and condenser

lenses only with the special lens paper (optical safe) provided by your instructor. Whenever the image on the slide cannot be focused clearly, it may be that the ocular, objective lens, or slide is dirty and needs additional cleaning. If all else has failed, consult your instructor.

• Turn on the light and adjust it to the lowest light setting feasible for good visibility and color to reduce eye strain. The scanning (4�) and low-power (10�) lenses will not need as much light as the high-dry (40�) and oil immersion (100�) lenses.

• Trouble-shooting: If no light comes on initially, check two things before consulting your instructor. (a) Turn the light dial to a higher setting. (b) Check the safety switch on the electrical outlet by pushing in the reset button. If the light still does not work, plug your microscope into an outlet that you know works.

Revolving nosepiece

Objective lens

Mechanical stage

Iris diaphragm

Condenser

Substage light

Head

Arm

Light intensity knob

Mechanical stage adjustor knob

Fine focus knob

Coarse focus knob

Base

Ocular lens Camera attachment tube

Stage

FIGURE 3.1 Parts of the microscope.

LAB ACTIVITY 3 Using the Microscope

1 Move the scanning objective lens into place so it is over the light aperture on the stage. This objective lens has the shortest barrel. Make sure you feel the lens click into position or your field of view will be black.

2 Obtain a prepared slide with the letter “e” from your instructor and place it on the stage, securing it with either the mechanical stage clamps or slide clips. Draw the letter “e” as it appears on the stage without looking in the ocular lens.

3 Without looking into the ocular lens, practice mov- ing the slide from side to side in addition to back- ward and forward using the mechanical stage knobs (or your hands if your stage has slide clips).

4 Using the mechanical stage knobs (or your hands if your stage has slide clips), position the letter “e” over the light hole in the stage.

5 Check to see that the condenser lens is raised com- pletely up to the stage.

26 E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E

20 Center the area you want to view and then obtain a container of immersion oil made especially for the oil immersion lens.

21 Focus the slide with the high-power lens. Move the objective lens out of the way and apply a drop of oil directly on the part of the slide you wish to study.

22 Click the oil immersion lens into place, open the iris diaphragm as needed, adjust the light, and focus with only the fine focus knob.

23 What is the working distance from the bottom of the oil immersion lens to your specimen? _________ mm

24 When you finish, move the scanning power objective lens back into place.

25 Move the stage as far from objectives as possible by either lowering the stage or raising the objectives. Remove the slide and clean the oil from the oil im- mersion lens with lens paper. (Also clean the high-dry objective lens if you passed it through the oil.) Your instructor may ask you to use an additional cleaner.

26 Clean the slide with a new lens paper. If necessary, clean the stage as well. ■

E. Measuring the Field of View

The fi eld of view is the area on the slide that is being observed and is inversely proportional to the magnifi cation (the fi eld of view decreases in size with increasing magni- fi cation). Once you know the diameter of the fi eld of view in millimeters (mm) at various magnifi cations, you will be able to estimate the size of cells or other structures in the fi eld of view. The object being viewed should be in the cen- ter of the fi eld of view when you are switching to a higher objective lens (higher magnifying power). Measuring the fi eld of view at different magnifi cations demonstrates the advantage of scanning at a lower magni- fi cation to fi nd a structure of interest before working up to a higher magnifi cation.

6 If your stage is moveable, the coarse focus knob will move the stage. Raise the stage as far as it will go. If your objective is moveable, use the coarse focus knob to lower the objective lens until it stops. The slide and the scanning objective lens will not actually touch.

7 If you have a binocular microscope, adjust the two ocular lenses as you would a pair of binoculars so that the two lenses are a comfortable distance apart for your eyes.

8 Look through the ocular lens(es) and adjust the light. Use the coarse focus knob to focus in the letter “e.” Complete the focusing process by using the fine focus knob.

9 The working distance is the distance a specimen is from the bottom of the objective lens. Use a millime- ter ruler to measure the distance between the bottom of the scanning objective lens and your specimen. _________ mm

10 Using the mechanical stage knobs, bring the letter “e” directly into the center of the field of view (the lighted circular area you see as you look through the ocular lenses).

11 Draw the letter “e” as it appears through the micro- scope. Compare the appearance to your initial drawing. _________

12 While observing the letter “e” through the ocular lens(es), describe the movement that you observe as you move the slide:

• to the left ___________________________

• to the right _________________________

• forward ____________________________

• backward __________________________

13 Reposition the letter “e” directly in the middle of the field of view and switch to the low-power objective lens.

14 Most microscopes are parfocal so that when you move to a different magnification the specimen is al- most, but not quite, in focus. You will need only the fine focus knob to focus the image. Center the speci- men because the previously centered object is usually not in the center.

15 What is the working distance from the bottom of the low-power objective lens to your specimen? _________ mm

16 Use the iris diaphragm lever to adjust the amount of light and improve the contrast of your image.

CAUTION: Do not use the coarse focus knob with high-dry or oil immersion lenses.

NOTE: Most slides used in anatomy and physiology do not need the magnification of the oil immersion lens. Your instruc- tor will inform you if and when you will use this objective lens. Only use the oil immersion lens if instructed to do so.

17 Repeat the above procedure with the high-dry objective lens. Be sure to focus only with the fine focus knob.

18 What is the working distance from the bottom of the high-power objective lens to your specimen? _________ mm

19 Describe the change in diameter of the field of view as one switches from the scanning lens to the low-power lens and then to the high-power lens.

E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E 27

LAB ACTIVITY 4 Measuring the Field of View and Estimating Object Size

1 Move the scanning objective lens in place. 2 Place a clear plastic ruler over the light opening in the

stage, or use the micrometer in the ocular lens or grid slide.

3 Look through the ocular lens, and move the ruler or grid slide so that a line touches the left edge of the field and count the number of millimeter intervals that can be seen. Record. _________ mm

4 Switch to the low-power objective lens and repeat this procedure to count the number of millimeter intervals that can be seen. Record. _________ mm

5 Switch to the high-dry objective lens and repeat this procedure to count the number of millimeter intervals that can be seen. Record. _________ mm. The close- ness of this lens to the slide may not allow a ruler to be added.

6 Move the scanning power objective lens in place and move the stage as far as possible from the objectives before removing the ruler.

7 Obtain a prepared slide with the letter “e” and place it on the stage. Using the scanning power objective lens, estimate the diameter of the letter e. If it occupies ½ of the field of view, then it is ½ times the mea- sured diameter of the field of view of the scanning objective lens. Record the diameter of the letter “e.” _________ mm

8 Move the stage as far as possible from the objectives before removing the ruler. ■

LAB ACTIVITY 5 Observation of an Organ

1 Obtain a prepared slide of the trachea or other organ supplied by your instructor.

2 Begin your observation using the scanning lens. Center and focus the organ, and note that you can see several different tissues (stained different colors) present at this magnifying power.

3 Switch to the low-power lens. Center and focus, and note the additional tissue detail that can be discerned at this magnifying power. Make a drawing of the tissues in Figure 3.2(a).

4 Switch to the high-power lens. Center and focus, and note that you can now observe the cells that constitute the various tissues in this organ. Make a drawing of the cells in Figure 3.2(b).

5 Estimate the diameter of 3 different types of cells.

_________ mm

_________ mm

_________ mm

6 Move the scanning power objective lens into place and move the stage as far as possible from the objectives before removing the slide. ■

FIGURE 3.2 Student drawings of tissues and cells.

(a) Low power (b) High power

F. Microscopic Structure of an Organ

An organ is composed of a variety of cells and tissues. This activity starts with an observation of a section of a whole organ with the scanning lens to get the “big picture” and then moves to higher magnifying powers to see addi- tional detail.

28 E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E

Nucleus Cells folded over

Overlapping cellsCytoplasm

400�

(a) Photomicrograph of cheek cells

(b) Student drawing

FIGURE 3.3 Cheek cells.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Cheek Smear

1 Why was stain added to the cheek cells?

2 What cellular structures did you observe?

■

H. Storing the Microscope

It is important to put the microscope away properly.

• Check that the scanning objective lens is in place and that the slide is removed from the stage.

• Depending on the type of microscope, either lower the stage or raise the objective to put maximum distance between the objective and the stage.

• Center the mechanical stage. • Turn off the substage light. The bulb life is extended

if it cools before moving the microscope. • Clean the ocular and objective lenses with lens paper. • Coil the cord neatly according to your instructor’s

directions. • Place the dust cover over the microscope. • Using both hands and the proper carrying technique,

return the microscope to the appropriate cabinet.

LAB ACTIVITY 6 Wet Mount of Cheek Cells

1 Prepare a cheek smear slide and observe it under the compound microscope. • Obtain a toothpick, a clean microscope slide, and a

coverslip. • Place a drop of 0.9% saline on the microscope

slide. • Gently scrape the flat end of the toothpick (no blood,

please!) on the inner lining of your cheek only one time. Do not scrape hard enough to hurt.

• To apply the cells to the slide, rotate the toothpick between your thumb and forefinger to dislodge the cells into the saline.

• Dispose of the toothpick as your instructor directs.

• Add one drop of dilute methylene blue to the cells on your slide.

• Cover the sample with a coverslip as directed by your instructor.

• Using low-power, locate the blue-stained cells. Switch to high-power to observe more cellular detail.

2 Compare the cells on your slide with Figure 3.3(a). Draw a picture of your cells in Figure 3.3(b).

3 Estimate the diameter of the cheek cells. _________ mm 4 Move the scanning power objective lens in place and

remove the slide.

5 Place microscope slides in a 10% bleach solution as your instructor directs. Clean your lab top with a 10% bleach solution.

6 Answer Discussion Questions with your lab group.

G. Wet Mount of Cheek Cells

Cells that line the interior of the mouth fi t closely together like fl oor tiles and form a thick layer of thin cells that pro- tect the underlying tissue from abrasion and microbes (bac- teria and viruses). The superfi cial cells continually slough off and are replaced by underlying cells. Gently scraping the lining of the cheek removes the superfi cial cells that are about to slough off.

29

A. Care and Use of the Microscope

Correct each statement by crossing out the incorrect word(s) and inserting the correct word(s).

1. One hand is to be used to transport the microscope.

2. Tissue paper can be used to clean the microscope lenses and prepared slides.

3. The microscope should be put away with the high-dry lens in position.

4. The coarse focusing knob should be used when using the high-dry lens.

5. The iris diaphragm should be completely open to obtain maximum contrast.

6. The condenser should be in the lowest position (far from the stage) to focus the most light on the specimen.

B. Parts of the Microscope

Write the term that the phrase describes.

1. Large knob that moves the stage or objective lens a great distance. Used with scanning or low-power objective lenses only.

2. Flat platform beneath the objective lens on which the microscope slide is placed.

Reviewing Your Knowledge

Name ___________________________________ Date _________________ Section ______________________________

3 E X E R C I S E

30 E X E R C I S E 3 C O M P O U N D L I G H T M I C R O S C O P E

3. Removable lenses that you look through to observe the microscope slide.

4. Small knob that moves the stage or objective lens a very small distance and is used for precision focusing.

5. Extends from the arm and contains the ocular lenses and rotating nosepiece.

6. Lens that condenses light through the specimen and is located below the stage.

7. Light from specimen passes through these lenses first. These lenses are located in the rotating nosepiece.

8. Wide bottom part that supports the microscope.

9. Regulates the amount of light passing through the condenser.

10. Vertical portion that connects the base to the head.

C. Total Magnification and Field of View

1. Calculate the total magnification of an object viewed with a 10� ocular and a 60� objective lens.

2. Does the size of the field of view increase or decrease when going from a lower- to higher-power objective lens?

E X E R C I S E 4 C E L L S T R U C T U R E A N D C E L L C Y C L E 31

The human body contains over a trillion cells. These cells form the organs of the human body and are responsible for organ function. Cells take in nutrients delivered to them by the blood and use these nutrients to make carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Cells use these macromolecules to make cellular and extracellular structures, repair themselves, and perform the tasks required for organ function.

A. Cell Structure

Cells are the smallest structural and functional units of living organisms. They are enclosed by a plasma mem- brane that controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell. The interior of the cell is fi lled with cyto- plasm that contains cytosol (a viscous fl uid) and organelles (little organs). Like an automobile, a cell has different parts or organelles that perform different functions. A “generalized” animal cell is shown in Figure 4.1, and functions of cellular organelles are described in Table 4.1.

O B J E C T I V E S M A T E R I A L S

• model or diagram of a cell • compound microscopes and lens paper, prepared

slides of human skeletal muscle cells, pseudos- tratified ciliated columnar epithelium (trachea), nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli (small intestine), motor neurons, sperm, and blood or Real Anatomy (Histology)

• 3-dimensional models of mitosis • whitefish blastula slides

Cell Structure and Cell Cycle 4

E X E R C I S E

1 Identify cellular components on a model or diagram

2 Describe the function of the plasma membrane and cellular organelles

3 Identify cells and observable cellular structures on prepared microscope slides or on photomicrographs

4 Identify the stages of mitosis

5 Describe the events of each stage of mitosis

31

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Cell Structures

1 Which cell structures from Table 4.1 are not found in most human cells?

■

LAB ACTIVITY 1 Cell Structure

1 Point to each cell structure shown in Figure 4.1 on a cell model or chart.

2 Describe the function of each organelle in Figure 4.1(a). 3 Answer the Discussion Question with your lab group.

4000�

Nuclear envelopeChromatin

(darkarea)

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Mitochondrion

Vesicle

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

(b) Transmission electron micrograph

32 E X E R C I S E 4 C E L L S T R U C T U R E A N D C E L L C Y C L E

1

2

3

4

5

6

10

8 9

7

11

14

18

17 (small dot)

16

15 (gel-like fluid)

13

12

(a) Sectional drawing

FIGURE 4.1 Generalized animal cell.

1 mitochondrion 2 peroxisome 3 smooth endoplasmic reticulum 4 lysosome 5 plasma membrane 6 centrioles

7 microvillus 8 flagellum 9 cilium 10 secretory vesicle 11 chromatin 12 nuclear membrane

13 nucleolus 14 nucleus 15 cytoplasm 16 rough endoplasmic reticulum 17 ribosome 18 Golgi complex

E X E R C I S E 4 C E L L S T R U C T U R E A N D C E L L C Y C L E 33

B. Cell Specialization

The human body contains over 200 different types of cells with different functions. These differences in function are refl ected in cell structure. Cells of the human body differ from the generalized animal cell in shape, size, or number and type of organelles present. In the next activity you will observe cells of skeletal muscle, pseudostratifi ed ciliated columnar epithelium, nonciliated simple columnar epithe- lium with microvilli, motor neurons, sperm, and blood.

• Skeletal muscle cells are long, cylindrical cells that contain specialized proteins (contractile proteins) that enable them to contract (shorten in length) to move bones. The contractile proteins are organized into repeating units that can be observed in the light microscope as striations.

• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells have cilia that move substances like mucus along the surface of the cells. Mucus is produced by specialized cells called goblet cells.

• Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium with microvilli. Microvilli increase the surface area of the plasma membrane which provides a larger area for absorption of nutrients along the gastrointestinal tract or secretion of product from glands.

• Motor neurons are nervous tissue cells with many processes (cell extensions) that receive information from other neurons and send electrical signals to muscle cells causing them to contract.

• Sperm cells (sperm) are small, oval cells with a flagellum that propels them through the female reproductive tract.

• Red blood cells do not have a nucleus (anucleate) but contain large amounts of hemoglobin, a red pigment that binds oxygen.

• White blood cells have nuclei with different shapes and defend the body from pathogens and cancerous cells.

TABLE 4 .1 Function of Cell Structures

STRUCTURE FUNCT ION

Plasma Membrane Controls movement of substances into and out of the cell Microvilli Folds of the plasma membrane that increase the surface area of the cell to increase absorption or secretion Nucleus Contains DNA molecules and nucleolus Nucleolus Assembly site for ribosomes Chromatin Long thin strands within nucleus. Each strand composed of one DNA molecule and associated proteins. Cytoplasm Area of the cell that includes the cytosol and organelles Cytosol Fluid portion of cytoplasm that surrounds organelles Organelles • Mitochondria Makes ATP via aerobic cellular respiration • Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis • Rough endoplasmic Processes and transports proteins made at attached ribosomes; reticulum (RER) synthesizes phospholipids • Smooth endoplasmic Fatty acid and steroid synthesis; detoxifies toxic substances reticulum (SER) • Golgi complex Receives and modifies proteins from RER; sorts and transports them • Secretory vesicles Secrete substances outside the cell by exocytosis • Lysosomes Enzymes digest and recycle worn-out organelles and substances entering the cell; can digest the cell • Peroxisomes Produce hydrogen peroxide; detoxify harmful substances • Cytoskeleton Three kinds of protein filaments; maintain cell shape and involved in cell movement and movement of organelles • Centrosomes (centrioles) Form mitotic spindle; needed to form cilia and flagella • Cilia Abundant, hair-like cell projections that move fluids and particles along the cell surface • Flagella Long cell projection; whip-like motion moves sperm