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6 Introducing and Focusing the Study

The beginning of a study, as was mentioned earlier, is the most important part of a research project. If the purpose of the study is unclear, if the research questions are vague, and if the research problem or issue is not clearly identified, then a reader has difficulty following the remainder of the study. Consider a qualitative research journal article that you have recently read. Did it read quickly? If so, that is usually an indication that the study is well tied together: The problem leads to certain research questions, and the data collection naturally follows, and then the data analysis and interpretation relate closely to the questions, which, in turn, help the reader to understand the research problem. The author uses transitions to bridge from one part to the other. Often the logic is back and forth between these components in an integrated, consistent manner so that all parts interrelate (Morse & Richards, 2002) and are considered to be interactive (Maxwell, 2013). This integration of all parts of a good qualitative introduction begins with the identification of a clear problem that needs to be studied. It then advances the primary intent of the study, called the purpose or study aim of the study. Of all parts of a research project, the purpose statement is most important. It sets the stage for the entire article and conveys what the author hopes to accomplish in the study. It is so important, we believe, that we have scripted a purpose statement that you might use in your qualitative project. All you need to do is insert several components into this statement to have a clear, short, and concise qualitative purpose statement that will be easy for readers to follow. Then, the qualitative research questions extend and often narrow the purpose statement into questions that will be answered during the course of the study. In this chapter, we will discuss how to compose a good problem statement for a qualitative study, how to compose a clear purpose statement, and how to further specify the research through qualitative research questions. Moreover, we will suggest how these sections of an introduction can be adjusted to fit all five of the approaches to qualitative inquiry addressed in this book.

Questions for Discussion What does evidence of interrelationship across the research problem, purpose, and questions look like? How can the problem statement be best written to reflect one of the approaches to qualitative research? How can the purpose statement be best written to convey the orientation of an approach to research? How can a central question be written so that it encodes and foreshadows an approach to qualitative research? How can subquestions be presented so that they subdivide the central question into several parts?

Interrelating the Study Problem, Purpose, and Questions Within Research Demonstrating methodological congruence (see Chapter 3 for initial description) begins with identifying a clear problem in need of investigation, advancing the primary purpose of the study, and specifying the questions guiding the study design. This is because these decisions (i.e., problem, purpose, and questions) provide the foundation on which to base subsequent decisions related to the research methods. To help this process, we provide a guiding framework in Figure 6.1. First, the researcher identifies a problem and creates a research problem statement; this problem is then focused on a primary study purpose. Second, the researcher creates a research purpose statement (hereafter, we will call this statement the purpose statement, recognizing that some researchers call it study aim) to advance this primary study goal that is ultimately operationalized by the drafting of specific research questions. These sub- and central research questions subsequently guide the study design. We consider this to be a narrowing process that is similar across the five approaches; yet some distinguishing features will be discussed within the sections that follow. Also implicit in Figure 6.1 is the importance of interrelationship for informing the selection of data collection methods and data analysis strategies where the outcome addresses the specified research questions, contributes to the primary study purpose, and investigates the identified research problem.

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Figure 6.1 Interrelating Study Research Problem, Purpose, and Questions

The Research Problem Statement How does one begin a qualitative study? Have you realized that all good research begins with an issue or problem that needs to be resolved? Qualitative studies begin with an introduction advancing the research problem or issue in a study. The term problem may be a misnomer, and individuals unfamiliar with writing research may struggle with this writing passage. Rather than calling this passage the problem, it might be clearer if we call it the need for the study or creating a rationale for the need for the study. The intent of a research problem in qualitative research is to provide a rationale or need for studying a particular issue or problem. A discussion of this research problem begins a qualitative study. But the actual research problem is framed within several other components in an opening paragraph in a good qualitative study. Here, we want to analyze what these opening paragraphs might look like and to illustrate how they might be tailored to fit one of the five approaches.

Consider designing an introduction to a qualitative study. First examine the model designed for a multiple case study of teen smoking in high schools represented in Figure 6.2. The initial idea for structuring a good introduction came from early study of opening passages in good research articles (see Creswell, 2014). As this article suggests, implicit within good introductions is a model or template that authors use. This model was called a “deficiencies model of an introduction” (Creswell, 2014, p. 111), and it was referred to by this name because it centered on deficiencies in the current literature and how studies were crafted to add to a body of literature. We know now that qualitative studies not only add to the literature but they can also give voice to underrepresented groups; probe a deep understanding of a central phenomenon; and lead to specific outcomes such as stories, the essence of a phenomenon, the generation of theory, the cultural life of a group, and an in- depth analysis of a case. In Figure 6.2, you will see the five elements of a good introduction: the topic, the research problem, the evidence from the literature about the problem, the deficiencies in the evidence, and the importance of the problem for select audiences. Added as a final sixth element in this statement would be the purpose statement, a topic to be covered later in this chapter.

These components of a good introduction are as follows:

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1. Advance the topic or general subject matter of the research study by creating reader interest in a few beginning sentences or a paragraph. A good first sentence—called a narrative hook in literature composition—would create reader interest through the use of stating timely topics, advancing a key controversy, using numbers, or citing a leading study. We suggest staying away from quotes for the first sentence because they not only often require the reader to focus in on the key idea of the quote but they also need appropriate lead-in and lead-out features. Proceed beyond the first sentence to advance a general discussion about the topic being addressed in the study (see Creswell, 2016, for further discussion).

2. Discuss the research problem or issue that leads to a need for the study. Readers simply need to be told about the issue or concern that you plan on addressing in your qualitative project. Another way to frame the research problem is to view it as an argument as to why the topic you wish to study matters. In this way, you can present to the reader the study’s importance (Ravitch & Riggan, 2012). Qualitative research methods books (e.g., Creswell, 2012; Marshall & Rossman, 2015; Ravitch & Mittenfelner Carl, 2016) advance several sources for locating research problems. Research problems are found in personal experience with an issue, a job-related problem, an advisor’s research agenda, or the scholarly literature (Creswell, 2014). We like to think about the research problem as coming from real-life issues or from a gap in the literature, or both. Real-life problems might be that students struggle with their ethnic identity given the demands of friends, family, and schools, such as in Chan’s (2010) study (see Appendix B). Individuals struggle to make sense of the disease of AIDS/HIV (Anderson & Spencer, 2002; see Appendix C). The need for a study also comes from certain deficiencies or gaps in the existing scholarly literature. Authors mention these gaps in future research sections or in introductions of their published studies. As suggested by Barritt (1986), the rationale is not the discovery of new elements, as in natural scientific study but rather the heightening of awareness for experiences, which has been forgotten and overlooked. By heightening awareness and creating dialogue, it is hoped research can lead to better understanding of the way things appear to someone else and through that insight lead to improvements in practice (Barritt, 1986). Besides dialogue and understanding, a qualitative study may lead to an in-depth understanding, fill a void in existing literature, establish a new line of thinking, lift up the voices of individuals who have been marginalized in our society, or assess an issue with an understudied group or population.

3. Summarize the scholarly literature. Briefly discuss the recent evidence that has addressed this research problem. Has anyone directly studied this problem? Or has anyone studied this problem in a general sense or discussed a closely related topic? Although opinions differ about the extent of literature review needed before a study begins, qualitative research authors (e.g., Creswell, 2012; Marshall & Rossman, 2015; Ravitch & Mittenfelner Carl, 2016) refer to the need to review the literature so that one can provide the rationale for the problem and position one’s study within the ongoing literature about the topic. We have found it helpful to visually depict where our study can be positioned into the larger literature. For example, one might develop a visual or figure—a research map (Creswell, 2014)—of existing literature and show in this figure the topics addressed in the literature and how one’s proposed research fits into or extends the existing literature. We also see this section as not providing detail about any one study, such as what one finds in a complete literature review, but as a statement about the general literature—the groups of literature, if you will—that have addressed the problem. If no groups of literature have addressed the problem, then discuss the extant literature that is closest to the topic. Hopefully, a good qualitative study has not already been done, and no or few studies directly address the topic being proposed in the present study.

4. Point to deficiencies in evidence using the current literature or discussions. Indicate in what ways gaps exist in the understanding the problem. Mention several reasons, such as inadequate methods of data collection, a need for research, or inadequate research. It is here, in the deficiencies section of an introduction, that information can be inserted that relates to one of the five qualitative approaches. In a problem statement for a narrative study, for example, writers can mention how individual stories need to be told to gain personal experiences about the research problem. In a phenomenological study, the researcher makes the case that a need exists to know more about a particular phenomenon and the common experiences of individuals with the phenomenon. For a grounded theory study, authors state that we need a theory that explains a process because existing theories are inadequate, are nonexistent for the population under study, or need to be modified for an existing population. In an ethnographic study, the problem statement advances why it is important to describe and to interpret the cultural behavior of a certain group of people or how a group is marginalized and kept silent by others. For a case study, the

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researcher might discuss how the study of a case or cases can help inform the issue or concern. In all of these illustrations, the researcher presents the research problem as relating to the particular approach to qualitative research taken in the study.

5. Argue importance of the study for audiences. Present how audiences or stakeholders will profit from your study that addresses the problem. Consider different types of audiences and point out, for each one, the ways they will benefit from the study. These audiences could be other researchers, policy makers, practitioners in the field, or students.

The introduction then proceeds on to the purpose statement because, at this point, a reader has a clear understanding of the problem leading to a need for the study, and is encouraged enough to read on to see what the overall intent of the study might be (purpose) as well as the types of questions (research questions) that will be answered in the study.

The Purpose Statement This interrelationship between design and approach continues with the purpose statement, a statement that provides the major objective or intent, or “road map,” to the study. As the most important statement in an entire qualitative study, the purpose statement needs to be carefully constructed and written in clear and concise language. Unfortunately, all too many writers leave this statement implicit, causing readers extra work in interpreting and following a study. This need not be the case, so we have created the following “script” for a purpose statement containing several sentences and blanks that an individual fills in (see also Creswell, 1994, 2009, 2012, 2014):

The purpose of this _______________ (narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, case) study is (was? will be?) to _______________ (understand? describe? develop? discover?) the _______________ (central phenomenon of the study) for _______________ (the participants) at _____________ (the site). At this stage in the research, the _______________ (central phenomenon) will be generally defined as _______________ (a general definition of the central phenomenon).

As this script shows, several terms can be used to encode a passage for a specific approach to qualitative research. The following occurs in the purpose statement:

The writer identifies the specific qualitative approach used in the study by mentioning the type. The name of the approach comes first in the passage, thus foreshadowing the inquiry approach for data collection, analysis, and report writing. The writer encodes the passage with words that indicate the action of the researcher and the focus of the approach to research. For example, certain words encode the qualitative research, such as understand experiences (useful in narrative studies), describe (useful in case studies, ethnographies, and phenomenologies), ascribe meaning (associated with phenomenologies), develop or generate (useful in grounded theory), and discover (useful in all approaches)—several words that a researcher would include in a purpose statement to encode the purpose statement for the approach chosen (see Table 6.1). These words indicate not only researchers’ actions but also the foci and outcomes of the studies.

Figure 6.2 Sample Research Problem Section (Introduction) to a Study

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Source: Adapted from McVea, Harter, McEntarffer, and Creswell (1999).

The writer identifies the central phenomenon. The central phenomenon is the one central concept being explored or examined in the research study. Qualitative researchers focus on only one concept (e.g., relational practices of a teacher who negotiates educational relationships with students who have a history of school failure, or the behaviors of a culture-sharing group, such as the British-born, working-class Pakistani and Bangladeshi young Muslim men) at the beginning of a study. Comparing groups or looking for linkages can be included in the study as one gains experiences in the field and one proceeds on with analysis after initial exploration of the central phenomenon. The writer foreshadows the participants and the site for the study, whether the participants are one individual (i.e., narrative or case study), several individuals (i.e., grounded theory or phenomenology), a group (i.e., ethnography), or a site (i.e., program, event, activity, or place in a case study).

We also suggest including a general definition for the central phenomenon. This definition is a tentative, preliminary definition that the researcher intends to use at the outset of the study (Clandinin, 2013). The definition may be difficult to determine with any specificity in advance. But, for example, in a narrative study, a writer might define the types of stories to be collected such as life stages, childhood memories, the transition from adolescence to adulthood, attendance at an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting, or even the family drama enacted in the aftermath of death of a sibling (Ellis, 1993). In a phenomenology, the central phenomenon to be explored is clearly specified (van Manen, 2014). For example, the phenomenon might be specified as the meaning of grief, anger, or even chess playing (Aanstoos, 1985). In grounded theory, the central phenomenon might be identified as a concept central to the process being examined (Corbin & Strauss, 2015)—for example, the effect of past relationships on postbereavement remarried couples (Brimhall & Englom-Deglmann, 2011). In an ethnography, the writer might identify the key cultural concepts (often drawn from cultural concepts in anthropology) being examined, such as roles, behaviors, acculturation, communication, myths, stories, or other concepts that the researcher plans to take into the field at the beginning of the study (Wolcott, 2008a). Finally, in a case study such as an “intrinsic” case study (Stake, 1995), the writer might define the boundaries of the case, specifying how the case is bounded in time and place. If an “instrumental” case study is being examined, then the researcher might specify and define generally the issue being examined in the case.

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Several examples of purpose statements follow that illustrate the encoding and foreshadowing of the five approaches to research (see also Creswell, 2012, 2016):

Example 6.1 Narrative Research Purpose Statements

Notice how the lived experience is emphasized in each of the following examples:

1. A single individual and the life history of the individual:

The author describes and analyzes the process of eliciting the life history of a man with mental retardation. (Angrosino, 1994, p. 14)

2. The family and friends of a crash victim and the reactions of these individuals:

The story I tell here describes the aftermath of the crash as my family and friends in Lurary, the town where I was born and where Rex lived, react to and cope with this unanticipated tragedy. (Ellis, 1993, p. 712)

Example 6.2 Phenomenological Research Purpose Statements

See in the following examples how the phenomenon is clearly described as the following:

1. The role of a group of individuals as fathers:

The present study was designed to explore the beliefs, attitudes, and needs that current and expectant adolescent fathers and young men who are fathers of children born to adolescent mothers have regarding their role as a father. (Lemay, Cashman, Elfenbein, & Felice, 2010, p. 222)

2. The meaning individuals attributed to a health care experience:

The purpose of our phenomenological study was to explore what meaning people with liver failure ascribe to the experience of waiting for a transplant at a major midwestern transplant center. (Brown, Sorrell, McClaren, & Creswell, 2006, p. 120)

Example 6.3 Grounded Theory Research Purpose Statements

In the following examples, the researchers advance a theory by studying a process around:

1. Leadership identity of an individual:

The purpose of this study was to understand the processes a person experiences in creating a leadership identity. (Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen, 2005, p. 594)

2. Resilience development by a group of women in an isolated setting:

The purpose of this study was to explore how women maintain their health in geographical, social, political, economic, and historical contexts. (Leipert & Reutter, 2005, p. 50)

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Example 6.4 Ethnographic Research Purpose Statements

A portrait of a culture-sharing group was sought in each of the following examples:

1. The “ballpark” culture of the employees:

This article examines how the work and the talk of stadium employees reinforce certain meanings of baseball in society, and it reveals how the work and the talk create and maintain ballpark culture. (Trujillo, 1992, p. 351)

2. The core values of the straight edge (sXe) movement:

This article fills a gap in the literature by giving an empirical account of the sXe movement centered on a description of the group’s core values. (Haenfler, 2004, p. 410)

Example 6.5 Case Study Research Purpose Statements

The focus on understanding the bounded system is evident in each of the following:

1. A multiple case study of the integration of technology:

The purpose of this study was to describe the ways in which three urban elementary schools, in partnership with a local, publicly funded multipurpose university, used a similar array of material and human resources to improve their integration of technology. (Staples, Pugach, & Himes, 2005, p. 287)

2. As intrinsic case study of the campus reaction to a gunman event:

The study presented in this article is a qualitative case analysis that describes and interprets a campus response to a gun incident. (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995, p. 576)

The Research Questions The intent of qualitative research questions is to narrow the purpose to several questions that will be addressed in the study. We distinguish between the purpose statement and research questions so that we can clearly see how they are conceptualized and composed; other authors may combine them or more typically state only a purpose statement in a journal article and leave out the research questions. However, in many types of qualitative studies, such as dissertations and theses, the research questions are distinct and stated separately from the purpose statement. Once again, we find that these questions provide an opportunity to encode and foreshadow an approach to inquiry.

The Central Question Some writers offer suggestions for writing qualitative research questions (e.g., Creswell, 2014, 2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2015). Qualitative research questions are open-ended, evolving, and nondirectional. They restate the purpose of the study in more specific terms and typically start with a word such as what or how rather than why in order to explore a central phenomenon. This is because why suggests possible cause-and-effect directional language, not open-ended language that is more apparent with the use of what or how. Questions are few in number (five to seven) and posed in various forms, from the “grand tour” (Spradley, 1979, 1980) that asks, “Tell me about yourself,” to more specific questions.

We recommend that a researcher reduce her or his entire study to a single, overarching central question and several subquestions. Drafting this central question often takes considerable work because of its breadth and the tendency of some to form specific questions based on traditional training. To reach the overarching central question, we ask qualitative researchers to state the broadest question they could possibly pose to address their research problem.

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This central question can be encoded with the language of each of the five approaches to inquiry. Morse (1994) speaks directly to this issue as she reviews the types of research questions. Although she does not refer to narratives or case studies, she mentions that one finds descriptive questions of cultures in ethnographies, process questions in grounded theory studies, and meaning questions in phenomenological studies. For example, we searched through the five studies presented in Chapter 5 to see if we could find or imagine their central research questions. We recognized immediately that the authors of these journal articles typically did not provide central questions but instead presented purpose statements, as is often the case in journal article reports. Still, it is helpful to consider what their central questions, if asked, might have been. In the following examples, we present our versions of the research questions (or the author’s version) guiding the studies included in the appendices. Additional examples, based on studies in Chapter 5, are provided to also illustrate research questions for each approach.

Example 6.6 Narrative Study Research Questions

Notice how the focus on the lived experience is emphasized in each of the following narrative research question examples:

1. Gathering stories from Ai Mei, the Chinese immigrant student, might have been written by Chan (2010; see Appendix B):

What are the conflicting stories of ethnic identity that Ai Mei experienced in her school, with her peers, and with her family?

2. Eliciting life narratives, the comparison of code-switching patterns of two African American women, might have been written by Nelson (1990):

What are the patterns and significance of code-switching and other contextualization cues that the African American women experienced as participants in American culture during the latter part of the 20th century?

Example 6.7 Phenomenology Research Questions

See how the focus on describing the phenomenon is articulated in the following examples of phenomenological research questions:

1. Capturing how persons living with AIDS represent and imagine their disease might have proposed by Anderson and Spencer (2002; see Appendix C):

What meaning do men and women with a diagnosis of AIDS ascribe to their illness? 2. Describing the meaning a woman attributed to the lived experience of a long-term disability was stated by Padilla

(2003, p. 415):

“What is the lived experience of disability for a woman who sustained a head injury many years ago?”

Example 6.8 Grounded Theory Research Questions

In the following grounded theory research question examples, the focus on advancing a theory is clearly represented for the purpose of the following:

1. Explaining the process of integrating physical activity into the lifestyle of African American women might have been expressed by Harley and colleagues (2009; see Appendix D) as follows:

What behavioral process theory explains the integration of physical activity into the lifestyle of 15 African American women?

2. Generating an understanding of what the process of remarrying involves between postbereavement couples might have been represented by Brimhall and Engblom-Deglmann (2011) as follows:

What relational process theory describes the effects of past relationships on post postbereavement remarried couples?

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Example 6.9 Ethnography Research Questions

Note how the portrait of a culture-sharing group was sought in each of the following research question examples for ethnography:

1. Representing the changing cultural condition inhabited by a group of British born, working-class Pakistani and Bangladeshi young men over 3 years might have been expressed by Mac an Ghaill and Haywood (2015; see Appendix E) as follows:

What are the core beliefs related to ethnicity, religion, and cultural belonging of the group of British born, working- class Pakistani and Bangladeshi young men, and how do the young men construct and understand their geographically specific experiences of family, schooling, social life as well as both growing up and interacting within their local community in a rapidly changing Britain?

2. Describing the core values of the members of the sXe movement might have been advanced by Haenfler (2004) as follows:

What are the core values of the sXe movement, and how do the members construct and understand their subjective experiences of being a part of the subculture?

Example 6.10 Case Study Research Questions

The focus on understanding the bounded system is evident in each of the following examples of case study research questions:

1. Tracing one teacher’s practices of negotiating relationships with students who have a history of school failure within a particular school program might have been proposed by Frelin (2015; see Appendix F) as follows:

What are the relational and professional practices that can help teachers and other school staff to assist students to overcome obstacles and be more successful at school?

2. Describing and interpreting the campus response to a gun incident was asked by Asmussen and Creswell (1995) using five central guiding questions in the introduction:

‘What happened? Who was involved in response to the incident? What themes of response emerged during the eight- month period that followed this incident? What theoretical constructs helped us understand the campus response, and what constructs were unique to this case?’ (p. 576)

Example 6.10 illustrates describing individuals’ experiences and then in developing themes that represented responses of individuals on the campuses. As these examples show, authors may or may not pose a central question, although one lies implicit if not explicit in all studies. For writing journal articles, central questions may be used less than purpose statements to guide the research. However, for individuals’ graduate research, such as theses or dissertations, the trend is toward writing both purpose statements and central questions.

Subquestions An author typically presents a small number of subquestions that further specify the central question into some areas for inquiry. For example, a central question such as “What does it mean to be a college professor?” would be analyzed in subquestions on topics like “What does it mean to be a college professor in the classroom? As a researcher? As a thesis supervisor? As a colleague in a department?” In this example, the subquestions focus on the roles or responsibilities this particular college professor undertakes as an instructor, researcher, supervisor of students, and colleague within a department. The subquestions essentially take the central question and break it down into its constituent parts. The subquestions will vary if the college professor has different roles assigned— for example, as administrator or practicum supervisor. Subquestions are useful for informing core questions asked during the data collection, such as in the interviews or in the observations.

Here are some suggestions for writing these subquestions:

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State a small number of subquestions to further refine the central question. We generally recommend five to seven subquestions. New questions may arise during data collection, and, as with all qualitative research questions, they may change or evolve into new questions as the research proceeds. Consider the subquestions as a means of subdividing the central question into several parts. Ask yourself, “If the central question were divided into some areas that I would like to explore, what would the areas or parts be?” A good illustration comes from ethnography. Wolcott (2008a) said that the grand tour or central question such as “What is going on here?” can only be addressed when fleshed out with detail: “In terms of what?” (p. 74). Create open-ended subquestions that begin with how or what. These words should reflect a similar manner as the central question.

You can write the subquestions focused on further analyzing the central phenomenon that relates to the type of qualitative research being used. In a narrative study, these questions may further probe the meaning of stories. In a phenomenology, it will help to establish the components of the essence of the study. In a grounded theory, it will help to detail the emerging theory, and in an ethnography, it will detail the aspects of the culture-sharing group you plan to study, such as members’ rituals, their communication, their economic way of life, and so forth. In a case study, the subquestions will address the elements of the case or the issue that you seek to understand. The following examples we present our versions of the research subquestions guiding the studies included in the appendices.

Example 6.11 Narrative Research Subquestions

Subquestions for gathering stories from Ai Mei, the Chinese immigrant student, might have been written by Chan (2010; see Appendix B) as the following:

What and how did school experiences contribute to Ai Mei’s ethnic identity? How might peer experiences have contributed to Ai Mei’s ethnic identity? What family experiences does Ai Mei describe as influential to her ethnic identity?

Example 6.12 Phenomenological Research Subquestions

Subquestions for understanding how persons living with AIDS represent and image their disease might have stated by Anderson and Spencer (2002; see Appendix C) as the following:

What does receiving an AIDS diagnosis represent? What is difficult or easy about being diagnosed with AIDS? How did the patient first become aware of their diagnosis or illness?

Example 6.13 Grounded Theory Research Subquestions

Subquestions for explaining the process of integrating physical activity into the lifestyle of African American women might have been written by Harley and colleagues (2009; see Appendix D) as the following:

How do the women go about integrating physical activity into their lifestyle? What are the greatest challenges for women to integrate physical activity into their lifestyle? What has motivated the women to integrate physical activity into their lifestyle?

Example 6.14 Ethnographic Research Subquestions

Subquestions for documenting the changing cultural condition inhabited by a group of British born, working-class Pakistani and Bangladeshi young men over 3 years might have been expressed by Mac an Ghaill and Haywood (2015; see Appendix E) as the following:

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What core beliefs do group members describe related to ethnic identity? What experiences do group members attribute as influencing their cultural identity? What social experiences do group members describe as contributing to core beliefs?

Example 6.15 Case Study Research Subquestions

Subquestions for tracing one teacher’s practices of negotiating relationships with students who have a history of school failure within a particular school program might have been expressed by Frelin (2015; see Appendix F) as the following:

What relational practices does the teacher describe as helpful for students to overcome school obstacles? What relational practices does the teacher perceive as helping student success? What professional teacher practices are attributable to school success?

In Chapter 7, we will examine the phases of data collection common to all approaches and then discuss how it differs among the five approaches.

Chapter Check-In

1. Do you “see” how authors focus and introduce their published qualitative studies? Select one of the qualitative articles presented in Appendices B through F.

1. Begin by identifying the five elements of a research problem statement (summarized in Figure 6.2) as they have been applied in the journal article. Note which elements are easy and which are more difficult to identify.

2. Then locate the purpose statement as stated in the journal article. Note what (if any) encoding words are used and what (if any) information is provided about the qualitative approach, the central phenomenon, participants, and the site.

3. Finally, use the script provided in this chapter to rewrite the purpose statement, and compare it with what was stated in the journal article. Note the similarities and differences between the two statements.

2. Can you apply the scripts presented in this chapter for writing a purpose statement? 1. Use the problem statement outlined in Figure 6.1 for McVea et al. (1999) as the basis for writing a purpose

statement for a phenomenological study. Then adopt a different approach, and write the purpose statement using a second approach.

McVea, K., Harter, L., McEntarffer, R., & Creswell, J. W. (1999). Phenomenological study of student experiences with tobacco use at City High School. High School Journal, 82(4), 209–222.

3. Can you identify evidence of an introduction with interrelated parts being used by the author(s)? Read qualitative journal articles that adopt different approaches across diverse fields, such as the narrative study of Ellis (1993), phenomenology of Lemay et al. (2010), grounded theory study of Komives et al. (2005), ethnography of Trujillo (1992), and case study of Staples et al. (2005).

1. Begin with identifying the research problem investigated in the study, the research purpose for the study, and the research questions guiding the study. Note which topics are easy and which are more difficult to identify. To what extent is there methodological congruence across the three?

2. Then review the study introduction for how the research problem is introduced. Assess to what extent have the five elements of a research problem statement (summarized in Figure 6.2) been applied in the journal article. Note which elements are easy and which are more difficult to locate.

3. Next, review the study introduction for how the research purpose is stated. Assess to what extent encoded words are used and information is provided about the qualitative approach, the central phenomenon, participants, and site.

4. Finally, review the article for evidence of research questions. Assess to what extent a central research question and subquestions are articulated.

Ellis, C. (1993). “There are survivors”: Telling a story of sudden death. The Sociological Quarterly, 34, 711– 730. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1993.tb00114.x

Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L. (2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of College Student Development, 46(6), 593–611. doi:10.1353/csd.2005.0061

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Lemay, C. A., Cashman, S. B., Elfenbein, D. S., & Felice, M. E. (2010). A qualitative study of the meaning of fatherhood among young urban fathers. Public Health Nursing, 27(3), 221–231. doi:10.1111/j.1525- 1446.2010.00847.x

Staples, A., Pugach, M. C., & Himes, D. J. (2005). Rethinking the technology integration challenge: Cases from three urban elementary schools. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 37(3), 285–311. doi:10.1080/15391523.2005.10782438

Trujillo, N. (1992). Interpreting (the work and the talk of) baseball. Western Journal of Communication, 56, 350–371. doi:10.1353/csd.2005.0061

4. Can you begin to sketch an introduction with interrelated parts for a qualitative study? Follow these steps: 1. State the research problem or issue that is the focus of your study in a couple of sentences. 2. Discuss the research literature that will provide evidence for a need for studying the problem. 3. Present the rationale, within the context of one of the five approaches to research, for studying the problem that

reflects your approach to research. 4. Review the draft, and use the five elements of a research problem statement (summarized in Figure 6.2) to

guide your revisions. Note which elements were easy and which are more difficult to include. 5. Use the script presented in this chapter for writing a purpose statement. Note which elements were “easy” and

which were more difficult to identify. 6. Apply the suggestions presented in this chapter for composing research questions. Specifically, write the first

draft of your central question, starting with how or what. Then consider whether you have addressed four key elements of a central question: the central phenomenon, the participants, the site, and the approach to inquiry. Put what is before the central phenomenon, and examine what you have written to determine whether it will be a satisfactory central question written as the broadest and most succinct question that you could ask in your study. Subdivide your central question into several subtopics. Then consider these subtopics the types of questions that you would ask a participant. Use these questions to guide the writing of subquestions.

5. Look across the three topics in your introduction for evidence of integration across them.

Summary

In this chapter, we addressed three topics related to introducing and focusing a qualitative study: the problem statement, the purpose statement, and the research questions. We began with describing the need for the parts to be interrelated and a guiding framework for implementation. Although we discussed general features of designing each section in a qualitative study, we related the topics to the five approaches advanced in this book. The problem statement should advance the topic, discuss the research problem, summarize the literature about the problem, point to the deficiencies in this literature, and argue the importance for the audience who will profit from learning about the problem. It is in the deficiencies section that an author can insert specific information related to his or her approach. For example, authors can advance the need for stories to be told, the need to find the “essence” of the experience, the need to develop a theory, the need to portray the life of a culture-sharing group, and the need to use a case to explore a specific issue. A script may be used to construct the purpose statement. This script should include the type of qualitative approach being used and incorporate words that signal the use of one of the five approaches. The research questions divide into one central question and about five to seven subquestions that subdivide the central questions into several parts of inquiry. The central question can be encoded to accomplish the intent of one of the approaches, such as the development of stories in narrative projects or the generation of a theory in grounded theory. Subquestions also can be used in the data collection process as the key questions asked during an interview or to guide an observation.

Further Readings

Several readings extend this brief overview and comparison of articles for each of the five approaches. Here we continue to expand the list of books about each approach (see also from Chapters 1 and 4). The list should not be considered exhaustive, and readers are encouraged to seek out additional readings in the end-of-book reference list.

Creswell, J. W. (2016). 30 essential skills for the qualitative researcher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

John W. Creswell’s most recent book offers an innovative way for guiding the qualitative researcher by its organization by skills. In so doing, researchers can easily access specific skills information. This resource may be particularly helpful for those new to qualitative research.

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Richards, L., & Morse, J. M. (2012). Readme first for a users guide to qualitative methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lyn Richards and Janice Morse offer an accessible resource for informing thinking about, planning for, and conducting of qualitative research. We found the chapter about research questions across approaches particularly helpful for delineating differences in how these questions are composed.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2015). Designing qualitative research (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Catherine Marshall and Gretchen Rossman enhance their practical resource in this latest edition by expanding the scope of contemporary issues and designs in qualitative research. The interwoven vignettes providing access to potential questions, which are helpful for defending the proposal, afford a unique perspective.

Ravitch, S. M., & Mittenfelner Carl, N. (2016). Qualitative research: Bridging the conceptual, theoretical, and methodological. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Sharon Ravitch and Nicole Mittenfelner Carl offer an accessible resource to the processes involved in qualitative research. An innovative contribution of this book is Chapter 11, which provides important guidance for thinking about qualitative research ethics and the relational quality of research.

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