Rogers theory of personality maladjustment is the result of

Psychology

CHAPTER 6

Personality

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Psychoanalytic/ Psychodynamic Theories

Trait Theories

Humanistic Theories

Social-Cognitive Theories

Biological Theories

Personality Assessment

1

Real World Psychology

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Things you’ll learn in Chapter 11

Are some people with highly negative attitudes toward gay people repressing their own sexual desires?

Q1

Which personality traits are most important for your career and academic success?

Can spending time in a foreign country change your personality?

What parenting skills are also associated with increased marital satisfaction?

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Can social media postings be used to measure your personality?

Q6

Do our genes predict how much we will give to charity?

2

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Personality

“Our unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions”

Various theories

Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic

Trait

Humanistic

Social / Cognitive

Biological

Also assessed & measured in various ways

Tutorial Video: Exploring Your Personality

Video: Dog Personality

Personality

Definition – “Our unique and relatively stable pattern of thoughts, feelings and actions

Various theories

Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic

Trait

Humanistic

Social / Cognitive

Biological

Also assessed and measured in various ways

3

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Findout the difference between

Levels of consciousness

Conscious

Preconscious

Unconscious

Three mental structures

Id -

Ego

Superego

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Levels of Consciousness

Conscious – Thoughts or motives that a person is currently aware of or is remembering

Preconscious – Thoughts, motives or memories that exist just beneath the surface of awareness and can be called to consciousness when necessary

Unconscious – The reservoir of largely unacceptable thoughts, feelings, memories and other information that lies beneath conscious awareness

Three mental structures that help to form our personalities

Id – The personality structure that is present at birth, completely unconscious and striving to meet basic drives, such as hunger, thirst, sex and aggression; operates on the pleasure principle

Ego – The personality structure that is largely conscious, and the “executive,” which deals with the demands of reality; operates on the reality principle

Superego – The personality structure that serves as the center of morality, providing internalized ideals and standards for judgment; often referred to as the “conscience”

4

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

FIGURE 11.1

The tip of the iceberg would be analogous to the conscious mind, which is above the water and open for easy inspection

The preconscious mind (the area only shallowly submerged) contains information that can be viewed with a little extra effort

The large base of the iceberg is somewhat like the unconscious, completely hidden from personal inspection

Freud’s three levels of consciousness

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

See Figure 11.1 and caption

Note that Freud never used this analogy personally

Defense mechanisms

How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality

Psychosexual stages

Five developmental periods, each with a particular kind of pleasure must be gratified for personality to develop normally

- oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital

If a need isn’t met at any stage, one could become fixated in his/her development

5

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

FIGURE 11.3

Note how the ego is primarily conscious whereas the id is entirely unconscious

ID (pleasure principle)

Ego (reality principle)

Superego (the conscience)

Freud’s personality structures

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s personality structures

See Figure 11.3 and caption

- ID (pleasure principle)

- Ego (reality principle)

- Superego (the conscience)

Note that Freud never used this analogy personally

6

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

Defense mechanisms

How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality

Psychosexual stages

Five developmental periods, each with a particular kind of pleasure must be gratified for personality to develop normally

If a need isn’t met at any stage, one could become fixated in his/her development

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Defense mechanisms

How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality

Psychosexual stages

Five developmental periods, each with a particular kind of pleasure must be gratified for personality to develop normally

- oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital

If a need isn’t met at any stage, one could become fixated in his/her development

7

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

Defense mechanisms can be healthy and helpful if we use them in moderation or on a temporary basis

Defense mechanisms

FIGURE 11.4

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Defense mechanisms

How the ego reduces anxiety through self-deception and distorting reality

See Figure 11.4 and captions

These physicians may intellectualize and distance themselves from the gruesome aspects of their work to avoid personal anxieties.

Unfortunately, defense mechanisms generally distort reality and they create some of our most dangerous habits through a vicious self-reinforcing cycle. For instance, an alcoholic who uses his paycheck to buy drinks may feel very guilty, but he can easily reduce this conflict by rationalizing that he deserves to relax and unwind with alcohol because he works so hard.

8

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DEFENSE MECHANISM DESCRIPTION
Repression Preventing painful or unacceptable thoughts from entering consciousness (e.g. forgetting the details of a traffic accident)
Sublimation Redirecting socially unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities (e.g. redirecting aggressive impulses by becoming a professional fighter)
Denial Refusing to accept an unpleasant reality (e.g. Alcoholics refusing to admit their addiction)
TABLE 11.1a

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

See Table 10.1a

9

DEFENSE MECHANISM DESCRIPTION
Rationali- zation Creating a socially acceptable excuse to justify unacceptable behavior (e.g. Justifying cheating on an exam by saying “everyone else does it”)
Intellectu- alization Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words or ideas (e.g. Discussing your divorce without emotion by ignoring the hidden, underlying pain)
Projection Transferring unacceptable thoughts, motives or impulses to others (e.g. Becoming unreasonably jealous of your mate while denying your attraction to others)
TABLE 11.1b

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

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See Table 11.1b

10

DEFENSE MECHANISM DESCRIPTION
Reaction formation Not acknowledging unacceptable impulses and overemphasizing the opposite (e.g. Promoting a petition against adult bookstores even though you are secretly fascinated by pornography)
Regression Reverting to immature ways of responding (e.g. Throwing a temper tantrum when a friend doesn’t want to do what you’d like)
Displace- ment Redirecting impulses from the original source toward a less threatening person or object (e.g. Yelling at a coworker after being criticized by your boss)
TABLE 11.1c

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

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See Table 11.1c

11

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued)

Oral (0-18 mos.) – Mouth (Weaning from breast or bottle)

Anal (18 mos.-3 yrs.) – Anus (Toilet training)

Phallic (3-6 yrs.) – Genitals (Overcoming Oedipus complex by identifying with same-sex parent)

Latency (6 yrs.-puberty) – None (Interacting with same-sex peers)

Genital (puberty-adult) – Genitals (Establishing intimate relationships with the opposite sex)

Freud’s Five Psychosexual Stages

PROCESS DIAGRAM 11.1

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s Five Psychosexual Stages

See Process Diagram 11.1 and captions

- Oral (0-18 mos.) – Mouth (Weaning from breast or bottle)

- Anal (18 mos.-3 yrs.) – Anus (Toilet training)

- Phallic (3-6 yrs.) – Genitals (Overcoming Oedipus complex by identifying with same-sex parent)

- Latency (6 yrs.-puberty) – None (Interacting with same-sex peers)

- Genital (puberty-adult) – Genitals (Establishing intimate relationships with the opposite sex)

Note that the Oedipus complex refers to Freud’s term for believing that, during the phallic stage, a young boy develops a sexual attraction to his mother and rivalry with his father.

12

Alfred Adler

Behavior is purposeful and goal-directed

Inferiority complex

Carl Jung

Personal vs. collective unconscious

Archetypes

Karen Horney

Adult personalities are shaped by childhood relationships with parents

Basic anxiety

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamic/Neo-Freudian Theories

FIGURE 11.6

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic/Neo-Freudian Theories

Alfred Adler

Developed individual psychology

Instead of seeing behavior as being motivated by unconscious forces, he believed that our behaviors to be purposeful and goal-directed

Inferiority complex – Adler’s idea that feelings of inferiority develop from early childhood experiences of helplessness and incompetence

Carl Jung (pronounced YOONG)

Developed analytical psychology

Believed that our unconscious contains positive and spiritual motives as well as sexual and aggressive forces

Hence, he divided the unconscious into two forms – the personal (created from our individual experiences) and the collective ( identical in each person, inherited and consists of archetypes (primitive images and patterns of thought, feeling and behavior) – For instance, there are common similarities in religion, art and dream imagery across cultures, such as the repeated symbol of the snake in the pictured Egyptian tomb painting. (Engage your students: Are there other possible explanations? Perhaps because snakes pose a danger that the symbol has been used across time and cultures.)

Karen Horney (pronounced HORN-eye)

Blended Freudian, Alderian and Jungian theory

Believed that most of Freud’s ideas about female personality reflected male bias and misunderstanding

Women’s everyday experiences with social inferiority led not to penis envy but to power envy

Felt personality development depends largely on social relationships, particularly on the relationship between the parent and the child

Basic anxiety – the feelings of helplessness and insecurity that adults experience because as children they felt alone and isolated in a hostile environment; we cope with this anxiety by moving toward, away from or against other people – to be psychologically healthy, we must strike a balance among these three styles

13

Major criticisms of Freud

Inadequate empirical support

Many concepts can’t be scientifically tested

Overemphasis on various things

Sexuality

Biology

Unconscious forces

Corresponding reduced focus on other things

Learning

Culture

Sexism and derogatory view of women

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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories

FIGURE 11.7

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theories

Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories

Major criticisms of Freud

Inadequate empirical support

Many concepts can’t be scientifically tested (In the picture, is this an example of Freud’s first stage of psychosexual development or just a natural part of all infants’ attempts to self-soothe, or their evolutionary adaptive sucking behaviors?

Overemphasis on various things

Sexuality

Biology

Unconscious forces

Corresponding reduced focus on other things

Learning

Culture

Sexism and derogatory view of women

14

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Are some people with highly negative attitudes toward gay people repressing their own sexual desires?

Q1

People who identify as having a heterosexual orientation but show a strong sexual attraction to same-sex people in psychological tests tend to have more sexual prejudice and higher levels of hostility toward gay people. (Weinstein et al., 2012)

15

Trait Theories Early Trait Theories (continued)

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Cattell’s 16 Source Traits

Trait Theories

Early Trait Theories

Cattell’s 16 Source Traits

Note that each of the 16 are on a continuum between low (1) and high (10)

16

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Trait Theories Modern Trait Theory

The five-factor model (FFM)

Includes five basic dimensions

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Informally referred to as “The Big Five”

Note that the first letter of these five dimensions forms the acronym O-C-E-A-N

Trait Theories

Modern Trait Theory

The five-factor model (FFM)

Includes five basic dimensions

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Informally referred to as “The Big Five”

Note that the first letter of these five dimensions forms the acronym O-C-E-A-N

17

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Trait Theories Modern Trait Theory

The five-factor model (FFM)

Do you think these five factors accurately reflect your key personality traits?

Each of the five factors exist on a continuum (from low to high)

FIGURE 11.8

Trait Theories

Modern Trait Theory

The five-factor model (FFM)

Includes five basic dimensions

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Each of these five factors exist on a continuum (from low to high)

Engage your students: Do you think these five factors accurately reflect your key personality traits? Why or why not? Also, some have said that scoring high on the first four factors are the “nice” traits. Under what conditions could scoring low on extraversion (being introverted) be advantageous? (various possible responses)

18

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Which personality traits are most important for your career and academic success?

Q2

Conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness are reliable predictors for success.

Conscientiousness is most strongly linked with academic grade point average (GPA), especially in subjects that students generally find uninteresting. (Dumfart & Neubauer, 2016; Rahafar et al., 2016; Vecchione et al., 2016)

Engage your students: Based on your own college experience, can you see why this makes intuitive sense? How would you explain why extraversion does not positively correlate with GPA?

19

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Trait Theories Evaluating Trait Theories

Wide-ranging support exists for the FFM

Demonstrates a high degree of shared preferences for certain traits

Strong cross-cultural support

Allows for the prediction of real-life preferences and behaviors

Criticisms of the FFM

Fails to consider situational determinants

Offers insufficient explanation for why people develop specific traits

Trait Theories

Evaluating Trait Theories

Wide-ranging support exists for the five-factor model (FFM)

Demonstrates a high degree of shared preferences for certain traits

Strong cross-cultural support

Allows for the prediction of real-life preferences and behaviors

Criticisms of the FFM

Fails to consider situational determinants

Offers insufficient explanation for why people develop specific traits

24

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Trait Theories Evaluating Trait Theories (continued)

Mate Preferences and the Five-Factor Model

WHAT MEN MOST WANT IN A MATE
1. Mutual attraction – love 6. Education & intelligence
2. Dependable character 7. Sociability
3. Emotional stability & maturity 8. Desire for home & children
4. Pleasing disposition 9. Refinement, neatness
5. Good health 10. Good looks (*)
TABLE 11.2a

* - Not on women’s top 10

Trait Theories

Evaluating Trait Theories

See Table 11.2

25

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Trait Theories Evaluating Trait Theories (continued)

Mate Preferences and the Five-Factor Model

WHAT WOMEN MOST WANT IN A MATE
1. Mutual attraction – love 6. Sociability (7)
2. Dependable character 7. Good health (5)
3. Emotional stability & maturity 8. Desire for home & children
4. Pleasing disposition 9. Ambition & industriousness (-)
5. Education & intelligence (6) 10. Refinement, neatness (9)
TABLE 11.2b

- - Not on men’s top 10

# - Ranking on men’s top 10

Trait Theories

Evaluating Trait Theories

See Table 11.2

26

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Class Activity HumanisticTheories

How did Abraham Maslow and Carl Roger define personality?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self concept – Real Self Vs Ideal Self

Trait Theories

Early Trait Theories

Trait defined – “a relatively stable personality characteristic that describes a pattern of thinking, feeling and acting”

Allport

trait hierarchy, with a person’s most pervasive or important traits on top

Cattell

16 source traits

Eysenck – 3 basic types of traits

Extraversion-introversion

Neuroticism (the tendency toward insecurity, anxiety, guilt and moodiness)

Psychoticism (being out of touch with reality)

27

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Class Activity Social- Cognitive Theories Biological Theories

How did Albert Bandura from Socia – cognitive perspective and Eyenck from biological perspective viewed personality?

Trait Theories

Early Trait Theories

Trait defined – “a relatively stable personality characteristic that describes a pattern of thinking, feeling and acting”

Allport

trait hierarchy, with a person’s most pervasive or important traits on top

Cattell

16 source traits

Eysenck – 3 basic types of traits

Extraversion-introversion

Neuroticism (the tendency toward insecurity, anxiety, guilt and moodiness)

Psychoticism (being out of touch with reality)

28

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Humanistic Theories Roger’s Theory

Self concept

The way we see and feel about ourselves

The most important component of personality

Unconditional positive regard

Love and acceptance with ‘no strings attached’

Such an atmosphere is essential to help children develop to their fullest potential

Tutorial Video: Applying Rogerian Techniques

Humanistic Theories

Roger’s Theory

Self concept

The way we see and feel about ourselves

The most important component of personality

Unconditional positive regard

Love and acceptance with ‘no strings attached’

Such an atmosphere is essential to help children develop to their fullest potential

29

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Humanistic Theories Roger’s Theory (continued)

According to Rogers, in order to be regarded as a well-adjusted individual, there needs to be a great deal of overlap (congruence) between one’s real and ideal selves.

According to Rogers, poor mental health and personality maladjustment result when there is an incongruence – or mismatch – between our ideal and real selves.

Humanistic Theories

Roger’s Theory

See ‘Psychology and You’ dialogue box

According to Rogers, in order to be regarded as a well-adjusted individual, there needs to be a great deal of overlap (congruence) between one’s real and ideal selves.

According to Rogers, poor mental health and personality maladjustment result when there is an incongruence – or mismatch – between our ideal and real selves.

30

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

What parenting skills are also associated with increased marital satisfaction?

Q3

Interestingly, parents who in responsive caregiving also tend to show this same pattern of behavior (unconditional regard) toward their spouses, which in turn leads to higher levels of relationship satisfaction. (Millings et al., 2013)

This suggests that unconditional positive regard is important in all types of relationships.

31

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Humanistic Theories Maslow’s Theory

We have a basic human tendency to pursue self-actualization (an inborn drive to develop our talents and capacities)

Personality development results from the natural progression of seeking to meet higher and higher levels of needs

Only a few, rare individuals ever become fully self-actualized (e.g. Einstein, Gandhi)

Humanistic Theories

Maslow’s Theory

We have a basic human tendency to pursue self-actualization (an inborn drive to develop our talents and capacities)

Personality development results from the natural progression of seeking to meet higher and higher levels of needs

Only a few, rare individuals ever become fully self-actualized (e.g. Albert Einstein, Mahandas Gandhi. Eleanor Roosevelt)

32

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Humanistic Theories Maslow’s Theory (continued)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Although the natural progression is upward, regression toward a lower level can occur – especially under stressful conditions – such as during natural disasters or a period of unemployment.

FIGURE 11.10

Humanistic Theories

Maslow’s Theory

See ‘Psychology and You’ dialogue box

33

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Humanistic Theories Evaluating Humanistic Theories

Lasting impacts

Valuable insights useful for personal growth and self-understanding

Strong impact in the areas of contemporary counseling and psychotherapy, childrearing, education and managerial practices

Criticized in areas of naïve assumptions, poor testability, inadequate evidence and narrowness of focus

Humanistic Theories

Evaluating Humanistic Theories

Have provided valuable insights useful for personal growth and self-understanding

Strong impact in the areas of contemporary counseling and psychotherapy, childrearing, education and managerial practices

Criticized in areas of naïve assumptions, poor testability, inadequate evidence and narrowness of focus

34

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social-Cognitive Theories Bandura and Rotter

Albert Bandura

Self-efficacy (his term for self-confidence)

Reciprocal determinism – the interplay of:

Internal personal factors

Environment

Behavior

Julian Rotter

Your behavior and personality are determined by:

What you expect to happen following an action

The reinforcement value attached to specific outcomes

Social-Cognitive Theories

Bandura and Rotter

Albert Bandura

Self-efficacy (his term for self-confidence)

Reciprocal determinism – the interplay of:

Internal personal factors

Environment

Behavior

Julian Rotter

Your behavior and personality are determined by:

What you expect to happen following an action

The reinforcement value attached to specific outcomes

35

Social-Cognitive Theories Bandura (continued)

Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism

FIGURE 11.11

According to Bandura, personality is determined by a three-way, reciprocal interaction of the internal characteristics of a person, the external environment and the person’s behavior.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social-Cognitive Theories

Bandura

See Figure 11.11 and caption

According to Bandura, personality is determined by a three-way, reciprocal interaction of the internal characteristics of a person, the external environment and the person’s behavior.

36

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Social-Cognitive Theories Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories

Contributions

Offer testable, objective hypotheses

Provide operationally defined terms

Reliance on empirical data

Believe that both personality and situations predict behavior in real-world situations

Criticisms

Too great of a focus on situational influences

Doesn’t adequately acknowledge the stability of personality or sociocultural, emotional and biological influences

Social-Cognitive Theories

Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories

Contributions

Offer testable, objective hypotheses

Provide operationally defined terms

Reliance on empirical data

Emphasize the role of cognitive processes in personality

Believe that both personality and situations predict behavior in real-world situations

Criticisms

Too great of a focus on situational influences

Doesn’t acknowledge personality stability

Doesn’t consider sociocultural, emotional and biological influences

37

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Can spending time in a foreign country change your personality?

Q4

High school students who study abroad (thereby experiencing a change in environment) show greater changes in personality than those who do not. (Hutteman et al., 2015)

Exchange students showed substantial increases in their self-esteem compared to those who stayed home.

38

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Can spending time in a foreign country change your personality?

Q4

39

The Biological Bases of Personality (Eysenck)

Brain structures that correlate with particular traits

Impulsiveness

Risk-aversive vs. risk-seeking

2. Neurochemistry

Sensation-seeking is linked to levels of MAO

Novelty-seeking/extraversion is linked to dopamine

3. Genetics

Behavioral genetics – Fraternal twins Vs Identical twins

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Theories 3 Major Contributors to Personality

Video: Shy Brains

Biological Theories

Three Major Contributors to Personality

The Biological Bases of Personality (Hans Eysenck)

The Biological Bases of Personality (Eysenck)

Brain structures that correlate with particular traits

Impulsiveness

Risk-aversive vs. risk-seeking

2. Neurochemistry

Sensation-seeking is linked to levels of MAO (monoamine oxidase) – an enzyme that regulates levels of neurotransmitters such as dopamine

Novelty-seeking/extraversion is linked to dopamine (along with addictive personality traits)

40

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Biological Theories 3 Major Contributors to Personality (continued)

The Biological Bases of Personality (continued)

3. Genetics

Behavioral genetics

Studies of identical and fraternal twins suggested that about 40-50% of our personality traits are genetic

Studies of parents and their biological and adopted children showed that parents’ traits correlated moderately to their biological children and hardly at all to their adopted children

Biological Theories

3 Major Contributors to Personality

The Biological Bases of Personality (continued)

3. Genetics

Behavioral genetics

Studies of identical and fraternal twins suggested that about 40-50% of our personality traits are genetic

Studies of parents and their biological and adopted children showed that parents’ traits correlated moderately to their biological children and hardly at all to their adopted children

41

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Do our genes predict how much we will give to charity?

Q5

One study found that individuals with a “niceness gene” were more likely to report engaging in various types of prosocial behaviors, such as:

- giving blood

volunteering

donating to charitable organizations

(Poulin et al., 2012)

42

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Biological Theories 3 Major Contributors to Personality (continued)

Identical versus fraternal twins

FIGURE 11.13

100% shared genes

Share the same placenta

Are always the same sex

Around 50% shared genes

No more genetically similar than non-twin siblings

Share environment in the womb (“womb mates”)

Biological Theories

3 Major Contributors to Personality

Identical vs. fraternal twins

See figure 11.13 and caption

43

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Biological Theories 3 Major Contributors to Personality (continued)

Adoption Studies

FIGURE 11.14

Biological Theories

3 Major Contributors to Personality

The Biological Bases of Personality (continued)

Adoption studies

See Figure 11.14 and captions

44

Benefits

Exciting insights with clear links between some traits and various brain areas, neurotransmitters and/or genes

Recognition that traits are never the result of a single biological process

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Theories Evaluating Biological Theories

Drawbacks

Potential to overemphasize genetics

The role of the unshared environment – even in the same family – has been overlooked

Biological Theories

Evaluating Biological Theories

Benefits

Exciting insights with clear links between some traits and various brain areas, neurotransmitters and/or genes

Recognition that traits are never the result of a single biological process

Drawbacks

Potential to overemphasize genetics

The role of the unshared environment – even in the same family – has been overlooked

45

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biological Theories Evaluating Biological Theories (continued)

Multiple influences on personality

FIGURE 11.15

What factors help to contribute to this girl being shy?

40-50% Genetics

27% Nonshared environment

7% Shared environment

16-26% Unknown

Biological Theories

Evaluating Biological Theories

Multiple influences on personality

What makes this girl shy? At least 3 factors:

Genetic factors (40-50%)

Nonshared environmental factors (27%)

Shared environmental factors (7%)

…plus a health dose of the ‘unknown’ (16-26%)

46