Regular practices of the jains include

Jainism and Sikhism

© Thomas Hilgers

First Encounter

On a street in Southeast Asia you ask a gentleman for directions. This leads to further

conversation because your accent gives you away and he has relatives in the United States.

“Maybe you know them?” he asks. “Do you live close to Tennessee?”

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Even though you don’t know his relatives, you are soon learning all about his family. He has two

sons, already married, and a willful daughter who is of marriageable age. He is frightened that

she might fall in love with a person of a different religion, and then what will he do? Soon he is

taking you into his nearby gurdwara—the religious center for Sikhs—where he will be doing

volunteer work this afternoon and having something to eat.

At the entrance, your new friend takes a piece of orange cloth and makes a turban to cover the

top of your head. He does the same for himself. “We do this for respect,” he says. Upstairs, you

meet the resident priest, a bright-eyed man in blue, who wears an orange cap. “Our congregation

brought him from India to be our priest,”

your Sikh friend explains as you walk to the altar area. Soon the priest is showing you copies of

the Adi Granth, the sacred book of the Sikhs. They are housed in a special air-conditioned

sanctuary beside the altar. Then you see the sword collection at the side of the room and discuss

the kirpan (ritual knife) that the priest wears. “Sikhs had to learn to defend themselves,” your

friend explains. “These are symbols of our strength.”

Afterward, you are invited downstairs to an enormous kitchen and dining room. Large vats

gleam. You and your friend sit at a long table, drinking tea with milk and eating a late-afternoon

snack with the kitchen workers.

At the entrance, before leaving, you give back your turban to the Sikh guide and thank him for

his kindness. You commiserate about his daughter and take the names and addresses of his

relatives in the United States, whom you plan to contact on your very next visit to their state. He

helps you find a taxi and, as it stops, invites you to a service three days from now. “There will be

wonderful Sikh music. You must come.” As you are climbing into the taxi, he adds, “There will

be much good food, too.”

Turbans, you decide as your taxi snakes through the traffic, are fine. But swords? And priests

who wear knives? Are these suitable symbols for any religion? How can religions hold such

differing attitudes about violence?

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Shared Origins

India is home to two religions, Jainism and Sikhism, that are now becoming better known in the

West (Figure 5.1). The first is ancient, and the other is relatively young. Adherents of the two

religions can be found in limited numbers around the world, but the majority of them still live in

India.

Figure 5.1 Jain and Sikh holy sites in India.

Both religions have some connection with Hinduism, sharing with it certain characteristics, such

as a belief in karma and rebirth. Furthermore, both of them, having developed in opposition to

Hindu polytheism and ritualism, strive toward greater religious simplicity. In spite of their

similarities, however, Jainism and Sikhism differ in their views of reality and in their emotional

tone. It is therefore interesting to look at them side by side. Jainism rejects belief in a Creator and

sees the universe simply as natural forces in motion, yet it also recognizes the spiritual potential

of each person. Like early Buddhism, Jainism emphasizes the ideals of extreme nonattachment

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and nonharm (ahimsa). Sikhism, to the contrary, embraces a devout monotheism and accepts

meat eating and military self-defense. Regardless of their differences, both religions stress the

importance of the individual’s struggle to purify the self, to act morally, and to do good to others.

Jainism

Background

As the Vedic religion expanded eastward into the Ganges River valley, it created opposition. As

we saw in Chapter 4, some people rebelled against the growing strength of the caste system, and

nonbrahmins, especially the aristocrats, felt threatened by the power of the priests. Moved by

compassion, some people opposed the animal sacrifices that were often a part of the Vedic ritual.

Two great religious movements grew out of this opposition. One—Buddhism—is well known

because it spread beyond India. The other movement—Jainism—has remained less well known

because, until recently, it has not sought converts in other lands. When they arose, both

Buddhism and Jainism were influenced by some early Hindu ideas, but they may have also

practiced much older ascetic traditions.

It is possible that Jainism has not spread widely because it is uncompromising: in it we find an

extremist quality that is fascinating, thought provoking, and often noble. Tendencies toward

nonviolence and austerity apparent in Hinduism and Buddhism are carried to their logical

endpoint in Jainism, and the skepticism of early Buddhism is practiced rigorously. The study of

Jainism, in fact, gives greater clarity to our understanding of those two other Indian religions.

Although Jainism did not spread widely, its strong ideal of nonviolence has attracted interest

throughout the world. We see its influence directly in the thought and work of Mahatma Gandhi

and, indirectly, in the thought and work of Martin Luther King Jr.

Mahavira and the Origins of Jainism

Jains date the origins of their religion to the distant past. They believe that in the present cycle of

the universe, twenty-four great people have reached perfection; and though living in quite

different centuries, these saints have been role models and guides who have shown the way to

others. These saints are called tirthankaras, which can be translated as “crossing makers” or “ford

finders”—a ford being a shallow section of a river through which people can wade to the other

side. It is notable that the term does not convey the image of a bridge. The point of the term is

that people cannot cross to the other side without getting wet and going through the river itself.

The historical existence of most of these tirthankaras cannot be proven, but the twenty-third one,

Parshva, may have been a real person who lived in India, possibly between 850 and 800 BCE

(Timeline 5.1).

TimeLine 5.1

Timeline of significant events in the history of Jainism and Sikhism.

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Jain monks leave the pilgrimage center at Belagola in India.

© Jagadeesh Nv/Reuters/Corbis

The most recent tirthankara is considered to be the greatest of them all and is often thought of by

outsiders to be the founder of Jainism. His name was Nataputta Vardhamana, but he is usually

referred to by an honorary title: Mahavira, meaning “great man” or “hero.” When he lived is not

entirely certain. An older dating, accepted by Jains, puts his life entirely in the sixth century BCE

(c. 599–527 BCE), but some scholars believe he lived a bit later (540–468 bce), possibly as a

contemporary of the Buddha.

Mahavira’s life story is surrounded by legend, although the basic outline—which somewhat

resembles the story of the Buddha—seems clear. He was born into an aristocratic family of a

noble clan. Luckily, he was the second son and thus had fewer responsibilities to care for his

parents than did his older brother. One branch of Jains holds that he never married; another says

that he married and had a child. But all agree that he left home at about age 30 to live the life of a

wandering holy man.

After leaving home, Mahavira embraced extreme asceticism, and legend tells of his harshness

toward himself and of the harshness received from others. He is said to have pulled out his hair

when he renounced the world, and villagers taunted him during his meditations by hurting him

with fire and with pins that they pushed into his skin. Dogs attacked him, but he did not resist. In

order to avoid all attachments to people and places, he moved to a new place every day; and after

losing his loincloth, he went entirely naked for the rest of his life. He lived as a wandering holy

man, begging for his food along the way. He was so gentle that to avoid causing injury to any

living thing, he strained whatever he drank to keep from swallowing any insect that might have

fallen into his cup, and he stepped carefully as he walked down a road to avoid crushing even an

ant.

After twelve years of meditation, wandering, and extreme mortification, Mahavira, at the age of

42, had an experience of great liberation. He felt completely free of all bondage to the ordinary

world—no longer being troubled by pain, suffering, shame, or loss. He now felt fully in control

of himself, sensing that he had won out over all the forces that bind a person to the world.

As a result of his liberating experience, Mahavira is called a jina (“conqueror”). It is from this

title that the religion Jainism takes its name.

Mahavira spent the next thirty years of his life teaching his doctrines and organizing an order of

naked monks. He died at about 72 at the village of Pava, near present-day Patna, in northeastern

India.

Worldview

Jainism, like Buddhism, rather starkly rejects belief in a Creator God. The Mahapurana, a long

Jain poem of the ninth century CE, states that “foolish men declare that Creator made the world.

The doctrine that the world was created is ill-advised and should be rejected.” 1 Jainism offers the

following philosophical arguments: If God is perfect, why did God create a universe that is

imperfect? If God made the universe because of love, why is the world so full of suffering

beings? If the universe had to be created, did not God also need to be created? And where did

God come from in the beginning?

Jains respond to these questions by denying any beginning and asserting instead that the universe

is eternal. Although the universe has always existed, it must continually change, and in the

process of eternal change, structure arises on its own. Jainism (like Hinduism) teaches that the

universe goes through regular great cycles of rise and fall. During the periods when human

beings exist, there first is moral integrity, followed by inevitable moral decay; luckily, however,

in each human age, tirthankaras appear to point the way to freedom.

According to Jainism, everything is full of life and is capable of suffering. This view of reality,

called hylozoism (Greek: “matter-alive”), may be quite ancient. In addition, Jain philosophy is

dualistic, for Jains teach that all parts of the universe are composed of two types of reality, which

are intermixed. There is spirit, which senses and feels, and there is matter, which is not alive and

has no consciousness. Jainism calls these two principles jiva (“soul,” “spirit,” “life”) and ajiva

(“nonsoul,” “nonlife”). Jains, however, see life and consciousness where others do not—even in

fire, rocks, and water. Thus they extend the notion of spirit and feeling beyond human beings,

animals, and insects. They are also aware of the minuscule life-forms that live in earth, water,

and wood. Their way of looking at reality makes Jains cautious about injuring anything—even

that which does not at first appear to have the capacity to suffer.

Jainism sees the human being as composed of two opposing parts. The material side of the

human being seeks pleasure, escape from pain, and self-interest, while the spiritual side seeks

freedom and escape from all bondage to the material world and from the limitation of ego.

Because other forms of reality are not aware of their two opposing aspects, they can do nothing

about the essential incompatibility of the two parts. Human beings, however, have the ability to

understand their dual nature and to overcome their limitations. With discipline, human beings

can overcome the bondage of the material world and the body, liberating their spirits through

insight, austerity, and kindness.

Enriching this vision of the human situation are the Jain beliefs in karma and reincarnation. Like

Hindus, Jains believe that spirits are constantly being reborn in various forms. A spirit can move

up or down the scale of rebirth, as well as free itself entirely from the chain of rebirths.

What controls the direction of rebirth is karma, which is produced by every action. As discussed

earlier, karma is an important notion in Hinduism and Buddhism, but for Jains, karma has a quite

physical quality: it is like a powder or grime that settles on and clings to the spirit. The level of

rebirth is determined automatically, according to one’s state of karma at the time of death of

one’s current body.

Jains traditionally have believed that superhuman beings exist in realms of the universe above

the earth. Often these beings are called gods or deities, but such terms can be misleading. We

must recall that Jains believe that these superhuman beings are also subject to karma and change.

When the karma that has brought them rebirth as gods has run out, they will be reborn in lower

parts of the universe. Some Jains, however, do believe that when in their superhuman form, these

celestial beings can be of help to people on earth who pray to them. Jains also believe that some

beings exist in painful realms below the earth, and Jains hope to avoid being reborn there.

The Jain goal is to reach a state of total freedom. Liberated spirits, at last freed of their

imprisoning material bodies, live on in the highest realm, which is thought to be at the very top

of the universe. Mahavira and other tirthankaras dwell there, and although they cannot assist

human beings (as deities might), they are role models whom human beings devoutly recall in

order to gain strength and courage.

Jain Ethics

Jainism has five ethical recommendations, which monks and nuns are expected to keep quite

strictly. Laypeople, however, have the flexibility to adjust their practice to their particular life

situations. (We must also recall that these are ideals that are not always lived out perfectly by

individuals.)

The saint, with true vision, conceives compassion for all the world.... The great sage becomes a

refuge for injured creatures, like an island which the waters cannot overwhelm.

Acaranga Sutra 1:6, 5 2

Nonviolence (ahimsa) A more accurate English translation of ahimsa might be “gentleness” or

“harmlessness.” Ahimsa is the foundation of Jain ethics, and Jains are best known for their

extreme measures in this regard. Believing that Mahavira swept the ground in front of him as he

walked and before he sat down, Jain monks and nuns sometimes use a small, soft brush to move

ants and other insects out of the way so that no life-form—even the tiniest—will be crushed.

Feeling a kinship with the animal world as well, Jains have established hospitals to care for sick

animals. They have been known to buy caged animals and set them free. Jains are also strict

vegetarians, and some reject the use of animal products such as leather, feathers, and fur.

Because Jain laypeople avoid occupations that would harm insects or animals, hunting and

fishing are forbidden, as are slaughtering or selling animal flesh. And although some Jains are

farmers, farming is often avoided because the necessary plowing could hurt small animals and

insects living in the fields. Jains, instead, have gravitated to careers that ideally cause no harm,

such as medicine, education, law, and business. As an indirect result, the Jains in India make up a

powerful business class whose reputation for virtue earns them the trust of others. Nonlying

Jainism discourages the telling of any falsehood and avoids exaggeration, even when meant

humorously. Lying and exaggeration are dangerous, Jains think, because they often cause hurt.