Praxiteles aphrodite of knidos was considered daring because it

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GARDNER’ S

A RT THROUGH THE

AGES

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GARDNER’ S

A RT THROUGH THE

AGES T H E W E ST E R N PE R SPEC T I V E

volume i

fifteenth edition

FRED S . KLEINER

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portant otice e ia content reference ithin the pro ct escription or the pro ct te t a not e availa le in the e oo version

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Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015

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Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, Fifteenth Edition, Volume I Fred S. Kleiner

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WCN: 02-200-203

Pont-du-Gard (looking northeast), Nîmes, France, ca. 16 bce.

Aqueducts, which brought fresh water to cities throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, are among the many engineering feats of the ancient Romans. The Pont-du-Gard, erected under Emperor Augustus (r. 27 bce–14 ce) over the Gard River in southern France (Roman Gaul), provided about 100 gal- lons of water a day for each inhabitant of the Roman colony at Nîmes from a mountain source some 30 miles away. The water flowed over the considerable distance by gravity alone, which required channels built with a continuous gradual decline over the entire route from source to city. The three-story Pont-du-Gard maintained the height of the water channel where the water crossed the river. Each large arch spans some 82 feet and consists of blocks weighing up to two tons each. The bridge’s uppermost level is a row of smaller arches, three above each of the large openings below. They carry the water channel itself. The harmonious proportional relationship between the larger and smaller arches reveals that the Roman hydraulic engineer who designed the aqueduct-bridge also had a keen aesthetic sense.

The name of that architect-engineer is unknown, which is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages, when almost all artists toiled in anonymity to fulfill the wishes of their patrons, whether Egyptian pharaohs, Roman emperors, or medieval monks. Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective surveys the art and architecture of all periods from prehistory to the present and examines how Western artworks and buildings of all kinds have always reflected the historical contexts in which they were created.A

BO U

T TH

E C

O V

ER A

RT

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vii

Preface xiii

INTRODUCTION What Is Art History? 1

CHAPTER 1 Art in the Stone Age 14

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 30

CHAPTER 3 Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra 54

CHAPTER 4 The Prehistoric Aegean 82

CHAPTER 5 Ancient Greece 102

CHAPTER 6 The Etruscans 162

CHAPTER 7 The Roman Empire 176

CHAPTER 8 Late Antiquity 230

CHAPTER 9 Byzantium 256

CHAPTER 10 The Islamic World 284

CHAPTER 11 Early Medieval Europe 310

CHAPTER 12 Romanesque Europe 338

CHAPTER 13 Gothic Europe 372

CHAPTER 14 Late Medieval Italy 410

Notes 434

Glossary 435

Bibliography 448

Credits 458

Index 461

Brief Contents

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viii+ 

Preface xiii

INTRODUCTION

What Is Art History? 1 Art History in the 21st Century 2

Different Ways of Seeing 13

1 Art in the Stone Age  14 FRAMING THE ERA The Dawn of Art 15 T I M E L I N E   16

Paleolithic Art 16 Neolithic Art 23 ■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : How to Represent

an Animal 17

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Painting in the Dark 20

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Why Is There Art in Paleolithic Caves? 21

M A P 1 -1 Stone Age sites in Europe 16

M A P 1 - 2 Neolithic sites in Anatolia and Mesopotamia 24

THE BIG PICTURE   29

2 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia  30 FRAMING THE ERA Pictorial Narration in Ancient Sumer 31 T I M E L I N E   32

Mesopotamia 32 Persia 48 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Gods and Goddesses

of Mesopotamia 34

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Sumerian Votive Statuary 35

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Mesopotamian Seals 39

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Enheduanna, Priestess and Poet 41

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Gudea of Lagash 43

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Hammurabi’s Laws 44

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : How Many Legs Does a Lamassu Have? 46

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Babylon, City of Wonders 49

M A P 2 -1   Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 32

THE BIG PICTURE   53

3 Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra  54 FRAMING THE ERA Life after Death in Ancient Egypt 55 T I M E L I N E   56

Egypt and Egyptology 56

Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods 56

Old Kingdom 60

Middle Kingdom 67

New Kingdom 68

First Millennium bce 79 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Gods and Goddesses

of Egypt 58

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Mummification and Immortality 60

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Building the Pyramids of Gizeh 62

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : How to Portray a God-King 64

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Hatshepsut, the Woman Who Would Be King 69

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Illuminating Buildings before Lightbulbs 73

M A P 3 -1   Ancient Egypt 56

THE BIG PICTURE   81

4 The Prehistoric Aegean  82 FRAMING THE ERA Greece in the Age of Heroes 83 T I M E L I N E   84

Contents

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Contents ix

Greece before Homer 84

Cycladic Art 85

Minoan Art 86

Mycenaean Art 93 ■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Archaeology, Art History, and the Art

Market 85

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The Theran Eruption and the Chronology of Aegean Art 91

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Fortified Palaces for a Hostile World 94

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Corbeled Arches, Vaults, and Domes 95

M A P 4 -1   The prehistoric Aegean 84

THE BIG PICTURE   101

5 Ancient Greece  102 FRAMING THE ERA The Perfect Temple 103 T I M E L I N E   104

The Greeks and Their Gods 104 Geometric and Orientalizing Periods 106 Archaic Period 109 Early and High Classical Periods 123 Late Classical Period 142 Hellenistic Period 150 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Gods and Goddesses

of Mount Olympus 105

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Greek Vase Painting 108

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Greek Temple Plans 113

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Doric and Ionic Orders 114

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Invention of Red-Figure Painting 119

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Herakles, the Greatest Greek Hero 124

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Hollow-Casting Life-Size Bronze Statues 127

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Polykleitos’s Prescription for the Perfect Statue 129

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The Hegeso Stele 139

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : White-Ground Painting 140

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Corinthian Capital 149

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Hippodamos’s Plan for the Ideal City 151

M A P 5 -1   The Greek world 104

THE BIG PICTURE   161

6 The Etruscans  162 FRAMING THE ERA The Painted Tombs of Tarquinia 163 T I M E L I N E   164

Etruria and the Etruscans 164

Early Etruscan Art 164

Later Etruscan Art 171 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Etruscan Counterparts

of Greco-Roman Gods and Heroes 165

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Etruscan Artists in Rome 166

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 167

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Houses of the Dead in a City of the Dead 168

M A P 6 -1   Italy in Etruscan times 164

THE BIG PICTURE   175

7 The Roman Empire  176 FRAMING THE ERA Roman Art as Historical Fiction 177 T I M E L I N E   178

Rome, Caput Mundi 178

Republic 179

Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius 186

Early Empire 195

High Empire 206

Late Empire 218 ■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Who’s Who in the Roman World 179

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Roman Concrete Construction 182

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Roman Ancestor Portraits 183

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Art for Former Slaves 185

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : An Eyewitness Account of the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius 186

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The Roman House 188

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 196

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : The Res Gestae of Augustus 197

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture 199

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : The Golden House of Nero 201

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Spectacles in the Colosseum 202

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Spiral Frieze of the Column of Trajan 208

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x+ Contents

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Icons and Iconoclasm 271

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Born to the Purple: Empress Zoe 275

M A P 9 -1   The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian in 565 258

THE BIG PICTURE   283

10 The Islamic World  284 FRAMING THE ERA The Rise and Spread of Islam 285 T I M E L I N E   286

Early Islamic Art 286

Later Islamic Art 298 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Muhammad

and Islam 288

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Major Muslim Dynasties 290

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Mosque 291

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : A Venetian Visitor to the Alhambra 299

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Sinan the Great and the Mosque of Selim II 302

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Islamic Tilework 304

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Christian Patronage of Islamic Art 308

M A P 1 0 -1   The Islamic world around 1500 286

THE BIG PICTURE   309

11 Early Medieval Europe  310 FRAMING THE ERA The Psalms of David in Ninth-Century France 311 T I M E L I N E   312

Europe after the Fall of Rome 312

Merovingians and Anglo-Saxons 312

Vikings 315

Hiberno-Saxon Monasteries 315

Visigothic and Mozarabic Art 320

Carolingian Empire 321

Ottonian Empire 329 ■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Cloisonné 313

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Early Medieval Ship Burials 314

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Medieval Books 316

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Four Evangelists 318

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Beautifying God’s Words 319

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Charlemagne’s Renovatio Imperii Romani 322

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Ancient World’s Largest Dome 211

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Hadrian and Apollodorus of Damascus 212

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Iaia of Cyzicus and the Art of Encaustic Painting 217

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Tetrarchic Portraiture 224

M A P 7-1   The Roman Empire at the death of Trajan in 117 ce 178

THE BIG PICTURE   229

8 Late Antiquity  230 FRAMING THE ERA Romans, Jews, and Christians 231 T I M E L I N E   232

The Late Antique World 232

From the Soldier Emperors to the Sack of Rome 232

From the Sack of Rome to Justinian 248 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Early Christian Saints

and Their Attributes 236

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Jewish Subjects in Christian Art 238

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Life of Jesus in Art 240

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : What Should a Church Look Like? 242

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Medieval Manuscript Illumination 245

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Ivory Carving 246

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Mosaics 251

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Picturing the Spiritual World 254

M A P 8 -1   The Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity 232

THE BIG PICTURE   255

9 Byzantium  256 FRAMING THE ERA Church and State United 257 T I M E L I N E   258

The Christian Roman Empire 258

Early Byzantine Art 259

Middle Byzantine Art 272

Late Byzantine Art 280 ■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : The Emperors of New Rome 261

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Placing a Dome over a Square 264

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Contents xi

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen 325

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Medieval Monasteries and Benedictine Rule 327

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Theophanu, a Byzantine Princess at the Ottonian Court 334

M A P 1 1 -1   The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne in 814 321

THE BIG PICTURE   337

12 Romanesque Europe  338 FRAMING THE ERA The Door to Salvation 339 T I M E L I N E   340

European Culture in the New Millennium 340 France and Northern Spain 340 Holy Roman Empire 357 Italy 363 Normandy and England 365 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Veneration

of Relics 341

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 342

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Timber Roofs and Stone Vaults 345

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Romanesque Revival of Stone Sculpture 346

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Bernard of Clairvaux on Cloister Sculpture 348

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Romanesque Church Portal 350

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Terrifying the Faithful at Autun 352

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Crusades 354

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Romanesque Countesses, Queens, and Nuns 360

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Embroidery and Tapestry 370

M A P 1 2 -1   Western Europe around 1100 342

THE BIG PICTURE   371

13 Gothic Europe  372 FRAMING THE ERA “Modern Architecture” in the Gothic Age 373 T I M E L I N E   374

“Gothic” 374

France 374

Opus Francigenum outside France 399

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Abbot Suger and the Rebuilding of Saint-Denis 375

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Gothic Rib Vault 378

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Paris, the New Center of Medieval Learning 380

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Building a High Gothic Cathedral 381

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Stained-Glass Windows 384

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Gothic Book Production 394

M A P 1 3 -1   Europe around 1200 374

THE BIG PICTURE   409

14 Late Medieval Italy  410 FRAMING THE ERA Late Medieval or Proto- Renaissance? 411 T I M E L I N E   412

Duecento (13th Century) 412

Trecento (14th Century) 417 ■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Italian Artists’ Names 413

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Great Schism, Mendicant Orders, and Confraternities 415

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Fresco Painting 419

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Commissions, and Artists’ Contracts 422

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Artistic Training in Renaissance Italy 426

M A P 1 4 -1   Italy around 1400 412

THE BIG PICTURE   433

Notes 434 Glossary 435 Bibliography 448 Credits 458 Index 461

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pieces as the Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp, France, and the Guggenheim Museum in New York. The 15th edition also features an expanded number of the highly acclaimed architectural draw- ings of John Burge. Together, these exclusive photographs, videos, and drawings provide readers with a visual feast unavailable any- where else.

Once again, a scale accompanies the photograph of every painting, statue, or other artwork discussed—another unique fea- ture of the Gardner text. The scales provide students with a quick and effective way to visualize how big or small a given artwork is and its relative size compared with other objects in the same chapter and throughout the book—especially important given that the illus- trated works vary in size from tiny to colossal.

Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions (brief synopses of the most significant aspects of each artwork or building illustrated) that students have found invaluable when pre- paring for examinations. These extended captions accompany not only every image in the printed book but also all the digital images in the online supplement. Each chapter also again ends with the highly popular full-page feature called The Big Picture, which sets forth in bullet-point format the most important characteristics of each period or artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Also retained from the 14th edition are the timeline summarizing the major artistic and architectural developments during the era treated (again in bullet-point format for easy review) and a chapter-opening essay called Framing the Era, which discusses a characteristic paint- ing, sculpture, or building and is illustrated by four photographs.

Another pedagogical tool not found in any other introductory art history textbook is the Before 1300 section that appears at the beginning of the second volume of the book and at the beginning of Book D of the backpack edition. Because many students taking the second half of a survey course will not have access to Volume I or to Books A and B, I have provided a special (expanded) set of concise primers on architectural terminology and construction methods in the ancient and medieval worlds, and on mythology and reli- gion—information that is essential for understanding the history of Western art after 1300. The subjects of these special boxes are Greco-Roman Temple Design and the Classical Orders; Arches and Vaults; Basilican Churches; Central-Plan Churches; the Gods and Goddesses of Mount Olympus; the Life of Jesus in Art; and Early Christian Saints and Their Attributes.

Boxed essays once again appear throughout the book as well. These essays fall under eight broad categories, two of which are new to the 15th edition:

Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun- dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions are concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the major aspects of design and construction. The information included is essen- tial to an understanding of architectural technology and terminology.

I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and expanded 15th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The West- ern Perspective, which, like the 14th edition, is a hybrid art history textbook—the first, and still the only, introductory survey of the history of art of its kind. This innovative new kind of “Gardner” retains all of the best features of traditional books on paper while harnessing 21st-century technology to significantly increase the number of works examined—without substantially increasing the size of the text or abbreviating the discussion of each work.

When Helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that nearly a century later, instructors all over the world would still be using her textbook (available even in Mandarin Chinese) in their classrooms. Indeed, if she were alive today, she would not recognize the book that, even in its traditional form, long ago became—and remains—the world’s most widely read introduction to the history of art and architecture. I hope that instructors and students alike will agree that this new edition lives up to the venerable Gardner tradition and even exceeds their high expectations.

The 15th edition follows the 14th in incorporating an innova- tive new online component that includes, in addition to a host of other features (enumerated below), bonus essays and bonus images (with zoom capability) of nearly 300 additional important works of all eras, from prehistory to the present. The printed and online components of the hybrid 15th edition are very closely integrated. For example, every one of the bonus essays is cited in the text of the traditional book, and a thumbnail image of each work, with abbreviated caption, is inset into the text column where the work is mentioned. The integration extends also to the maps, index, glos- sary, and chapter summaries, which seamlessly merge the printed and online information.

KEY FEATURES OF THE 15TH EDITION In this new edition, in addition to revising the text of every chapter to incorporate the latest research and methodological develop- ments, I have added several important features while retaining the basic format and scope of the previous edition. Once again, the hybrid Gardner boasts roughly 1,400 photographs, plans, and draw- ings, nearly all in color and reproduced according to the highest standards of clarity and color fidelity, including hundreds of new images, among them a new series of superb photos taken by Jona- than Poore exclusively for Art through the Ages during photographic campaigns in 2012 and 2013 in Germany and Rome (following similar forays into France and Tuscany in 2009–2011). The online component also includes custom videos made at architectural sites. This extraordinary new archive of visual material ranges from ancient temples in Rome; to medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque churches in France, Germany, and Italy; to such modernist master-

Preface

xiii

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Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media that artists employed from prehistoric to modern times. Because materi- als and techniques often influence the character of artworks, these discussions contain essential information on why many monuments appear as they do.

Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi- pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to the representation of religious and mythological themes in painting and sculpture. These discussions of belief systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding of some of the greatest artworks ever created.

Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political, cultural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some instances, specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of broader themes.

Written Sources present and discuss key historical documents illuminating important monuments of Western art and architecture. The passages quoted permit voices from the past to speak directly to the reader, providing vivid and unique insights into the creation of artworks in all media.

In the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects throughout history discuss both their theories and individual works.