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Copyright

Stacey von Winckelmann

With Claire Edwards, Chandra Howard, Millie Jones, and Michelle Lekkerkerk

Information Literacy in the Digital Age

Editor in Chief, AVP: Steve Wainwright

Sponsoring Editors: Cheryl Cechvala and Greer Lleuad

Development Editors: Laura Bonazzoli and Carrie Brandt

Assistant Editors: Jaime Anderson, Kristle Maglunob, and Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan

Editorial Assistant: Hannah Wertheimer

Production Editor: Lauren LePera

Media Editor: Lindsay Serra

Printing Services: Bordeaux

Production Services: Lachina Publishing Services

Permission Editor: Sheri Gilbert

Cover Image: Philipp Klinger/Getty Images

ISBN-10: 1621782387

ISBN-13: 978-1-62178-238-4

Copyright © 2015 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: The copyright owner of this material hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

About the Authors

Stacey von Winckelmann

Stacey von Winckelmann.

Stacey von Winckelmann has over 15 years of experience in the field of education and libraries. Her experience within libraries includes school, public, academic, museum, and national libraries. She holds a BS in interdisciplinary studies and reading from the University of North Texas, an MLS from Texas Woman’s University, and an MA in book and digital media studies from the University of Leiden, the Netherlands.

She is currently a librarian at St. Margaret’s Episcopal School, where her focus is teaching research to high school students. Additionally, she is an associate faculty member at Ashford University.

Her research interests lie in the progression of education and libraries in the digital age, and the effectiveness of digital research instruction at the academic level.

Claire Edwards

Claire Edwards.

Claire Edwards is currently a writing consultant for the Ashford Writing Center. She has also taught courses at Ashford University and previously taught all levels of basic and freshman composition at various community colleges in southern California.

She earned her MA in English with an emphasis in rhetoric and composition and 19th century American literature from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. During and shortly after graduate school, she taught English to elementary and high school students in China and Taiwan. Additionally, she has been involved in writing center work since 2008.

Claire’s research interests include cultural rhetoric, film and literature, 20th century and contemporary American literature, and basic composition pedagogy.

Chandra Howard

Chandra Howard.

Chandra Howard is a writing consultant for the Ashford University Writing Center and an English instructor at Modesto Junior College. She is currently ABD from the University of California, Riverside, where she is writing her dissertation on the rhetoric of race and microaggressions in young adult literature.

Millie Jones

Millie Jones.

Millie Jones is a writing consultant for the Ashford University Writing Center. She also teaches lower-division and upper-division composition courses at various universities.

She earned her MEd in English education from Auburn University, Montgomery, along with an MA in rhetoric and writing studies from San Diego State University. Her research areas of focus include social justice rhetoric as well as writing center pedagogy. Her article “Narrative as Social Change: Public Storytelling to Legally Determine the Fate of Juvenile Offenders” can be found within Pinnacle Sociology and Anthropology Journal at http://www.pjpub.org/psa/psa_122.pdf .

Millie is a member of the International Center for Academic Integrity.

Michelle Lekkerkerk

Michelle Lekkerkerk.

Michelle Lekkerkerk is the lead technology writing consultant for Ashford University.

She completed her MA in English, with concentrations in rhetoric and composition and 19th-century American literature, at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, and her undergraduate studies at University of California, Irvine. Michelle’s research interests lie in the areas of rhetorical theory, writing instruction, and educational technology. In recent years, she has focused on best practices for running an online writing center.

Michelle has taught writing, grammar, reading, ESL, literature, and critical thinking courses at many traditional and online universities.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks are due to Cheryl Cechvala and Greer Lleuad, sponsoring editors; Laura Bonazzoli and Carrie Brandt, development editors; Jaime Anderson, Kristle Maglunob, and Nicole Sanchez-Sullivan, assistant editors; Hannah Wertheimer, editorial assistant; Lauren LePera, production editor; and Lindsay Serra, media editor.

Stacey von Winckelmann would like to thank the Ashford University librarians for their generosity.

The authors would also like to thank the following reviewers, as well as other anonymous reviewers, for their valuable feedback and insight:

June Abbas, University of Oklahoma

Naresh K. Agarwal, Simmons College

Paula Battistelli, Ashford University

Edith Campbell, Indiana State University

Aimée Garten, Ashford University

Jeffrey Hall, Ashford University

Justin Harrison, Ashford University

Holly Heatley, Ashford University

Michelle Holschuh Simmons, San José State University

Abigail Moore, University of North Carolina, Charlotte

Caroline Morrell, Ashford University

Emily Nye, Ashford University Writing Center

Your Roadmap to Success

Welcome to Information Literacy in the Digital Age! The learning materials provided in this e-book are designed to help you be successful in Ashford University’s GEN 103 course, in school, and in life. To give you a sense of just how this e-book will contribute to your success, let’s review the learning outcomes for this course and e-book.

The first learning outcome is

Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning.

Mastering this learning outcome is essential to your success as a student. It will increase your chances of getting good grades and will increase your capacity to learn to your full potential in your academic, personal, and professional lives.

The second learning outcome is

Determine the best search strategy for a given information need.

Mastering this learning outcome will enable you to save time in your busy life so that you can balance the needs of school, work, family, and other commitments.

The third learning outcome is

Evaluate information sources for authority, bias, accuracy, and currency.

Mastering this learning outcome will help you identify threats and misleading or outdated information that could jeopardize your schoolwork, as well as your personal life.

The fourth learning outcome is

Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally.

Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside school.

The final learning outcome is

Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information.

Mastering this learning outcome will help you express yourself. It will also give you the tools to find the “answers” you need—whether you are researching a school assignment, looking for a new job, seeking advice for your family, or otherwise.

Hopefully, you now have some sense of this e-book’s purpose. But how does each module in this e-book serve the overall outcomes we just discussed? The answers to this question are found in the Your Roadmap to Success features, which you can find at the beginning of each module and section. Your Roadmap to Success identifies the learning outcomes specific to that module and section, and explains how they are tied to the course learning outcomes. The following table shows you a preview. These features will help you see the bigger picture—they will explain why the content is relevant to you and how it will contribute to your success in this course, in school, and in life.

Course Outcome

Module Outcome

Section

Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning.

Define information literacy.

1.1

Explain the benefits of becoming information literate.

1.1

Compare and contrast the four skills needed for information literacy.

1.2

Characterize the similarities and differences between public and academic libraries.

2.1

Discuss several advantages and challenges of using a digital library.

2.1

Describe several desktop and digital tools for organizing research.

4.1

Determine the best search strategy for a given information need.

Describe how to develop a research question.

1.3

Identify different print and electronic resources.

1.5

Compare and contrast three systems for digitally accessing information.

2.2

Explore different methods for gathering and collecting information.

2.5

Describe what the CRAAP test is and how it is used to evaluate information.

3.1

Evaluate information sources for authority, bias, accuracy, and currency.

Compare and contrast various characteristics of information.

1.4

Identify the criteria used to evaluate the currency of information.

3.2

Identify the criteria used to evaluate the relevance of information.

3.3

Identify the criteria used to evaluate the authority of information.

3.4

Identify the criteria used to evaluate the accuracy of information.

3.5

Identify the purpose behind the creation of information.

3.6

Identify the criteria used to evaluate multimedia found on the Web.

3.7

Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally.

Provide an overview of the five steps of the research process.

1.3

Describe the services provided by the Ashford University Library.

2.3

Explain the differences between quoting, summarizing, and paraphrasing.

4.2

Explain how copyright law and the concepts of public domain, fair use, and open access relate to intellectual property.

5.1

Identify the key issues of academic integrity and the role they play in the scholarly conversation.

5.2

Compile an annotated bibliography and a reference list, demonstrating an understanding of both the purpose and formatting of each.

5.3

Follow the ICE method of quoting in text, and demonstrate appropriate paraphrasing, summarizing, and citing according to APA style.

5.4

Utilize electronic tools to search for, locate, organize, and communicate information.

Explain how to search for information in the Ashford University Library.

2.4

Discuss the many digital note-taking tools available.

4.2

Explain how to organize information conceptually, chronologically, and hierarchically, including by using an outlining tool.

4.2

Discuss a variety of formats for presenting written, oral, and audiovisual information.

4.3

Discuss the benefits of using the APA style for academic writing.

5.3

Format the narrative and visual elements of a research paper according to APA style.

5.5

The Your Roadmap to Success features are just the beginning though. Each module has been carefully designed to help you master these learning outcomes. It all starts with the core content, which has been written to meet the unique needs of Ashford University students like you. In addition, you will find the following features:

Infographics These engaging displays will help you learn by highlighting critical concepts in an easy-to-read manner.

Interactive quizzes You can find these at the end of each section. They will help you monitor your learning and identify topics that you may need to review.

Putting It All Together Found at the end of each module, these interactive activities give you the opportunity to apply what you’ve learned in real-world scenarios.

Web links These links will give you access to important resources that will help you study, complete your assignments, and enrich your learning experience.

Ashford Student Profiles These feature boxes will give you insights into common issues that Ashford students face.

Key terms Found at the end of each module, these will help you study content and expand your vocabulary.

Quick Tips Found throughout each module, these tips give you tidbits of advice that will help you complete assignments and apply what you’ve learned.

Be sure to take advantage of these resources—the more you interact with your text, the more successful you will be. Best of luck on your journey to success!

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Accessible Anywhere. Anytime.

With Constellation, faculty and students have full access to eTextbooks at their fingertips. The eTextbooks are instantly accessible on web, mobile, and tablet.

iPhone

To download the Constellation iPhone or iPad app, go to the App Store on your device, search for "Constellation for Ashford University," and download the free application. You may log in to the application with the same username and password used to access Constellation on the web.

NOTE: You will need iOS version 7.0 or higher.

Android Tablet and Phone

To download the Constellation Android app, go to the Google Play Store on your Android Device, search for "Constellation for Ashford University," and download the free application. You may log in to the Android application with the same username and password used to access Constellation on the web.

NOTE: You will need a tablet or phone running Android version 2.3 (Gingerbread) or higher.

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Module 1

Introduction to Information Literacy

A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her. A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her.

A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her. A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her.

A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her. A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her.

A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her. A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her.

Learning Outcomes

Define information literacy.

Explain the benefits of becoming information literate.

Compare and contrast the four skills needed for information literacy.

Provide an overview of the five steps of the research process.

Describe how to develop a research question.

Compare and contrast various characteristics of information.

Identify different print and electronic resources.

Introduction

Module 1 introduces you to the concept of information literacy and to the Association of College and Research Libraries information literacy framework. After defining information literacy, the module explains how improving your own information literacy can enrich your personal, professional, and academic life. The module also describes the skills needed to become information literate. It then provides a brief overview of the research process, and lastly, an introduction to different characteristics and formats of information.

Your Roadmap to Success

A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her.

A woman works on her laptop, with her tablet and cell phone on the table next to her.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 1.1

Learning Outcome #1: Define information literacy.

Why is this important?

Mastering this learning outcome will give you a critical foundation: It is the first step to success in this course. As an example of this outcome’s importance, consider Marisa, a new student at Ashford. Learning the definition of information literacy got her excited to be a student again and expand her mind, and her world, through her studies. She also got an A on her first quiz, which asked her to define information literacy!

How does it relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning. Mastering this learning outcome is essential to your success as a student; it will increase your chances of getting good grades and will increase your capacity to learn to your full potential in your academic, personal, and professional lives.

Learning Outcome #2: Explain the benefits of becoming information literate.

Why is this important?

Mastering this learning outcome will help you understand information literacy in a way that is relevant and meaningful to you. For Clifford, becoming information literate meant more than just learning how to find the information he needed to complete his assignments at Ashford. Clifford believes becoming information literate has helped him to locate more resources and ideas to assist his son who has learning disabilities.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning. Mastering this learning outcome is essential to your success as a student; it will increase your chances of getting good grades and will increase your capacity to learn to your full potential in your academic, personal, and professional lives.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Take a deep breath and slowly look around you. What do you see? Mostly likely, copious amounts of different types of information surround you. In addition to the laptop or other device you’re using to read this text, you might have a yearly planner, your smart phone, a magazine, or a book lying beside you. Now take a moment and listen to the sounds around you. You may hear a television in the background, perhaps with commercials or news updates, or music, or traffic outside. The point of this brief exercise is for you to take notice and acknowledge the amount and variety of information permeating your life. Some of it may be in a ­physical form, and some of it digital. The way you take in, process, evaluate, and use the information around you determines your own personal level of information literacy.

What Is Information Literacy?

Information literacy is the ability to identify a need for information and successfully locate, evaluate, and use that information ethically and legally for a determined purpose. For this course we’ll focus on information literacy regarding your research papers for school. But information literacy is important in all aspects of life. Being information literate can help you research schools to find the one that’s best for your child, find the right sources to determine whether a folk remedy is a valid treatment for illness, compare products critically to find the best value, and think creatively to solve problems.

Figure 1.1 Information literacy framework

A Donut figure with six slices. The slices read as follows: Research = inquiry, Scholarship = conversation, Information creation = a process, Searching= strategic exploration, Authority = constructed & contextual, and Information = value. In the center of the donut it says information literacy.

Source: Association of College and Research Libraries. (2014). Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education. Retrieved from http://acrl.ala.org/ilstandards/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Framework-MW15-Board-Docs.pdf.

Recently, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), a division of the American Library Association (ALA), developed an information literacy framework that expands on this definition (Figure 1.1). The framework identifies six threshold concepts meant to guide students in the process of becoming lifelong learners through the acquisition of information literacy skills (ACRL, 2015). A threshold concept is a central or main idea within a specific subject that can transform your perception of that subject, as it becomes integrated into your way of thinking (Booth & Mathews, 2012). The ACRL’s six threshold concepts are

Research as inquiry: The research process is all about asking questions. Good research questions are dynamic and change according to the results of background research. As the understanding of a research topic increases, so should the quality of the research question. You will explore this concept in more depth later in the module, where you will learn how to develop a research question and conduct background research. You also will explore the different characteristics and formats of information that can be used to help answer your research question.

Scholarship as conversation: Experts within a field communicate to share information, debate their ideas, and gain understanding. They often contest each other’s ideas and seek out the opinions of other scholars within their fields to test these ideas. This concept will be discussed further later in the module, where you will learn the difference between scholarly and popular information sources and where to locate them. It is explored further in Module 4.

Information creation as a process: Information is presented in different formats because of the purpose of its creation. Considering the creation process of information types will help you select appropriate sources. Later in the module you will learn more about this concept and be introduced to formats of print, multimedia, and digital resources.

Searching as strategic exploration: The one perfect source that answers all aspects of your research question most likely does not exist. Instead, you will need to gather bits and pieces of information from various sources. When researching, explore many different formats of information. Module 2 provides more information about this concept and introduces you to strategic searching in a digital library.

Authority is constructed and contextual: All information sources are not created equal. Reliable sources come from authors with experience and expertise, also known as an authority, in the subject area they are writing about. This concept is further discussed in Module 3, which covers what gives an author the authority or credibility to write on a particular topic. Module 3 also introduces a set of criteria that you can use to evaluate sources you find on the Internet.

Information has value: Information has value for the author, society, and the publisher. In many ways, it can be considered a commodity. Information can have a monetary value, an educational value, and also a transformation value. Module 5 explores this concept further, including an introduction to copyright and correctly crediting your sources.

These six threshold concepts encompass what it means to be information literate in the 21st century. You may have noticed that these concepts do not exist in isolation, and there is bound to be some overlap between them. As you master these concepts, your information literacy skills will improve, along with your effectiveness as a student and working professional.

It is important to note that information literacy is not the same as computer literacy. Often there is confusion between the two. Computer literacy is the fluent use of technology over a range of platforms. In contrast, information literacy is the fluent use of information over a range of environments. It’s quite possible you may be an expert in using computers and a novice in using information. Although a certain level of computer skill is mandatory for accessing information online, information literacy is a much broader competency.

Why Is Information Literacy Important?

Do you still subscribe to physical newspapers and magazines? Or do you choose to access this content online through your computer, iPad, tablet, or smart phone? Today, more information is produced in a digital format without a physical counterpart than ever before. Consider the technological advances you’ve witnessed in the past 10 years. How have they changed your daily routines? Have you learned new skills to keep up with the technology? What about learning new skills to process the increased amount of information you encounter daily? As new websites and new technologies are introduced every day, the need for information literacy is greater than ever.

As you continue to progress through life, the amount of information produced will continue to increase at an incredible rate. Much of this information will be published on the Internet without any verification or vetting process. The volume of this information contributes to our feelings of information overload and the need to make quick decisions about what sources of information to use. When you are information literate, you have the skills to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to efficiently locate this information. Once you’ve located the information, you are able to analyze, evaluate, and have confidence in your ability to use this information creatively, ethically, and effectively.

Another benefit of developing information literacy is that it places you on the path toward becoming a lifelong learner. This is the deliberate act of choosing to learn new ideas and concepts throughout your life. Lifelong learners embrace the process and challenges associated with acquiring new knowledge. They have a growth mindset in that they seek out opportunities to learn new things and put forth the effort to do so. Reflect upon the following quote from the ALA:

Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn. They know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organized, how to find information, and how to use information in such a way that others can learn from them. They are people prepared for lifelong learning, because they can always find the information needed for any task or decision at hand. (ALA, 1989)

Here are some additional benefits to developing your information literacy skills:

Knowing when information is needed, locating it efficiently and effectively.

Critically evaluating whether the information you consume is reliable and accurate.

Using advanced search techniques to find the most relevant information.

Making informed opinions and judgments based on quality information.

Organizing and presenting information in an effective way.

Understanding the legal and ethical issues relating to using information. (ACRL, 2000)

Developing information literacy skills can also benefit you in the workplace. Reports from U.S. employers point to a growing interest in the development of information literacy, critical thinking, and lifelong learning in their employees (Weiner, 2011). Moreover, the development of information literacy skills within the workplace has the potential to produce “employees who are able to recognize and understand the central place that information, its creation, production, reproduction, circulation, and dissemination play in sustainable workplace performance” (Lloyd, 2011, p. 280). In 2009, the White House declared the month of October to be National Information Literacy Awareness Month. President Obama stated in that announcement:

Rather than merely possessing data, we must also learn the skills necessary to acquire, collate, and evaluate information for any situation . . . National Information Literacy Month highlights the need for all Americans to be adept in the skills necessary to effectively navigate the information age (Obama, 2009).

The bottom line is that no matter what industry you work in (healthcare, government, education, business, and so on), knowing how to integrate and use a variety of information from diverse print and digital sources is a necessity. Sticking to what you know in the workplace may feel comfortable. However, stepping outside your comfort zone and working to increase your workplace information literacy skills can have positive effects for you and the organization you work for.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 1.2

Learning Outcome: Compare and contrast the four skills needed for information literacy.

Why is this important?

Mastering this learning outcome will help you evaluate your own information literacy skills and identify what your personal strengths and weaknesses are. Consider James, for example. Because James didn’t think he had much talent for art or music, he never thought of himself as being very creative. He didn’t realize, though, that creative thinking (one of the skills needed for information literacy) involves having an open mind and exploring different possibilities in all situations. He now considers himself to be very creative when it comes to innovating work processes while on the job.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s learning outcome is associated with the following course learning outcome: Analyze the concept and value of information literacy for successful lifelong learning. Mastering this learning outcome is essential to your success as a student; it will increase your chances of getting good grades and will increase your capacity to learn to your full potential in your academic, personal, and professional lives.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

To become information literate, you need to develop a certain set of skills, including critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, and higher-order thinking. Once you’ve developed these skills, you’ll be able to apply them to many other areas of your life.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking requires the use of a specific set of skills to determine the value of an ­information source: inference, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, explanation, and self-­regulation. Individuals who are information literate use critical thinking skills when taking in information by evaluating a source for accuracy and fairness. With the amount of information we are exposed to on a daily basis, we need strong reasoning skills to determine fact from fiction. This is where critical thinking comes in. Critical thinkers are skeptical and do not simply accept all the arguments and conclusions they encounter. Instead, they question these arguments and conclusions, wanting to see the evidence involved. Critical thinkers think actively and strategically about the information they encounter by using a set of skills. Let’s take a closer look at each of these skills and see how Sherry, a marketing department employee, uses them during a project at work (Facione, 2011).

Inference

Inference is the process of using facts to determine an accurate conclusion or hypothesis from the information available. Given what we know so far, what conclusions can we draw? What can be ruled out? What additional information do we need to resolve this question?

Sherry’s boss has asked her to look up demographic information so that the company can target a possible new group of customers to market its existing products. Sales of company products are holding steady in their current markets, but Sherry’s boss would like to find a way to boost sales by selling to a new audience. Sherry begins by considering estimates and projections for those in her new target group. She then gathers data on their product and spending behaviors. She continues researching and collecting factual data on the target group. Once the necessary data is gathered, Sherry uses her inference skills to draw conclusions and infer if more testing of this demographic is needed. This approach helps Sherry recognize if any potential new customer opportunities exist for her company. Based on the data she collected, Sherry concludes that this new demographic has potential, but further testing is needed.

Analysis

Analysis is the process of examining pieces of information in parts and as a whole to determine the intended meaning of the information and what it represents. What are the arguments for and against? Why do you think that? What assumptions must we make to accept that conclusion?

Sherry’s boss is happy with her recommendation for a new demographic and asks that she begin organizing a focus group to continue with the testing. Two of Sherry’s coworkers present different plans for targeting this demographic through a focus group. Sherry and her boss will be making the final decision of which plan to implement. After the presentations, Sherry and her boss analyze the similarities and differences between the two focus group plans to determine which one will be most successful. They want to ensure they select the plan that will result in the most valid feedback for the company.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of assessing the credibility of a person’s experience, point of view, or opinion to determine the legitimacy of the information being presented. Why do we think we can trust this person’s claims? How strong are those arguments? How confident can we be in our conclusion given what we know now?

As Sherry leads the focus group with the targeted demographic, she discovers quite a few negative attitudes about similar products sold by her competitors. Many of the focus group participants had strong negative feelings about those products that Sherry fears may have influenced others in the group. After the group concludes, Sherry evaluates the effectiveness of the focus group and the responses she received from participants. She must judge if the opinions she collected are valid, meaning whether they have been affected by previous experiences, and whether their complaints need to be investigated further.

Interpretation

Interpretation is the process of understanding the information and then articulating the meaning of that information to others. What does this mean? How should we understand that? In this context, what was intended by saying that?

Looking closely at the information Sherry has gathered, she develops a set of options for addressing the negative responses received from the focus group attendees. She meets with her boss to debrief her and share her findings. Sherry recommends the company conduct more research before moving forward on marketing to the new targeted demographic. Among other things, she suggests they collect data from social media sites and also conduct one-on-one interviews with some of the focus group attendees.

Explanation

Explanation is the process of restating and clarifying information so it can be understood by anyone you are sharing it with. What were the specific findings of the investigation? How did you come to that interpretation? How did you conduct that analysis? Why do you think this was the right answer?

With the second phase of testing complete and all data compiled, Sherry’s boss has asked her to make two presentations on the results: one to the CEO of the company and the other to lower-level staff. She is aware that both groups are interested in hearing the results of her research but knows she will need to explain the results in two very different ways. Sherry expects the CEO may want to hear only high-level information, whereas the staff will need more specific details, as they will be responsible for moving the project forward. Sherry’s ability to clearly explain her ideas while keeping her audience in mind is critical for making sure the information she presents is understood and well received.

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation is the process of being aware of your own thinking skills and the process you are using to find information. How good was your methodology and evidence? Is there a way to reconcile conflicting conclusions? What are you missing?

After Sherry’s presentation, she checks in briefly with her boss. During this meeting, Sherry gives her overall impressions of how the target demographic project went. After some self-reflection, Sherry believes the focus group plan they selected was the best choice. However, Sherry confesses to making a few errors during its implementation that resulted in some of the negative responses from participants. She admits to taking some of the responses personally and feels she should have been more diligent in the screening of participants. In spite of this, Sherry was able to reconcile her mistakes and make a solid recommendation on the viability of this new demographic.

Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is a way of engaging with information imaginatively and coming up with ideas. It requires that you keep an open mind as you explore a wider range of possibilities. Creative thinkers “think outside the box,” meaning that they are not limited by barriers or restrictions; they may even break established rules and procedures. For example, they may approach a problem in one area—such as healthcare—by drawing on information from another area—such as ethics. Although they employ evaluation, analysis, and other critical thinking skills, this openness to imaginative exploration tends to make creative thinkers innovators.

The following feature shows the differences between critical and creative thinking. When employing your information literacy skills, you will most likely move back and forth between thinking critically and creatively. Neither type of thinking occurs in isolation. Instead, these skills support each other.

Critical versus creative thinking

Critical

Creative

Analyzes ideas

Generates ideas

Tests a hypothesis

Forms a hypothesis

Thinks in terms of what’s probable

Thinks in terms of what’s possible

Tends to think verbally, in terms of words

Tends to think visually, in terms of images

Thinks linearly, as in an outline

Makes associations, as in a concept map

Relies on logic

Relies on intuition

Identifies

Imagines

Describes

Speculates

Categorizes and classifies

Tolerates ambiguity

Makes judgments

Suspends judgment

Thinks in terms of the objective

Thinks in terms of the subjective

Considers the right answer

Considers many possible answers

Embraces standardized methods

Rejects standardized methods

Consider this example of creative thinking. An organization realized it needed to improve communication between its employees to stimulate creativity and innovation. After some creative brainstorming and planning, the organization decided to redesign the interior space of its office. The goal was to break down communication barriers and to encourage a feeling of trust and community among its employees. To make this happen, the new design resembled a tiny, peaceful village. It had its own village square and café, where employees were encouraged to gather and hold meetings. Although this workplace renovation went against some of the established norms of workplace design, it resulted in the organization consistently launching successful new products. This success is attributed to the increased collaboration and communication between employees at all levels.

You may find that creative thinking does not always come easily and you may need some stimulation to get it going. If you find this happening to you, try brainstorming a list of ideas, talking through your ideas with a friend or coworker, and avoid putting too much pressure on yourself, which can lead to frustration.

Problem Solving

Problem solving is the process of effectively working through an issue or question to find a solution. Individuals who are information literate are able to successfully apply information to solve problems. The problem-solving process consists of six steps: understand the problem, identify the cause of the problem, brainstorm a list of solutions, evaluate the solutions, apply the best solution, and evaluate the outcome. Figure 1.2 illustrates the problem-solving process. At any step in the process, you may decide to go back and repeat an earlier step. For example, once you begin brainstorming a list of solutions, you may find that you still do not have a good understanding of the problem and will need to revisit step 1 to gather more information about the problem. Let’s explore each step in the problem-solving process and see how Mike applied this process in the workplace.

Figure 1.2 The steps in the problem-solving process

A diagram of a six-step problem-solving model. Step 1 is to understand the problem, step 2 is to identify the problem cause, step 3 is to brainstorm solutions, step 4 is to evaluate solutions, step 5 is to apply the best solution, and step 6 is to evaluate and measure. Arrows indicate the proper order of steps, and that once the process is over, it begins again.

Understand the problem. Before a problem can be solved, it must be understood. To understand the problem, ask yourself questions such as Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? Using this step is like putting the pieces of a puzzle together.

For example, the production of syringes in a medical manufacturing plant has consistently been on back order for more than three months. It seemed the plant could not keep up with an increase in product demands. Concerned, Mike was quite distressed by this problem and the attention it began receiving from his bosses. He set out to identify what was causing the backup in production and how he could increase production to meet customer demands.

Mike’s first step was to begin gathering information from each of his section managers. After reviewing their status updates and visiting their departments, Mike discovers the backup in production is connected to the current process used to clean the equipment. He suspects this could be preventing his plant from meeting its increase in production.

Identify the cause of the problem. Once the symptoms of the problem have been identified, the root cause of the problem can then begin to be defined. This will prevent a reaction to superficial symptoms.

Mike needs to make sure he knows the real cause of the problem, making sure to eliminate the symptoms of the problem. He needs to be able to accurately state what is causing the backup in production to company leaders. Upon deeper inspection, Mike realizes the process for cleaning the equipment is quite time consuming and involves numerous steps. This current cleaning process, while sufficient when production was low, is now highly inefficient not only in time, but also in the electricity it consumes. This holdup is resulting in the plant not being able to meet its daily production quota.

Brainstorm a list of solutions. Once the problem and its symptoms have been identified, take time to brainstorm a list of possible solutions. Be careful of jumping in head first to fix the problem. This approach does not allow you to consider all of your options.

Mike begins brainstorming solutions by reaching out to the company’s other plant directors. He wants to see if they have encountered similar issues, and if so, how they solved them. He also meets with the equipment-cleaning manager and the staff responsible for carrying out the machine-cleaning process. Mike gathers their input and ideas on the situation and begins creating a list of possible solutions.

The information he receives from other plant directors confirms that (1) his is the only plant using that cleaning method and (2) his plant is the only one still using older model equipment for production. He was able to determine that two cleaning methods are currently being used at other plants that may work for his. Each one would take some modifications to work efficiently at his plant. He also received a possible solution from the equipment-cleaning manager and his staff. This group has been frustrated with the process for a while and was conducting its own research into how to best solve the problem. The group’s solution is untested, but it is the least expensive of the three and uses less electricity than the current process or the other two solutions on the list.

Evaluate the solutions. Using a set of criteria, you need to evaluate each solution. Is the solution feasible? Is the solution acceptable to those who have to implement it? The plant director must now decide which of the three solutions will solve the problem.

Mike begins by evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of each solution. He decides to focus only on the options that would meet the company’s goals of waste reduction and cost savings. This leaves him with two possible options to carefully consider. Looking closely at each one, he evaluates the cost, efficiency, reliability, and required maintenance of each cleaning alternative.

Apply the best solution. Once a solution is selected, there must be careful planning to ensure it is implemented effectively.

Mike must now decide how to implement the new cleaning process, who will do it, and when it will begin. Since he decided the new cleaning method proposed by the equipment-cleaning department would be best, he meets with the team to discuss logistics and implementation. Additionally, he also needs to factor in how much time it will take to put in the new system and how much production will be lost during this process.

Evaluate and measure. The solution must be monitored and evaluated to confirm its success.

With the new cleaning system in place, Mike must now watch over the new system to ensure it is working properly. He must also evaluate the results of the new cleaning system by collecting data. If the problem is not resolved, he will need to evaluate what is and is not effective.

Once the new cleaning solution was implemented, the plant’s syringe production was able to finally handle demand. It also significantly reduced the amount of electricity used, which ended up meeting two of the company’s goals. The new cleaning system became so successful that company leaders plan to use this same system in many of their other plants.

Higher-Order Thinking

Higher-order thinking is reasonable, insightful thinking that uses questioning, investigating, observing, comparing, and connecting to make decisions. In 1956, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom developed a classification of intellectual behavior and learning. Figure 1.3 illustrates the hierarchy of Bloom’s taxonomy, beginning with a base level of knowledge (low-level thinking) and evolving toward evaluation (high-order thinking).

Figure 1.3 Bloom’s taxonomy

Six steps of Bloom's taxonomy. The bottom step is knowledge, then comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Source: Adapted from Bloom, B. & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York, NY: Longman.

Bloom’s taxonomy uses a set of action verbs to represent the type of thinking that occurs at each level: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Information literate individuals will move throughout each of the levels depending on their need and purpose for information. You may find you tend to use higher levels of thinking in your academic and professional lives. Let’s look at each of the levels by taking a closer look at Sherry’s demographic project as an example. Notice that two levels in Bloom’s taxonomy are the same as two aspects of critical thinking.

Knowledge is the recalling of previously learned information, and it generally lays a foundation for greater learning.

This may involve remembering a variety of material, from drawing out facts to a complete theory. When Sherry’s boss asked her to identify a potential new demographic group, she began by making a list of the groups they currently were not marketing to. She then increased her knowledge of each group by locating information on their potential interest in her company’s products.

Comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning of information. This level goes one step beyond memorization.

At this level, Sherry begins to summarize the data she has gathered on new demographics, looking to see if one stands out as a potential new customer.

Application is the ability of knowing when to apply learned skills in new situations.

Sherry and her boss could have benefited from the construction of customer scenarios, where they could apply what they knew about their potential new demographic before conducting the focus groups.

Analysis is the ability to examine pieces of information in parts and as a whole to determine the intended meaning of the information and what it represents.

Following the presentation of the two focus groups, Sherry and her boss compare and contrast each one, analyzing which would be most appropriate.

Synthesis is the ability to put together parts to form a new whole, such as compiling various pieces of information, ideas, or concepts together seamlessly.

After all the data on the possible new demographic is in, Sherry compiles the demographic project data, including her recommendations into a report for the company.

Evaluation is the ability to use a set of criteria to judge the value, credibility, and legitimacy of information, such as a statement, research report, novel, or documentary work.

Sherry will assess her project recommendations and performance to determine if they were accurate and effective.

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 1.3

Learning Outcome #1: Provide an overview of the five steps of the research process.

Why is this important?

Mastering this learning outcome will help you familiarize yourself with a process that will help you successfully complete assignments in all of your courses. Consider Jennifer, for example. Jennifer, a new student at Ashford, hadn’t been in an academic setting since graduating high school over 15 years ago, so she was feeling anxious about completing her assignments. She knew she would have to create an annotated bibliography for her GEN 103 course, but she wasn’t even sure what that was! Learning the five steps of the research process helped to ease her mind and made her realize that she could conquer her assignments, one step at a time.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Develop strategies to access and use information ethically and legally. Mastering this learning outcome will help you maintain your integrity and reputation, and protect you from legal action and other negative consequences both within and outside of school.

Learning Outcome #2: Describe how to develop a research question.

Why is this important?

Mastering this learning outcome will help you identify viable topics for your writing assignments in this and subsequent courses. Consider Marc, for example. Marc knew he wanted to write his research paper about basketball, one of his passions. But the topic seemed broad, and he wasn’t sure where to start. Learning how to develop a research question helped Marc to narrow down his topic by formulating a clear question to guide his research.

How does this relate to your success in this course?

This section’s outcome is associated with the following course outcome: Determine the best search strategy for a given information need. Mastering this learning outcome will enable you to save time in your busy life, so that you can balance the needs of school, work, family, and other commitments.

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you, see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

Irwin was excited! He just selected the topic for his research paper in his computer literacy course. His professor said students were to write about the impact of a specific technology on society. Irwin looked closely at the list of approved topics and decided to choose social networking. He’s been using different types of social networking for about a decade. He is comfortable using this technology and feels he knows all there is to know about the topic. Irwin is pretty sure he has this assignment locked up and will get a top grade.

As Irwin sits down to begin writing his paper, he is confident in his knowledge of the topic and thinks he will have it written pretty quickly. He’s not even concerned about meeting the five- to seven-page requirement because he knows he has plenty to say on this topic. Irwin begins his paper by sharing how he uses social networking to stay in touch with his family and friends, when gaming with others, and when keeping up with his personal interests. He then decides to move into writing about which social networking sites he uses and why. When he finishes, he looks at what he has typed. Irwin realizes that he doesn’t even have a full page written and has already exhausted all he knew about the topic. This sudden realization surprises and concerns him. Irwin decides he might need to actually conduct some research. Faced with this new understanding, he pulls out the assignment instructions and starts over.

The remainder of this module and Modules 2 through 5 focus on the research process. This section will introduce the steps of the research process, including a full discussion of the first step, define the need and the audience. Each subsequent module covers the remaining steps of the research process in more depth.

An infographic titled: the research process. Steps 1-5 take you through the research process from defining the need and the audience (step 1) to communicating information(step 5). An application translator states that you can use these skills to build and manage your fantasy football team, discover and test new recipes, and plan a party.

Step 1: Define the Need and the Audience

The first step in the research process is acknowledging a need for information and knowing the audience to whom you will be presenting the information. In your academic life, this need can come from a research assignment given to you by your instructor, like it did for Irwin. You may be assigned a research topic, expected to select a topic from a given list, or be allowed to pick your own topic. At your workplace, the need for information may come from a presentation you are required to make or research your boss woud like you to conduct on a competing company.

Use these questions to define your need for information

What types of information do I need?

Facts? Opinions? Both sides of an argument? Statistics? Primary or secondary sources?

How much information do I need?

Detailed and in depth or broad in scope? Summary or overview?

Is there a viewpoint I should follow?

Age? Gender? Time frame? Era? Location?

Who is the audience for this information?

Boss? Coworkers? The public? Professor? Classmates? Family and friends?

At this stage of the research process, consider who will make up your audience, what information is most relevant to them, and what writing style would be most appropriate. In your workplace, your audience may be your boss, coworkers, clients, and department heads, or perhaps you are researching information that will be presented to the public through your company’s website. At school, your audience will most always be your instructor and classmates. In your everyday life, your family may want to try out a new restaurant and you have offered to locate one. Since your family will be your audience, your presentation of your restaurant research will be much less formal.

Defining the Topic

After you identify what information is needed and who your audience will be, it’s time to begin defining your topic. If you have only a general idea of what your topic is, like Irwin did, it’s important that you conduct background research to gain a clearer understanding of the questions you need to answer or problems you need to solve with your research. Use encyclopedias, Google, and even Wikipedia for background research. Keep in mind that the research process is not a one-way street. Think of it as a river. The process has a beginning and an end, but it does not flow in a completely straight line. It begins with background research and your preconceived notions and beliefs about a particular topic. As you learn more about the topic, those preconceptions change and you begin to ask different, more informed questions. This alters the direction of your initial path and helps guide you toward a more fully formed research question. You will need to test and refine your topic based on the background research you uncover. Remember to keep your mind open to other ideas or perspectives on your topic that you previously may not have considered. Make sure you never finalize a research topic without conducting some exploratory or background research first.

Let’s check in with Irwin. Once he discovered he really didn’t know as much as he thought he did on his topic, he decided to use a KWHL chart (Table 1.1) to help get his thoughts together. He fills in what he knows about his topic (K), then brainstorms ideas for what he wants to know about social networking (W), and lists how he could get those answers (H). Later, he will fill in what he learned about social networking (L). After filling in the first three sections of the chart, he conducts background research using Wikipedia and Google. He can’t believe how much he did not know about social networking and its impact on society. He even adds more topics he’d like to learn about to his chart.

As you conduct background research, consider using a KWHL chart or a concept map. Each one can help you organize your thoughts and help you figure out if you’ve located a sufficient amount of background research. Give yourself time to complete this type of reflection, and if you feel your KWHL or concept map is incomplete, try conducting more background research. (Refer to your course for more about concept maps.)

Table 1.1: Irwin’s KWHL chart, just starting