Public speaking for college and career 11th edition

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Public Speaking for College & Career

11e

Hamilton Gregory Asheville-Buncombe Technical Community College

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PUBLIC SPEAKING FOR COLLEGE & CAREER, ELEVENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2018 by Hamilton Gregory. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2010, 2008, and 2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN 978-0-07-803698-9 (student edition) MHID 0-07-803698-4 (student edition) ISBN 978-1-259-89992-8 (annotated instructor’s edition) MHID 1-259-89992-6 (annotated instructor’s edition)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gregory, Hamilton. Title: Public speaking for college & career / Hamilton Gregory. Other titles: Public speaking for college and career Description: Eleventh edition. | New York : McGraw-Hill, 2016. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016040032 | ISBN 9780078036989 (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Public speaking. Classification: LCC PN4121 .G716 2016 | DDC 808.5/1—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016040032

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Dedicated to the memory of Merrell, my beloved wife and best friend

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Brief Contents

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Preface xi

Foundations of Effective Communication Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 2

Chapter 2 Managing Nervousness 20

Chapter 3 Listening 36

Developing a Focus Chapter 4 Reaching the Audience 52

Chapter 5 Selecting Topic, Purpose, and Central Idea 72

Preparing Content Chapter 6 Locating Information 88

Chapter 7 Evaluating Information and Avoiding Plagiarism 108

Chapter 8 Suporting Your Ideas 130

Chapter 9 Presentation Aids 148

Organizing the Speech Chapter 10 The Body of the Speech 178

Chapter 11 Introductions and Conclusions 198

Chapter 12 Outlining the Speech 216

Presenting the Speech Chapter 13 Wording the Speech 236

Chapter 14 Delivering the Speech 254

Types of Public Speaking Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 280

Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 302

Chapter 17 Persuasive Strategies 322

Chapter 18 Speaking on Special Occasions 352

Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 368

Glossary 384

Index 388

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Contents

Preface xi

Part 1 Foundations of Effective Communication

Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 2

Benefits of a Public Speaking Course 4

The Speech Communication Process 6

Elements of the Process 6

TIP 1 Seek Feedback 9

The Process in Everyday Life 10

The Speaker’s Responsibilities 10

Maintain High Ethical Standards 10

Enrich Listeners’ Lives 11

Take Every Speech Seriously 12

Speech Introducing Yourself or a Classmate 12

Sample Self-Introduction Speech 13

Sample Speech Introducing a Classmate 13

Quick Guide to Public Speaking 14

Preparation 14

Delivery 16

TIP 2 Avoid the Five Biggest Mistakes Made by Speakers 17

Resources for Review and Skill Building 17

Chapter 2 Managing Nervousness 20

Reasons for Nervousness 22

The Value of Fear 22

Guidelines for Managing Nervousness 23

In the Planning Stage 23

Immediately before the Speech 26

During the Speech 27

TIP 1 Prepare for Memory Lapses 30

Resources for Review and Skill Building 34

Chapter 3 Listening 36

Introduction to Listening 38

The Problem of Poor Listening Skills 38

How to Listen Effectively 39

Prepare Yourself 39

Be Willing to Expend Energy 39

Listen Analytically 40

Take Notes 40

TIP 1 Take Notes in Important Conversations and Small-Group Meetings 42

Resist Distractions 42

TIP 2 Learn How Listeners Show Respect in Different Cultures 43

Avoid Fake Listening 43

Give Every Speaker a Fair Chance 43

Control Emotions 44

The Listener’s Responsibilities 44

Show Courtesy and Respect 44

TIP 3 Confront Electronic Rudeness 46

Provide Encouragement 47

Find Value in Every Speech 47

Speech Evaluations 48

When Evaluating 48

TIP 4 Express Appreciation to a Speaker 49

When Receiving Evaluations 49

Resources for Review and Skill Building 50

Part 2 Developing a Focus

Chapter 4 Reaching the Audience 52

The Audience-Centered Speaker 54

TIP 1 Be Sensitive to Audience Discomfort 55

Getting Information about the Audience 55

Interviews 55

Surveys 56

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Audience Diversity 56

Gender 57

Age 58

Educational Background 58

Occupation 58

Religious Affiliation 58

Economic and Social Status 59

International Listeners 59

America’s Diverse Cultures 60

TIP 2 Work Closely with Interpreters 61

Listeners with Disabilities 62

Audience Knowledge 63

Audience Psychology 64

Interest Level 64

Attitudes 64

The Occasion 66

Time Limit 66

TIP 3 Be Prepared to Trim Your Remarks 67

Expectations 67

Other Events on the Program 67

Audience Size 68

Adapting during the Speech 68

Resources for Review and Skill Building 69

Chapter 5 Selecting Topic, Purpose, and Central Idea 72

Selecting a Topic 74

Select a Topic You Care About 74

Select a Topic You Can Master 74

Select a Topic That Will Interest the Audience 77

Narrow the Topic 78

The General Purpose 79

To Inform 79

To Persuade 79

To Entertain 79

TIP 1 Examine Your Hidden Purposes 80

The Specific Purpose 80

Begin the Statement with an Infinitive 81

Include a Reference to Your Audience 81

Limit the Statement to One Major Idea 81

Make Your Statement as Precise as Possible 81

Achieve Your Objective in the Time Allotted 82

Don’t Be Too Technical 82

The Central Idea 82

Devising the Central Idea 83

Guidelines for the Central Idea 84

Overview of Speech Design 85

Resources for Review and Skill Building 86

Part 3 Preparing Content

Chapter 6 Locating Information 88

Misconceptions about Research 90

Finding Materials Efficiently 90

Begin with a Purpose Statement 90

Plan Your Time 91

Searching Electronically 91

Libraries 92

Getting Help from Librarians 92

Books 93

Articles 93

Interlibrary Loan 94

Online Research 94

Search Engines 94

Specialized Research 95

Apps 95

Online Communities and Individuals 96

Field Research 96

Experiences and Investigations 97

Surveys 97

Interviews with Experts 97

Saving Key Information 101

TIP 1 Develop a Filing System for Important Ideas 102

Printouts and Photocopies 102

Notes 102

Resources for Review and Skill Building 105

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Chapter 7 Evaluating Information and Avoiding Plagiarism 108

Being an Honest Investigator 110

Finding Trustworthy Information 110

Applying Critical-Thinking Skills 111

Recognize Dubious Claims 111

Find More Than One Source 112

Examine Opposing Viewpoints 112

Be Cautious When Using Polls 113

Recognize the Fallibility of Experts 113

Beware of Groups with Misleading Names 114

TIP 1 Be Willing to Challenge Reports in the Media 115

Analyzing Internet Sites 115

Don’t Be Swayed by Widespread Dissemination 115

Watch Out for Web Manipulation 116

Don’t Be Dazzled by High-Tech Design 116

Investigate Sponsors and Authors 117

Look for Verifications 119

Avoiding Plagiarism 120

Types of Plagiarism 120

Giving Credit to Sources 121

TIP 2 Be Specific When Citing Internet Sources 124

Using Copyrighted Material 124

Resources for Review and Skill Building 126

Chapter 8 Supporting Your Ideas 130

Reasons for Using Support Materials 132 To Develop and Illustrate Ideas 132

To Clarify Ideas 132

To Make a Speech More Interesting 132

To Help Listeners Remember Key Ideas 132

To Help Prove a Point 133

Types of Support Materials 133 Definition 133

Vivid Image 134

Example 134

Narrative 134

Comparison and Contrast 136

Analogy 136

Testimony 137

TIP 1 Give Listeners Bonus Material 138

Statistics 139

Sample Speech with Commentary 143

Resources for Review and Skill Building 146

Chapter 9 Presentation Aids 148

Advantages of Visual Aids 150

Types of Visual Aids 150

Graphs 151

Charts 152

Drawings and Photos 153

Video and Animation 154

Objects and Models 155

TIP 1 Never Let Visuals Substitute for a Speech 156

Yourself and Volunteers 156

Presentation Software 156

Types of Software 157

PowerPoint Slides 157

Media for Visual Aids 166

Multimedia Projectors 166

Boards 166

Posters 166

Flip Charts 167

Handouts 167

Visual Presenters 168

Overhead Transparencies 168

Preparing Visual Aids 168

Choose Visuals That Truly Support Your Speech 168

Prepare and Practice Far in Advance 169

Choose the Appropriate Number of Visuals 169

Make Visual Aids Simple and Clear 169

Aim for Back-Row Comprehension 169

Use Colors Carefully 170

Presenting Visual Aids 170

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Choose the Best Time to Show Visuals 170

Never Circulate Visual Aids among the Audience 171

TIP 2 Ask a Friend to Assist You 172

Remove Physical Barriers 172

Make Sure Listeners Get Maximum Benefit from Visuals 172

Don’t Let Visuals Distract from Your Message 173

Don’t Talk to Your Visual Aid 173

Use Progressive Revelation 173

Plan for Emergencies 174

Communicating in Other Channels 174

Hearing 174

Taste and Smell 174

Touch and Physical Activity 175

Using Multiple Channels 175

Resources for Review and Skill Building 175

Part 4 Organizing the Speech

Chapter 10 The Body of the Speech 178

The Importance of Organization 180

Creating the Body 180

Devising Main Points 182

Limit the Number of Main Points 182

Restrict Each Main Point to a Single Idea 183

Avoid Announcements 183

Customize Points for Each Audience 183

TIP 1 Test and Verify Your Material 184

Use Parallel Language Whenever Possible 184

Organizing Main Points 185

Chronological Pattern 185

Spatial Pattern 186

Cause–Effect Pattern 186

Problem–Solution Pattern 187

Topical Pattern 187

Selecting Support Materials 189

Supplying Transitions 191

Bridges 191

Internal Summaries 192

Signposts 192

Spotlights 192

Simplifying the Process 193

Resources for Review and Skill Building 194

Chapter 11 Introductions and Conclusions 198

Introductions 200

Gain Attention and Interest 200

Orient the Audience 204

TIP 1 Use an “Icebreaker” to Start Off a Commu- nity Speech 205

Guidelines for Introductions 207

Conclusions 208

Signal the End 208

Summarize Key Ideas 208

Reinforce the Central Idea with a Clincher 209

Guidelines for Conclusions 211

Sample Introduction and Conclusion 211

Resources for Review and Skill Building 212

Chapter 12 Outlining the Speech 216

Guidelines for Outlining 218

Choose an Outline Format 218

Use Standard Subdivisions 221

Avoid Single Subdivisions 221

TIP 1 When No Time Limit Is Set, Speak Briefly 222

Parts of the Outline 222

TIP 2 Decide How You Will Reveal Your Sources 224

Sample Outline with Commentary 224

Speaking Notes 228

Guidelines for Preparing Notes 229

Options for Notes 230

Controlling Your Material 231

Sample Speech as Presented 232

Resources for Review and Skill Building 234

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Part 5 Presenting the Speech

Chapter 13 Wording the Speech 236

The Power of Words 238

Finding the Right Words 238 Using Appropriate Words 239

Use Gender-Neutral Terms 239

Avoid Gender-Biased Pronoun Usage 239

TIP 1 Omit Crude Language 240

Using Words Accurately 240 Use Precise Denotations 240

Control Connotations 241

Use Correct Grammar 241

Achieving Clarity 243 Use Simple Words 243

Use Concrete Words 243

Use Precise Words 243

Using Vivid Language 246 Imagery 246

Metaphors and Similes 247

Using Rhetorical Devices 247 Alliteration 247

TIP 2 Explore Rhetorical Devices 248

Antithesis 248

Parallel Structure and Repetition 248

Oral versus Written Language 249 Resources for Review and Skill Building 250

Chapter 14 Delivering the Speech 254

The Key to Good Delivery 256 Methods of Speaking 256

Memorization 256

Manuscript 257

Impromptu 258

Extemporaneous 259

Voice 260 Volume 260

Clarity 261

Expressiveness 261

Nonverbal Communication 265 Personal Appearance 266

Eye Contact 267

Facial Expressions 267

Posture 267

TIP 1 Decide Whether and How to Use a Lectern 268

Movement 268

Using Notes 268

Gestures 269

TIP 2 Deal with Distractions in a Direct but Good- Humored Manner 270

Beginning and Ending 270

The Question-and-Answer Period 271 Practice 273 Speaking in Front of a Camera 274

General Strategies 274

Strategies When You Are in Charge 275

Resources for Review and Skill Building 277

Part 6 Types of Public Speaking

Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform 280

Goals of Informative Speaking 282 Types of Informative Speeches 282

Definition Speech 282

Description Speech 283

Process Speech 285

Explanation Speech 287

Guidelines for Informative Speaking 289 Relate the Speech to the Listeners’ Self-Interest 289

Make Information Interesting 289

TIP 1 For Long Presentations, Plan a Variety of Activities 291

Avoid Information Overload 291

Tailor Information for Each Audience 291

Use the Familiar to Explain the Unfamiliar 292

Help Listeners Remember Key Information 292

Sample Informative Speech 293

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The Outline with Commentary 294

The Speech as Delivered 298

Resources for Review and Skill Building 299

Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade 302

Goals of Persuasive Speaking 304 Types of Persuasive Speeches 304

Speech to Influence Thinking 304

Speech to Motivate Action 305

TIP 1 Use Role Play to Change Behavior 307

Patterns of Organization 307 Motivated Sequence 307

Problem–Solution Pattern 311

Statement-of-Reasons Pattern 311

TIP 2 View Persuasion as a Long-Term Process 312

Comparative-Advantages Pattern 312

Sample Persuasive Speech 313

The Outline with Commentary 313

The Speech as Delivered 317

After the Persuasive Speech 319

Resources for Review and Skill Building 320

Chapter 17 Persuasive Strategies 322

Knowing Your Audience 324

Analyze Listeners 324

Use a Persuasion Scale 324

Plan Your Strategy 324

TIP 1 Don’t Expect Universal Success 325

Building Credibility 327

Explain Your Competence 327

Be Accurate 327

Show Your Open-Mindedness 328

TIP 2 In a Debate, Be Reasonable and Fair 329

Show Common Ground with Your Audience 329

Providing Evidence 331

Using Sound Reasoning 332

Deduction 333

Induction 334

Fallacies in Reasoning 336

Appealing to Motivations 340

Some Common Motivations 340

Multiple Motivations 341

Arousing Emotions 341

Sample Persuasive Speech 343

The Outline with Commentary 344

The Speech as Delivered 346

Resources for Review and Skill Building 348

Chapter 18 Speaking on Special Occasions 352

Entertaining Speech 354

Techniques for Entertaining 354

TIP 1 Move Listeners Together 356

Sample Entertaining Speech 356

Speech of Introduction 358

Speech of Presentation 360

Speech of Acceptance 360

Speech of Tribute 361

Wedding Speeches 361

Toasts 362

Eulogies 363

Inspirational Speech 364

Resources for Review and Skill Building 364

Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups 368

Meetings 370

Responsibilities of Leaders 370

Responsibilities of Participants 373

The Reflective-Thinking Method 374

Group Presentations 377

Team Presentation 377

TIP 1 Strive to Improve Communication Skills 378

Symposium 379

Panel Discussion 379

TIP 2 Remember the Essentials 381

Resources for Review and Skill Building 382 Glossary 384

Index 388

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Preface

McGraw-Hill Connect: An Overview McGraw-Hill Connect offers full-semester access to comprehensive, reliable content and Learning Resources for the Public Speaking course. Connect’s deep integra- tion with most learning management systems (LMS), including Blackboard and Desire2Learn (D2L), offers single sign-on and deep gradebook synchronization. Data from Assignment Results reports synchronize directly with many LMS, allowing scores to flow automatically from Connect into school-specific gradebooks, if required.

The following tools and services are available as part of Connect for the Public Speaking course:

SmartBook

Tool Instructional Context Description

Connect Insight for Instructors

• SmartBook is an engaging and interactive reading experience for mastering fundamental Public Speaking content.

• The metacognitive component confirms learners’ understanding of the material.

• Instructors can actively connect SmartBook assignments and results to higher-order classroom work and one-on-one student conferences.

• Learners can track their own understanding and mastery of course concepts and identify gaps in their knowledge.

• Connect Insight for Instructors is an analytics resource that produces quick feedback related to learner performance and learner engagement.

• It is designed as a dashboard for both quick check-ins and detailed performance and engagement views.

• SmartBook is an adaptive reading experience designed to change the way learners read and learn. It creates a personalized reading experience by highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time.

• SmartBook creates personalized learning plans based on student responses to content question probes and confidence scales, identifying the topics learners are struggling with and providing Learning Resources to create personalized learning moments.

• SmartBook includes a variety of Learning Resources tied directly to key content areas to provide students with additional instruction and context. This includes video and media clips, interactive slide content, mini lectures, and image analyses.

• SmartBook Reports provide instructors with data to quantify success and identify problem areas that require addressing in and out of the classroom.

• Learners can access their own progress and concept mastery reports.

• Connect Insight for Instructors offers a series of visual data displays that provide analysis on five key insights:

• How are my students doing?

• How is this one student doing?

• How is my section doing?

• How is this assignment doing?

• How are my assignments doing?

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Tool Instructional Context Description

Speech Assignment/ Video Submission Assignment

Connect Insight for Students

• Connect Insight for Students is a powerful data analytics tool that provides at-a-glance visualizations to help learners understand their performance on Connect assignments.

• Speech Assignment (Video Submission Assignment in student view) provides instructors with a comprehensive and efficient way of managing in-class and online speech assignments, including student self-reviews, peer reviews, and instructor grading.

• Connect Insight for Students offers details on each Connect assignment to learners. When possible, it offers suggestions for the learners on how they can improve scores. This data can help guide learners to behaviors that will lead to better scores in the future.

• The Speech Assignment tool allows instructors to easily and efficiently set up speech assignments for their course that can easily be shared and repurposed, as needed, throughout their use of Connect.

• Customizable rubrics and settings can be saved and shared, saving time and streamlining the speech assignment process from creation to assessment.

• Speech Assignment allows users, both students and instructors, to view videos during the assessment process. Feedback can be left within a customized rubric or as time-stamped comments within the video-playback itself.

Speech Preparation Tools

• Speech Preparation Tools provide learners with additional support and include Topic Helper, Outline Tool, and access to third-party Internet sites like EasyBib (for formatting citations) and Survey Monkey (to create audience-analysis questionnaires and surveys).

• Speech Preparation Tools provide learners with additional resources to help with the preparation and outlining of speeches, as well as with audience-analysis surveys.

• Instructors have the ability to make tools either available or unavailable to learners.

Instructor Reports

• Instructor Reports provide data that may be useful for assessing programs or courses as part of the accreditation process.

• Connect generates a number of powerful reports and charts that allow instructors to quickly review the performance of a given learner or an entire section.

• Instructors can run reports that span multiple sections and instructors, making it an ideal solution for individual professors, course coordinators, and department chairs.

Student Reports

• Student Reports allow learners to review their performance for specific assignments or for the course.

• Learners can keep track of their performance and identify areas with which they struggle.

Pre- & Post-Tests

• Instructors can generate their own pre- and post-tests from the test bank.

• Pre- and post-tests demonstrate what learners already know before class begins and what they have learned by the end.

• Instructors have access to two sets of pre- and post-tests (at two levels). Instructors can use these tests to create a diagnostic and post- diagnostic exam via Connect.

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Tool Instructional Context Description

Simple LMS Integration

Tegrity • Tegrity allows instructors to capture course material or lectures on video.

• Students can watch videos recorded by their instructor and learn course material at their own pace.

• Connect seamlessly integrates with every learning management system.

• Instructors can keep track of which learners have watched the videos they post.

• Learners can watch and review lectures by their instructor.

• Learners can search each lecture for specific bites of information.

• Learners have automatic single sign-on.

• Connect assignment results sync to the LMS’s gradebook.

Instructor’s Guide to Connect for Public Speaking for College & Career When you assign Connect you can be confident—and have data to demonstrate—that the learners in your course, however diverse, are acquiring the skills, principles, and critical processes that constitute effective public speaking. This leaves you to focus on your highest course expectations.

TAILORED TO YOU. Connect offers on-demand, single sign-on access to learners— wherever they are and whenever they have time. With a single, one-time registration, learners receive access to McGraw-Hill’s trusted content. Learners also have a courtesy trial period during registration.

EASY TO USE. Connect seamlessly supports all major learning management systems with content, assignments, performance data, and LearnSmart, the leading adaptive learning system. With these tools you can quickly make assignments, produce reports, focus discussions, intervene on problem topics, and help at-risk learners—as you need to and when you need to.

Public Speaking for College & Career SmartBook A PERSONALIZED AND ADAPTIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCE WITH SMARTBOOK. Boost learner success with McGraw-Hill’s adaptive reading and study experience. The Public Speaking for College & Career SmartBook highlights the most impactful public speaking concepts the student needs to learn at that moment in time. The learning path continuously adapts and, based on what the individual learner knows and does not know, provides focused help through targeted question probes and Learning Resources.

ENHANCED FOR THE NEW EDITION! With a suite of new Learning Resources and question probes, as well as highlights of key chapter concepts, SmartBook’s intui- tive technology optimizes learner study time by creating a personalized learning path for improved course performance and overall learner success.

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HUNDREDS OF INTERACTIVE LEARNING RESOURCES. Presented in a range of interactive styles, Public Speaking for College & Career Learning Resources support learners who may be struggling to master, or simply wish to review, the most important public speaking concepts. Designed to reinforce the most important chapter concepts—from topic selection and research skills to the outlining and delivery of presentations—every Learning Resource is presented at the precise moment of need. Whether video, audio clip, or interactive mini-lesson, each of the 200-plus Learning Resources was created for the new edition and was designed to give learners a lifelong foundation in strong public speaking skills.

SmartBook highlights the key concepts of every chapter, offering the learner a high-impact learning experience. Here, highlighted text and an illustration together explain the researching process (left). Highlights change color (right) when a student has demonstrated his or her understanding of the concept.

MORE THAN 1,000 TARGETED QUESTION PROBES. Class-tested at col- leges and universities nationwide, a treasury of engaging question probes—new and revised, more than 1,000 in all—gives learners the information on public speaking they need to know, at every stage of the learning process, in order to thrive in the course. Designed to gauge learners’ comprehension of the most important Public Speaking for College & Career chapter concepts, and presented in a variety of

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interactive styles to facilitate student engagement, targeted question probes give learners immediate feedback on their understanding of the material. Each question probe identifies a learner’s familiarity with the instruction and points to areas where additional remediation is needed.

INFORMED BY THE LATEST RESEARCH. The best insights from today’s lead- ing public speaking scholars infuse every lesson and are integrated throughout Public Speaking for College & Career.

FRESH EXAMPLES ANCHORED IN THE REAL WORLD. Every chapter of Public Speaking for College & Career opens with a vignette exploring both public speaking challenges and successes. Dozens of additional examples appear throughout the new edition, each demonstrating an essential element of the public speaking process. Whether learners are reading a chapter, responding to a question probe, or reviewing key concepts in a Learning Resource, their every instructional moment is rooted in the real world. McGraw-Hill research shows that high-quality examples reinforce academic theory throughout the course. Relevant examples and practical scenarios—reflecting interactions in school, the workplace, and beyond—demonstrate how effective public speaking informs and enhances students’ lives and careers.

FEATURES. Critical-thinking skills are vital in the classroom, on the job, and in the community. Students who build these skills will be better speakers, listeners, and citizens as they strive to understand and evaluate what they see, hear, and read. The new edition of Public Speaking for College & Career includes a variety of boxed and end-of-chapter features to support student learning and enhance critical-thinking skills.

∙ “Examining Your Ethics” exercises provide real-world scenarios that pose ethical dilemmas and ask students to make a choice. Students can check their answers at the end of the chapter.

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speaker’s mistakes?” Here is an example of how one business executive profited from a poor speech:

At a convention recently I found myself in an extremely boring seminar (on listening, ironically enough). After spending the first half-hour wishing I had never signed up, I decided to take advantage of the situation. I turned my thought, “This guy isn’t teaching me how to run a seminar on listening,” into a question: “What is he teaching me about how not to run a seminar?” While providing a negative example was not the presenter’s goal, I got a useful lesson.17

“When life hands you a lemon, make lemonade,” some wise person once advised. If you look for value or a how-not-to-do-it lesson in every poor speech, you will find that the sourest oratorical lemon can be turned into lemonade. “Know how to listen,” the Greek writer Plutarch said 20 centuries ago, “and you will profit even from those who talk badly.”18

Speech Evaluations Both evaluators and speakers profit from a speech evaluation. Evaluators gain insights into what works and what doesn’t work in speechmaking, and speakers can use sugges- tions to improve their speaking skills.

When Evaluating Evaluating speeches should not be limited to a public speaking class. You also can apply these techniques to speeches that you hear in your career.

Establish criteria. Before you listen to a speech, decide upon the criteria for judging it. This will keep you from omitting important elements. For classroom speeches, your instructor may give you a checklist or tell you to analyze certain features of a speech. Otherwise, you can use the “Quick Guide to Public Speaking” found in the introduction to public speaking chapter for your criteria.

Listen objectively. Keep an open mind. Don’t let yourself be swayed emotionally by the speaker’s delivery or appearance. If, for example, a speaker sounds ill at ease and uncer- tain, this doesn’t necessarily mean that her arguments are inferior. Don’t let your own biases influence your criticism; for example, if you are strongly against gun control, but the speaker argues in favor of it, be careful to criticize the speaker’s ideas fairly and objectively.

Take notes. Jot down your observations throughout the speech so that you capture key elements.

Look for both positive and negative aspects. Emphasize the positive (so that the speaker will continue doing what works well) in addition to pointing out opportunities for improvement.

Give positive comments first. When it comes to public speaking, most people have easily bruised egos. If you start out a critique with negative remarks, you can damage the

Examining Your Ethics

Suppose that a classmate is rude and inattentive when you are giving a speech. When he gives his speech, which of the following is the best approach for listening to him?

A. As he speaks, show him how awful distractions are for a speaker by staring him down with a disapproving facial expression.

B. Ask him unfriendly and difficult questions during the question- and-answer period.

C. Listen to his speech attentively and politely.

For the answer, see the last page of this chapter.

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∙ “Tips for Your Career” boxes in every chapter give students insight about the types of things they will need to think about as presenters in their professional lives.

∙ “Building Critical- Thinking Skills” features at the end of each chapter give students practice in this valuable skill.

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Chapter 3 Listening 49

speaker’s confidence and self-esteem. Always begin by discussing his or her strengths. Point out positive attributes that might seem obvious to you but may not be obvious to the speaker. For example, you might say, “You looked poised and confident.”

Couple negative comments with positive alternatives. When you point out a flaw, immediately give a constructive alternative. For example, you can inform a speaker that she seems to be reading long sentences from a script, and then you can suggest an alternative: “Use note cards with just a few words on each card so that you can look at the audience most of the time and sound conversational.”

In most cases, ignore nervousness. Because most people cannot help being jittery, don’t criticize nervousness—unless you can give a useful tip. For example, it is unhelpful to say, “You looked tense and scared,” but it is helpful to say, “Your hands trembled when you held your note cards, and this was distracting. Next time, put your notes on the lectern.”

Be specific. Instead of saying, “You need to improve your eye contact,” say, “You looked at the floor too much rather than at the audience.” Instead of “You did great,” say, “Your introduction captivated me, and your stories were extremely interesting.”

When Receiving Evaluations To get maximum benefit from evaluations, follow these guidelines:

Don’t be defensive. Try to understand criticism and consider its merits. Don’t argue or counterattack.

Seek clarification. If an evaluator makes a comment that you don’t understand, ask for an explanation.

Strive for improvement. In your next speech, try to correct problem areas. But don’t feel that you must eliminate all errors or bad habits at once.

Whenever you find a speech enjoyable or profitable, let the speaker know. No matter how busy or important he or she is, genuine feedback will be greatly appreciated.

After giving a speech, some speakers are physically and emotionally exhausted, and they sit down with a nagging doubt: Did it go okay? A word of thanks or a compliment from a listener is refreshing and gratifying. (If you can’t express your appreciation in person right after the speech, write the speaker a brief note or send an e-mail or text message.)

Be sure to say something positive and specific about the content of the speech. A corporation president told me of a commencement address he had delivered to a col- lege several years before. “I sweated blood for a whole month putting that speech together and then rehearsing it

Tips for Your Career

Express Appreciation to a Speaker

TI P

4

dozens of times—it was my first commencement speech,” he said. “When I delivered the speech, I tried to speak straight from my heart. I thought I did a good job, and I thought my speech had some real nuggets of wisdom. But afterwards, only two people came by to thank me. And you know what? They both paid me the same compliment: they said they were grateful that I had kept the speech short! They said not one word about the ideas in my speech. Not one word about whether they enjoyed the speech itself. It’s depressing to think that the only thing noteworthy about my speech was its brevity.”

Sad to say, there were probably dozens of people in the audience whose hearts and minds were touched by the eloquent wisdom of the speaker—but they never told him.

50 Part 1 Foundations of Effective Communication

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Summary Listening effectively is often a difficult task, but it can be rewarding if you are willing to make the effort. Guidelines for effective listening include the following: 1. Prepare yourself intellectually and physically. Do back-

ground research to maximize your understanding of the new material in the speech. Get some exercise before the speech if necessary.

2. Listen analytically. Focus on main ideas and evaluate supports.

3. Take notes, not only to record key points but also to keep your mind from wandering.

4. Resist distractions, both external and internal. Use rigor- ous self-discipline to focus on the speaker’s remarks.

5. Avoid fakery. Don’t pretend to be listening when in fact your mind is wandering. This kind of behavior can settle into a hard-to-break habit.

6. Give every speaker a fair chance. Don’t discount a speaker because of personal appearance or the organiza- tion he or she represents.

7. Control your emotions. Don’t mentally argue with a speaker or else you might misunderstand what he or she is really saying.

As a listener you have three important obligations to a speaker: show courtesy and respect, provide encouragement, and find value in every speech. The more support you give a speaker, the better the speech will be, and the more you will profit from it.

Evaluating speeches can help you improve your own speechmaking skills. Look for both positive and negative aspects of a speech, and give specific, constructive suggestions. When you are on the receiving end of evaluations, don’t be defensive. Try to understand the criticism and then make improvements.

Key Terms hearing, 39 listening, 39

1. When a person is truly and deeply listening to you, what behaviors do you detect in his or her tone of voice, facial expression, eyes, and overall body language?

2. Science writer Judith Stone wrote, “There are two ways to approach a subject that frightens you and makes you

Building Critical-Thinking Skills feel stupid: you can embrace it with humility and an open mind, or you can ridicule it mercilessly.” Translate this idea into advice for listeners of speeches.

Resources for Review and Skill Building

1. What is the difference between hearing and listening? 2. Name at least four problems caused by ineffective listening. 3. What is the difference between listening to easy material

and listening to complex material? 4. List at least two ways in which you can prepare yourself

physically and intellectually to listen to a speech. 5. What two speech elements should a listener examine

analytically?

Review Questions 6. List two advantages of taking notes during a speech. 7. The text lists four types of distractions: auditory, visual,

physical, and mental. Give two examples of each type. 8. How can texting during a meeting hurt you in your career? 9. When you are a listener, how can you encourage a speaker? 10. When you evaluate a speech, how should you handle

both the positive and the negative aspects that you observe?

Speech Assignment/Video Submission Assignment Designed for use in face-to-face, real-time classrooms, as well as online courses, Speech Assignment (Video Submission Assignment in student view) allows you to evaluate your learners’ speeches using fully customizable rubrics. You can also create and manage peer review assignments and upload videos on behalf of learners for optimal flexibility.

Learners can access rubrics and leave comments when preparing self-reviews and peer reviews. They can easily upload a video of their speech from their hard drive or use Connect’s built-in video recorder. Learners can even attach and upload additional files or documents, such as a works cited page or a PowerPoint presentation.

PEER REVIEW. Peer review assignments are easier than ever. Create and manage peer review assignments and customize privacy settings.

SPEECH ASSESSMENT. Speech Assignments let you customize the assignments, including self- reviews and peer reviews. It also saves your fre- quently used comments, simplifying your efforts to provide feedback.

SELF-REFLECTION. The self-review feature allows learners to revisit their own presentations and compare their progress over time.

Data Analytics Connect Insight provides at-a-glance analysis on five key insights, available at a moment’s notice from your tablet device. The first and only analytics tool of its kind, Insight will tell you, in real time, how individual students or sections are doing (or how well your assign- ments have been received) so that you can take action early and keep struggling students from falling behind.

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Instructors can see how many learners have completed an assignment, how long they spent on the task, and how they scored.

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Instructors can see, at a glance, indi- vidual learner performance: analytics showing learner investment in assign- ments, and success at completing them, help instructors identify and aid those who are at risk.

Connect Reports Instructor Reports allow instructors to quickly monitor learner activity, making it easy to identify which learners are struggling and to pro- vide immediate help to ensure those learners stay enrolled in the course and improve their performance. The Instructor Reports also highlight the concepts and learning objectives that

the class as a whole is having difficulty grasping. This essential information lets you know exactly which areas to target for review during your limited class time.

Some key reports include:

Progress Overview report—View learner progress for all modules, including how long learners have spent working in the module, which modules they have used outside any that were assigned, and individual learner progress.

Missed Questions report—Identify specific probes, organized by chapter, that are problem- atic for learners.

Most Challenging Learning Objectives report—Identify the specific topic areas that are challenging for your learners; these reports are organized by chapter and include specific page references. Use this information to tailor your lecture time and assignments to cover areas that require additional remediation and practice.

Metacognitive Skills report—View statistics showing how knowledgeable your learners are about their own comprehension and learning.

Classroom Preparation Tools Whether before, during, or after class, there is a suite of Gregory products designed to help instructors plan their lessons and to keep learners building upon the foundations of the course.

ANNOTATED INSTRUCTOR’S EDITION. The Annotated Instructor’s Edition provides a wealth of teaching aids for each chapter in Public Speaking for College & Career. It is also cross-referenced with SmartBook, Connect, and other supplements that accompany Public Speaking for College & Career.

POWERPOINT SLIDES. The PowerPoint presentations for Public Speaking for College & Career provide chapter highlights that help instructors create focused yet individualized lesson plans.

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TEST BANK. The Test Bank is a treasury of more than 1,000 examination questions based on the most important public speaking concepts explored in Public Speaking for College & Career; more than 100 of the questions are new or revised for this edition.

Support to Ensure Success

∙ Digital Success Academy—The Digital Success Academy on Connect offers a wealth of training and course creation guidance for instructors and learners alike. Instructor support is presented in easy- to-navigate, easy-to-complete sections. It includes the popular Connect how-to videos, step-by-step Click through Guides, and First Day of Class materials that explain how to use both the Connect platform and its course-specific tools and features. http:// createwp.customer.mheducation.com/ wordpress-mu/success-academy/

∙ Digital Success Team—The Digital Success Team is a group of special- ists dedicated to working online with instructors—one-on-one—to demonstrate how the Connect platform works and to help incorporate Connect into a customer’s specific course design and syllabus. Con- tact your digital learning consultant to learn more.

∙ Digital Learning Consultants—Digital Learning Consultants are local resources who work closely with your McGraw-Hill learning technology consultants. They can provide face-to-face faculty support and training. http://shop.mheducation.com/store/paris/user/findltr.html

∙ Digital Faculty Consultants—Digital Faculty Consultants are experienced instructors who use Connect in their classrooms. These instructors are avail- able to offer suggestions, advice, and training about how best to use Connect in your class. To request a Digital Faculty Consultant to speak with, please e-mail your McGraw-Hill learning technology consultant. http://connect.customer. mheducation.com/dfc/

∙ National Training Webinars—McGraw-Hill offers an ongoing series of webinars for instructors to learn and master the Connect platform, as well as its course-specific tools and features. We hope you will refer to our online sched- ule of national training webinars and sign up to learn more about Connect! http://webinars.mhhe.com/

CONTACT OUR CUSTOMER SUPPORT TEAM McGraw-Hill is dedicated to supporting instructors and learners. To

contact our customer support team, please call us at 800-331-5094 or visit us online at http://mpss.mhhe.com/contact.php

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Chapter-by-Chapter Changes to the New Edition: Highlights New and updated material in this edition of Public Speaking for College & Career reflects the latest research in the field and the current available technology. Chapter 14 now includes a new section on how to speak in front of a camera, which provides guid- ance for being filmed for interviews or speeches, as well as for personally conducting online video interviews and filming speech assignments.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking: New sample self-introduction speech, sample speech introducing a classmate, and chapter opening vignette

Chapter 2 Managing Nervousness: Updated coverage of public figures who experi- ence speech anxiety; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 3 Listening: Updated images and examples

Chapter 4 Reaching the Audience: Revised sections on audience diversity; new Tips for Your Career box about being sensitive to audience discomfort; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 5 Selecting Topic, Purpose, and Central Idea: Updated figure; revised sec- tion on selecting a topic; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 6 Locating Information: Updated graph on research options; expanded coverage on library resources, research misconceptions, and searching electronically; revised examples and MLA formatting in Table 1; updated Tips for Your Career box on filing important ideas; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 7 Evaluating Information and Avoiding Plagiarism: Updated coverage on recognizing dubious claims, being wary of groups with misleading names, and analyz- ing Internet sites; revised Tips for Your Career box on being willing to challenge reports in the media

Chapter 8 Supporting Your Ideas: Revised sections on definition, vivid images, and statistics; revised Tips for Your Career box on giving listeners bonus material; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 9 Presentation Aids: Updated examples of visual aids; expanded coverage of linear versus non-linear presentation software; revised coverage of using colors care- fully; placement of PowerPoint slide problems and their solutions from an appendix to within the chapter; new Examining Your Ethics box on presenting appropriate visual aids; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 10 The Body of the Speech: Updated section on devising main points; new Examining Your Ethics box on organizing a speech; revised Tips for Your Career box on testing and verifying material; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 11 Introductions and Conclusions: Updated images and examples

Chapter 12 Outlining the Speech: Revised Tips for Your Career box on speech time limits, including new information on TED talks; new Examining Your Ethics box on devising an appropriate speech title; revised section on using a full sheet of paper for notes

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Chapter 13 Wording the Speech: Revised sections on using words accurately and achieving clarity; updated examples; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 14 Delivering the Speech: New section on speaking in front of a camera; revised Tips for Your Career box on dealing with distractions while giving a speech; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 15 Speaking to Inform: Revised sections on definition speeches and on mak- ing information interesting; new sample process speech

Chapter 16 Speaking to Persuade: Revised section of speeches to motivate action; new section, “After the Persuasive Speech,” with tips on creating “leave behinds” for an audience; new example of the motivated sequence; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 17 Persuasive Strategies: Revised sections on knowing your audience, providing evidence, and using sound reasoning; new examples of choosing evidence from credible sources and arousing emotions during a persuasive speech; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 18 Speaking on Special Occasions: New sample entertainment speech; expanded coverage of using humor; new chapter opening vignette

Chapter 19 Speaking in Groups: New Tips for Your Career box on essential public speaking advice; revised chapter opening vignette

Speeches Online To view 24 videos of full-length sample student speeches and dozens of video speech clips, visit the media bank in the Gregory Connect site. Included in the media bank are all the major speeches presented in this text, plus many more, including thirteen videos that are brand new to this edition. See below for a list of many of the full-length speeches available in Connect:

∙ House Arrest ∙ How to Hide Valuables ∙ Humanoid Robots ∙ Inmates and Tomatoes ∙ Not as Healthy as They Sound ∙ One Slip—and You’re Dead ∙ Scars and Bruises ∙ Sleep Deficiency ∙ Wedding Crashers ∙ Would You Vote for Aardvark? ∙ Your Body Needs Detoxification

(Needs Improvement)

∙ Animal Helpers (Needs Improve- ment Version)

∙ Animal Helpers (Improved Version)

∙ The Deadliest Natural Disaster ∙ Do You Need Detox? (Improved

Version) ∙ Failed to Get the Job? (Needs

Improvement) ∙ Failed to Get the Job? (Improved

Version) ∙ The Four-Day Work Week—Pros

and Cons ∙ Gold Fever

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Acknowledgments Over 200 instructors have reviewed this book in its successive editions. Their advice has not only shown me how to improve the book but has also helped me to improve my own classroom teaching. I am grateful to the reviewers for their insights, encourage- ment, and willingness to help a colleague.

For this edition, reviewers include Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University; Michele Daniels, Kilgore College; Jill Dietze, Northeast Texas Community College; Brandon Gainer, De Anza College; Carla J. Harrell, Old Dominion University; Dr. Pamela D. Hopkins, East Carolina University; Carolyn Jones, Medgar Evers College; Linda Levitt, Stephen F. Austin State University; William Maze, Northwest Mississippi Community College; Brad Nason, Ph.D., Pennsylvania College of Technology; Andrea Patterson-Masuka, Ph.D.,Winston-Salem State University; Lawrence J. Timko, Frederick Community College; Michael L. Tress, New Jersey Institute of Technology; Dr. Mary Tripp, Wisconsin Indianhead Technical College; and Carolyn Weber, Minnesota West Community and Technical College.

From the earliest days of this book, Betty Dvorson, an inspiring and popular instructor at City College of San Francisco, has given me lots of valuable advice and enthusiastic support. For their creative ideas, special thanks to Barbara Guess, Forsyth Technical Community College; Ruth Bennett, Betty Farmer, and Jim Manning, all of Western Carolina University; and Tom W. Gregory, Trinity College in Washington, D.C.

For this edition, I profited from working with Victoria DeRosa, a sagacious editor who helped me adapt the book to the needs and interests of today’s college students. I also benefitted from the support and vision of Nancy Huebner, Brand Manager; Lisa Pinto, Lead Product Developer; Laura Kennedy, Marketing Manager; Meghan Campbell, Director of Product Development; Sally Constable, Market Development Manager; and Michael O’Loughlin, Product Developer. I also appreciate the whole- hearted backing I have received from McGraw-Hill executives David Patterson, Managing Director, and Michael Ryan, Vice President and General Manager of Products & Markets.

Program Manager Jennifer Shekleton displayed admirable skill and care (and patience with me!) in guiding the book through the production stages, aided by Samantha Donisi-Hamm, Content Project Manager; Debra Kubiak, Design Manager; Jessica Serd, Designer; Janet Byrne Smith, Digital Product Analyst; Shawntel Schmitt and DeAnna Dausener, Content Licensing Specialists; Deb DeBord, proof- reader; and Christopher Greene, copyeditor.

Special thanks go out to the team behind the scenes who built and continue to maintain speech assignment functionality on Connect: Irina Blokh-Reznik, Vijay Kapu, Swathi Malathi, Rishi Mehta, Bob Myers, Bhumi Patel, Dan Roenstch, Ayeesha Shaik, Kapil Shrivastava, and Udaya Teegavarapu.

A new section in Chapter 14, “Speaking in Front of a Camera,” was derived from the ideas and insights of three communication instructors: Stephanie O’Brien, a member of the Director’s Guild of America who worked in Los Angeles on award-winning television series and motion pictures for 17 years as an assistant director and currently teaches communication and media studies courses at Asheville-Buncombe Technical Community College; Jan Caldwell, a communication instructor at the same college; and Melody Hays, Continuing Education Planner at Mountain Area Health Education Center in Asheville, North Carolina.

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I wish to thank the following colleagues for ideas, inspiration, and support: Kenet Adamson, Jennifer Browning, Jan Caldwell, Angela Calhoun, Jim Cavener, Patricia Cutspec, Rebecca Davis, Michael Flynn, Lynne Gabai, Deborah L. Harmon, Cris Harshman, Melody Hays, Peggy Higgins, Patrizia Hoffman, David Holcombe, Rusty Holmes, Lisa Johnson, Dennis King, Erika Lytle, Deb Maddox, Mary McClurkin, Celia Miles, Stephanie O’Brien, Jim Olsen, Rolfe Olsen, Susan Paterson, Ellen Perry, Heidi Smathers, Beth Stewart, Mary Sugeir, and Heather Vaughn.

I am indebted to the hundreds of students in my public speaking classes over the years who have made teaching this course a pleasant and rewarding task. From them I have drawn most of the examples of classroom speeches.

And for their support and patience, special thanks to my late wife Merrell and to our children, Jess, Jim, and June.

— Hamilton Gregory

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OUTLINE

Benefits of a Public Speaking Course

The Speech Communication Process

The Speaker’s Responsibilities

Speech Introducing Yourself or a Classmate

Quick Guide to Public Speaking

OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to

1. Explain five benefits of a public speaking course. 2. Identify and explain the seven elements of the speech

communication process.

3. Describe the main responsibilities that speakers have toward their listeners.

4. Prepare a speech introducing yourself or a classmate.

UPSET WHEN THEY DISCOVERED that African-American students were being

barred from joining sororities on their campus, two University of Alabama students—

Khortlan Patterson of Houston, Texas, and Yardena Wolf of Corvallis, Oregon—felt

compelled to speak out. They led a march of 400 students and professors to the

steps of the administration building, where they both gave speeches calling for an

end to the segregated system.

Their message was heard loud and clear. University president Judy Bonner quickly

proclaimed that “the University of Alabama will not tolerate discrimination of any

kind,” and a few days later, she announced that traditionally white sororities had

invited 11 African-American students to join.1

Both Patterson and Wolf had taken a public speaking course, so they knew how

to plan a speech and manage their nerves. Patterson says she calmed herself by

Introduction to Public Speaking

CHAPTER

1

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focusing on “the message [she] wanted to convey.”2 Wolf used positive

thoughts: “I realized that it wasn’t really about me, rather about the big-

ger picture, and that not speaking wasn’t an option.”3

Patterson and Wolf not only displayed courage by speaking out, but they

also demonstrated that public speakers can touch lives and make contri-

butions to society.

University of Alabama students Khortlan Patterson, left, and Yardena Wolf speak out against the university’s segregated sorority system.

© Dave Martin/AP Images

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Benefits of a Public Speaking Course Many college graduates say that of all the courses they took, public speaking proved to be one of the most valuable.4 Here are some of the reasons:

1. You learn how to speak to an audience. Being able to stand up and give a talk to a group of people is a rewarding skill you can use throughout your life. Imagine yourself in these public speaking scenarios:

∙ In one of your college classes, you must give a 30-minute presentation on a research project.

∙ To 50 colleagues at work, you give a brief speech appealing for contributions to the United Way charity drive.

∙ In court, you explain to a jury why a traffic accident was not your fault.

2. You learn skills that apply to one-on-one communication. Although the emphasis of this course is on speaking to groups, the principles that you learn also apply to communication with individuals.5 Throughout your lifetime you will be obliged to talk in situations such as these:

∙ In a job interview, a human resources manager says, “We’ve got 50 well- qualified applicants for this job. Why should we hire you?” If you know how to give a reply that is brief, interesting, and convincing, you obviously improve your chances of getting the job. In a public speaking course, you learn how to organize and present persuasive messages.

∙ You sit down with a bank executive to ask for a loan so that you can buy a new car. The skills of nonverbal communication (such as eye contact and facial expres- sion) that you learn in a public speaking course should help you convey to the banker that you are a trustworthy and reliable person who will repay the loan.

After taking a public speaking course, many students report that their new skills help them as much in talking to one person as in addressing a large audience. 3. You develop the oral communication skills that are prized in the job market.

When you go to a job interview, which of the following is most likely to influence the employer when he or she decides whether to hire you?

∙ The reputation of your school ∙ Your grade-point average ∙ Letters of reference ∙ Technical knowledge in your field ∙ Oral communication skills—speaking and listening ∙ Written communication skills—reading and writing

Research shows that “oral communication skills” is the correct answer—a finding that surprises many students.6 Surely “technical knowledge in your field” is the most important factor for jobs in science and technology, isn’t it? Not according to employ- ers. You can be brilliant in your field, says one executive, but if you can’t communicate successfully with co-workers and the public, your brilliance is of little value.7

Once you have a job, being a good communicator can help you win advancement. Michael Wolfe, CEO of Pipewise, Inc., describes the qualities of those who win promo- tions: “Being a good communicator. Being visible. Being helpful. Building relation- ships. You can’t be a leader without doing those things.”8

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 5

4. You learn in an ideal environment for gaining experience and building confidence. The classroom is a perfect place to practice and develop your skills. No one will deny you a job or a loan on the basis of your classroom speeches. Your audience is friendly and sympathetic—all your classmates are going through the same experience.

The critiques given by your instructor and by fellow students are valuable parts of the course. If, for example, you say “um” or “uh” so often that it distracts your listeners, you are probably unaware of this unconscious habit. Being told of the problem is the first step toward correcting it.

If you are like most students, your public speaking class will help you gain self- confidence. You will enjoy the pride that comes from meeting a challenge and handling it successfully.

5. You can make a contribution to the lives of other people. While attending a funeral service for a beloved aunt, my former student Karen Walker heard the minis- ter give a brief eulogy and then say, “Would anyone like to say a few words?”

A few people went to the microphone and shared some memories, but most audi- ence members were silent. “I wanted to pay tribute to my aunt, but I was too scared,” said Walker. “I felt really bad because there were a lot of important things about my aunt and her life that were never said.” A few years later, Walker took a public speaking class, and a year or so afterward, she attended another funeral—for her grandfather. “This time I vowed that I would not pass up the opportunity to honor a wonderful person. I asked to be part of the service, and I spoke about my childhood memories of my grandfather.”

Victor Ulloa, a star player for the Major League Soccer club FC Dallas, demonstrates how public speaking allows a person to contribute positively to the lives of others. He gives talks to students at Dallas-area middle schools and high schools about the importance of staying in school and receiving a quality education.

© Cooper Neill/Getty Images

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The eulogy, said Walker, was appreciated by her family members, who told her that she had expressed beautifully what they would have said if they had possessed the cour- age and the skills to stand up and speak. “It gave me a good feeling to know that I could represent the family in this way,” she said.

Being able to speak in public—offering a toast, sharing information, providing encouragement, attempting persuasion—can bring pleasure and joy to yourself and to others. Walker said that her success was possible because of what she had learned in her public speaking class.

The Speech Communication Process When a speaker gives a speech, does communication take place?

Sometimes yes, sometimes no—because speaking and communicating are not the same thing. You can speak to a listener, but if the listener does not understand your message in the way you meant it to be understood, you have failed to communicate it.

For example, at a business dinner at a restaurant in Atlantic City, New Jersey, Joe Lentini told the server that he knew little about wine and asked her to “recommend something decent.” She suggested a bottle of cabernet sauvignon sold under the name Screaming Eagle, and she said the price was “thirty-seven fifty.” Lentini thought she meant $37.50, and he approved. But when the bill arrived at the end of the meal, he was astonished and dazed to see that the cost was $3,750.9

This incident illustrates that speaking and communicating are not synonymous. As a slogan of the Hitachi Corporation puts it: “Communication is not simply sending a message. It is creating true understanding—swiftly, clearly, and precisely.”

To help you send messages that truly communicate, it is helpful to understand the process of speech communication. As we discuss the process, use Figure 1 as a visual reference.

Elements of the Process The speech communication process has seven distinct components.

Speaker When you are a speaker, you are the source of a message that is transmitted to a lis- tener. Whether you are speaking to a dozen people or 500, you bear a great responsibil- ity for the success of the communication. The key question that you must constantly ask yourself is not “Am I giving out good information?” or “Am I performing well?” but, rather, “Am I getting through to my listeners?”

Listener The listener is the recipient of the message sent by the speaker. The true test of commu- nication is not whether a message is delivered by the speaker but whether it is accurately received by the listener. “A speech,” says management consultant David W. Richardson of Westport, Connecticut, “takes place in the minds of the audience.”10

If communication fails, who is to blame—the speaker or the listener? It could be either, or both. Although speakers share part of the responsibility for communication, listeners also must bear some of the burden. They must focus on the speaker, not day- dream or text a friend. They must listen with open minds, avoiding the tendency to prejudge the speaker or discount a speaker’s views without a fair hearing.

speaker the originator of a message sent to a listener.

listener the receiver of the speaker’s message.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 7

Figure 1 The Speech Communication Process In this model of the speech communication process, a speaker creates a message and sends it via a channel to the listener, who interprets it and sends feedback via a channel to the speaker. Interference is whatever impedes accurate communication. The situation refers to the time and place in which communication occurs.

Speaker Interference

Speaker creates message

Speaker interprets feedback

Listener interprets message

Listener sends feedback

Situation

Listener

Ch ann

el Messa

ge

Feedbac k

Cha nne

l

The speech communication process is often dynamic, with communicators sending and receiving messages in rapid sequence, sometimes even simul- taneously. In this informal business presentation, the speaker sends mes- sages while receiving feedback (both verbal and nonverbal) from listeners. At various times, a speaker and a listener may exchange roles.

© Pressmaster/Shutterstock

Message The message is whatever the speaker communicates to the listeners. The message is sent in the form of symbols—either verbal or nonverbal.

Verbal symbols are words. It’s important for you to recognize that words are not things; they are symbols of things. If you give me an apple, you transfer a solid object from your hand to mine. But if you make a speech and you mention the word “apple,” you do not transfer a concrete thing. You transfer a verbal symbol.

message whatever is commu- nicated verbally and nonverbally to the listener.

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Nonverbal symbols are what you convey with your tone of voice, eyes, facial expression, gestures, posture, and appearance.

So far, the process sounds simple, but now we enter a danger zone. As a speaker transmits verbal and nonverbal symbols, the listeners must receive and interpret them. Unfortunately, listeners may end up with a variety of interpretations, some of them quite different from what the speaker intended. Consider our simple word apple. One listener may think of a small green fruit, while another conjures an image of a big red fruit. One listener may think of crisp tartness, while another thinks of juicy sweetness.

If such a simple word can evoke a variety of mental pictures, imagine the con- fusion and misunderstanding that can arise when abstract words such as imperial- ism, patriotism, and censorship are used. The term censorship may mean “stamping out filth” to some listeners, but it may mean “total government control of the news media” to others.

As a speaker, use symbols that are clear and specific. Don’t say, “Smoking may cause you a lot of trouble.” The phrase “a lot of trouble” is vague and might be interpreted by some listeners to mean “coughing,” by others to mean “stained teeth,” or by still others to mean “cancer.” Be specific: “Smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer.”

Sometimes a speaker’s verbal symbols contradict his or her nonverbal symbols. If you say to an audience at the end of a speech, “Now I would like to hear your views on this subject,” but your expression is tense and your voice sounds irritated, the listeners are getting a mixed message. Which will they believe, your words or your nonverbal behavior? Listeners usually accept the nonverbal behavior as the true message. In this case, they will conclude that you do not welcome comments.

Make sure the nonverbal part of your message reinforces, rather than contradicts, the verbal part. In other words, smile and use a friendly tone of voice when you ask for audience participation.

Channel The channel is the medium used to communicate the message. In everyday life, you receive messages via televisions, phones, the Internet, and direct voice communication. For public speaking, your main channels are auditory (your voice) and visual (gestures, facial expressions, visual aids). You can also use other channels—taste, smell, touch, and physical activity—which will be discussed in the chapter on presentation aids.

Feedback Feedback is the response that the listener gives the speaker. Sometimes it is verbal, as when a listener asks questions or makes comments. In most public speeches, and cer- tainly in the ones you will give in the classroom, listeners wait to give verbal feedback until the question-and-answer period.

Listeners also give nonverbal feedback. If they are smiling and nodding their heads, they are obviously in agreement with your remarks. If they are frowning and sitting with their arms folded, they more than likely disagree with what you are saying. If they are yawning, they are probably bored or weary. “A yawn,” wrote English author G. K. Chesterton, “is a silent shout.”11

If you receive negative feedback, try to help your listeners. If, for example, you are explaining a concept, but some of your listeners are shaking their heads and giving you looks that seem to say, “I don’t understand,” try again, using different words, to make your ideas clear.

channel the pathway used to transmit a message.

feedback verbal and nonverbal responses made by a listener to a speaker.

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Some speakers develop unconscious habits when they speak, such as smoothing their hair or straightening their clothes. The best way to discover and discard these quirks is to get feedback from your listeners in the form of an evaluation. Although feedback is valuable for pinpoint- ing delivery problems, it is even more important as a way to assess the content of your speech: are your remarks enlightening or confusing to the listeners?

You don’t need an evaluation of every speech in your career, but you should seek feedback occasionally. Strive to get both positive input and constructive suggestions so that you can keep the good and eliminate the bad. Here are four good methods:

1. Ask several friends or colleagues to critique your speech. Don’t make an imprecise request like “Tell me how I do on this” because your evaluators will probably say at the end of your speech, “You did fine—good speech,” regardless of what they thought of it, to avoid hurting your feelings. Instead give them a specific assignment: “Please make a note of at least three things that you like about the speech and my delivery, and at least three things that you feel need

Tips for Your Career

Seek Feedback

TI P

1

improvement.” Now your listeners know exactly what you need. As a result, you are likely to get helpful feedback.

2. Use an evaluation form. Distribute sheets to all lis- teners, asking for responses to a series of questions about your delivery and the content of your speech. To protect anonymity, you can have someone collect the forms.

3. Ask a small group of listeners to sit down with you after a meeting to share their reactions. This is especially useful in finding out whether the listen- ers understood and accepted your message. Try to listen and learn without becoming argumentative or defensive.

4. Record your presentation on video. Invite colleagues to watch the video with you and help you evaluate it. Because many people are never pleased with either themselves or their speeches on video, colleagues often can provide objectivity. For example, an intro- duction that now seems dull to you might strike your colleagues as interesting and captivating.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 9

Interference can be caused by a daydreaming listener.

© StockLite/Shutterstock

Interference Interference is anything that blocks or hinders the accurate communica- tion of a message. There are three types:

∙ External interference comes from outside the listener: someone coughing, people talking on their smartphones, or broken air- conditioning that leaves the listeners hot and sticky.

∙ Internal interference comes from within the listener. Some listen- ers might be hungry or tired or sick, or they might be daydreaming or worrying about a personal problem. As a speaker, you can help such listeners by making your speech so engaging that the audi- ence wants to listen to you.

∙ Speaker-generated interference can occur if you distract your listen- ers with unfamiliar words, confusing concepts, or bizarre clothing.

Sometimes listeners will try to overcome interference—for example, straining to hear the speaker’s words over the noise of other people talk- ing. But too often, listeners will fail to make the extra effort.

When you are a speaker, stay alert for signs of interference and respond immediately. For example, if a plane roars overhead, you can either speak louder or pause while it passes.

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interference anything that obstructs accurate communica- tion of a message.

situation the setting in which communication takes place.

Examining Your Ethics

Suppose you are speaking in support of a good cause, but the statistics you want to use in your speech are complicated and hard to explain. You could convince your audience more easily if you made up some simplified statistics. Is it okay to fabricate a small amount of data so that it is easier for your audience to understand?

A. Yes, it’s okay if the data is close to being accurate. B. No, it is not okay. C. Sometimes yes, sometimes no—it depends on the context.

For the answer, see the last page of this chapter.

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Situation The situation is the context—the time, place, and circumstances—in which communi- cation occurs. Different situations call for different behaviors. In some settings, speak- ers can crack jokes and audiences can laugh, while in others, speakers must be serious and listeners should remain silent.

Time of day determines how receptive an audience is. Many listeners, for example, become sluggish and sleepy about an hour after a big meal. If you give a presentation dur- ing that period, you can enliven it by using colorful visual aids and hands-on activities.

When you prepare a speech, find out as much as possible about the situation: What is the nature of the occasion? How many people are likely to be present? Will the speech be given indoors or outdoors? Once you assess these variables, you can adapt your speech to make it effective for the situation.

The Process in Everyday Life So far, our discussion might suggest that speech communication is a simple process: a speaker sends a message, a listener provides feedback—back and forth, like a tennis match. But in everyday life, the process is usually complex and dynamic. Instead of speaker and listener taking turns, communicators often send and receive messages at the same time.

For example, you go into your boss’s office to ask for a raise. As you start your (verbal) message, she is giving you a friendly, accepting smile, a (nonverbal) message that seems to say that she is glad to see you. But as your message is spelled out, her smile fades and is replaced by a grim expression of regret—negative feedback. “I wish I could give you a big raise,” she says, “but I can’t even give you a little one.” As she is saying these last words, she interprets your facial expression as displaying disbelief, so she hastily adds, “Our departmental budget just won’t permit it. My hands are tied.” And so on . . . a lively give-and-take of verbal and nonverbal communication.

The Speaker’s Responsibilities When you give a speech, you should accept certain responsibilities.

Maintain High Ethical Standards The standards of conduct and moral judgment that are generally accepted in a society are called ethics. In public speaking, the focus on ethics is on how speakers handle their material and how they treat their listeners. Speakers should be honest and straightforward with listeners, avoiding all methods and goals that are deceitful, unscrupulous, or unfair.

“Examining Your Ethics” boxes throughout the book will help you exercise your skills at points where ethical issues are discussed.

Let’s examine three important ethical responsibilities of the speaker.

Never Distort Information As an ethical speaker, you should always be honest about facts and figures. Distorting information is not only dishonest—it’s fool- ish. Let’s say that in your career, you persuade some colleagues to take a certain course of action but it is later discovered that you got your way by distorting facts and statistics.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 11

In the future, your colleagues will distrust everything you propose—even if you have sound logic and impeccable evidence on your side. “A liar will not be believed,” said the ancient Greek writer Aesop, “even when he [or she] speaks the truth.”12

Respect Your Audience Some speakers talk down to their listeners. Speaking in a scolding, condescending tone, one speaker told an audience of young job-seekers, “I know you people don’t believe me, but you’re wasting your time and money if you pay a consultant to critique your résumé.” When speakers are condescending or disrespectful, they are likely to lose the respect and attention of the audience. Their credibility is crippled.

Humorist Will Rogers once said, “Everybody is ignorant, only on different subjects” and “There is nothing as stupid as an educated man if you get him off the thing he was educated in.”13 When you are the expert on a subject, remember that your “ignorant” lis- teners are experts on topics within their own realm of knowledge and experience.

Reject Stereotyping and Scapegoating A stereotype is a simplistic or exaggerated image that humans carry in their minds about groups of people. If you were asked to give a speech to raise funds for a home- less shelter, you might have difficulty generating sympathy because many people have a negative stereotype of the homeless, referring to them as “bums” and assuming them to be addicted to alcohol or drugs.

Like all stereotypes, this one is unfair, as illustrated by the story of Dave Talley, a homeless man in Tempe, Arizona, who found a backpack containing a laptop computer and $3,300 in cash. He turned in the backpack, which had been lost by Bryan Belanger, a student at Arizona State University. Belanger said he had withdrawn the money from his bank account to buy a new car after his old one had been wrecked. As for Dave Tal- ley, he said he had no hesitation about turning in the lost items. “Not everybody on the streets is a criminal,” he said. “Most of us have honor and integrity.”14

You should reject stereotypes because they force all people in a group into the same simple pattern. They fail to account for individual differences and the wide range of characteristics among members of any group. For example, a popular stereotype depicts lawyers as dishonest. Some lawyers are dishonest, yes, but many are sincere advocates who make positive contributions to society.

While avoiding stereotyping, you also should reject its close cousin, scapegoating. A scapegoat is a person or a group unfairly blamed for some real or imagined wrong. In recent years, the alleged decline in the quality of education in the United States has been blamed on public school teachers, who have been vilified as incompetent and uncaring. While there may be some teachers who deserve such labels, most are dedicated profes- sionals who care deeply about their students.

Enrich Listeners’ Lives Before a speech, some speakers make remarks such as these to their friends:

∙ “I hope not many people show up.” ∙ “When I ask for questions, I hope nobody has any.” ∙ “I want to get this over with.”

Often a speaker makes these comments out of nervousness. As you will see in the chapter on managing nervousness, speech anxiety is a normal occurrence that can be motivated by a variety of understandable reasons. However, such remarks show that the speaker is focused on his or her own emotions rather than on the audience.

stereotype an oversimplified or exaggerated image of groups of people.

scapegoat an individual or a group that innocently bears the blame of others.

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Instead of viewing a speech as an ordeal, consider it an opportunity to enrich the lives of your listeners. One of my students, Mary Crosby, gave a classroom speech on poisonous spiders—what they look like, how to avoid them, and what to do if bitten. She had spent six hours researching the topic. If the 17 of us in the audience had dupli- cated her research, spending six hours apiece, we would have labored for 102 hours. Thus, Crosby saved us a great deal of time and effort and, more importantly, gave us useful information. Most of us probably never would have taken the time to do this research, so her speech was all the more valuable.

Take Every Speech Seriously Consider two situations that some speakers erroneously assume are not worth taking seriously: classroom speeches and small audiences. Classroom speeches. Contrary to what some students think, your classroom speeches are as important as any speeches that you may give in your career or community, and they deserve to be taken seriously. They deal with real human issues and are presented by real human beings. As a teacher, I look forward to classroom speeches because I learn a lot from them. I have learned how to save the life of a person choking on food, how to garden without using pesticides, how to set up a tax-free savings account for my children, and so much more. Small audiences. Some speakers mistakenly think that if an audience is small, they need not put forth their best effort. Wrong. You should try as hard to communicate with an audience of five as you would with an audience of 500. James “Doc” Blakely of Wharton, Texas, tells of a colleague who traveled to a small town in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan to give a speech and found that only one person had shown up to hear him. He gave the lone listener his best efforts, and later that listener started a national movement based on the speaker’s ideas.15

Speech Introducing Yourself or a Classmate A speech introducing yourself or a classmate to the audience is often assigned early in a public speaking class. The speech gives you an opportunity to use an easy topic to gain experience. It also gives you and other members of the class a chance to learn key information about one another so that future classroom speeches can be tailored to the needs and interests of the audience.

Strive to show your audience what makes you or your classmate interesting and unique. Unless your instructor advises otherwise, you may include the follo wing items.

Background Information

∙ Name ∙ Hometown ∙ Family information ∙ Work experience ∙ Academic plans ∙ Post-graduation goals

Unique Features

∙ Special interests (hobbies, sports, clubs, etc.) ∙ One interesting or unusual thing about you or your classmate ∙ One interesting or unusual experience

The last three items are especially important because they give the audience a glimpse into the qualities, interests, and experiences that make you or your classmate unique.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking 13

Sample Self-Introduction Speech Rachel Chavez introduces herself to a public speaking class.

The Sun Is Free INTRODUCTION

My name is Rachel Chavez, and I am from San Diego, California. I am majoring in environmental science.

BODY

I am very interested in solar energy. I have a part-time job installing solar panels for a company that is owned by my two older brothers. It is hard work, climbing up on roofs and installing panels, but it is very rewarding.

At the end of a job, I ask customers to turn on their system and then look at the electric meter. Because of the extra solar energy flowing in, they can see that

their meter has started running in the opposite direc- tion. In other words, they are sending power back to the grid—they are now making money. In two or three years, they will have earned the equivalent of all the money they spent on buying and installing the solar system.

CONCLUSION

You can see why I love solar energy. I hope that in the years ahead, I can help move this country further and further down the road toward free energy from the sun for everybody.

Sample Speech Introducing a Classmate In this speech, Chris Richards introduces classmate Utsav Misra.

A Grand Passion INTRODUCTION

Utsav Misra, who is a sophomore, comes to us all the way from India, and he’s the first person in his family to go to college. He is majoring in culinary arts.

BODY

At the moment, Utsav’s grand passion in life is cricket, which is the most popular sport in India. He grew up playing cricket, and he’s trying to organize a cricket club on our campus. Not only is he recruiting international students who know the sport well, but he’s also trying to recruit students who have never played the sport. Cricket is becoming more and more popular in the United States. Today over 80 American colleges have cricket clubs.

For those of you who don’t know what cricket is all about, it’s similar to baseball. Pitchers are called

bowlers, and they throw the ball toward an opposing batsman, who tries to prevent the ball from hitting the wicket behind him. A wicket is made up of three upright wooden poles that are hammered into the ground. Utsav tells me that cricket involves a lot more than what I’ve told you, and the rules can be a bit complicated for Americans. But it’s like any sport. Once you learn the rules, it’s fun to play and it’s fun to watch.

CONCLUSION

For one of his speeches in this class, Utsav is planning to give you an introduction to cricket. He will show you a cricket ball and a bat, and he will use videos so that you can understand what’s going on when you see a cricket match on TV. I, for one, am eager to learn about this intriguing sport.