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Experiencing Intercultural Communication ii

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Experiencing Intercultural Communication

An Introduction Sixth Edition

Judith N. Martin Arizona State University

Thomas K. Nakayama Northeastern University

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EXPERIENCING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION, SIXTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2014 and 2011. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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Brief Contents

Preface

Part I Foundations of Intercultural Communication Chapter 1 Studying Intercultural Communication Chapter 2 Intercultural Communication Chapter 3 History and Intercultural Communication Chapter 4 Identity and Intercultural Communication

Part II Intercultural Communication Processes Chapter 5 Verbal Issues in Intercultural Communication Chapter 6 Nonverbal Communication Issues

Part III Intercultural Communication in Everyday Life Chapter 7 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication Chapter 8 Culture, Communication, and Conflict Chapter 9 Intercultural Relationships in Everyday Life

Part IV Intercultural Communication in Applied Settings Chapter 10 Intercultural Communication in Tourism Contexts Chapter 11 Intercultural Communication and Business Chapter 12 Intercultural Communication and Education Chapter 13 Intercultural Communication and Health Care

Glossary Index vi

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Contents Preface

Part I Foundations of Intercultural Communication

Chapter 1 Studying Intercultural Communication The Peace Imperative The Economic Imperative The Workplace The Global Economy

The Technological Imperative Technology and Human Communication

The Demographic Imperative Changing U.S. Demographics Changing Immigration Patterns

The Self-Awareness Imperative The Ethical Imperative Ethical Judgments and Cultural Values Becoming an Ethical Student of Culture

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 2 Intercultural Communication Building Block 1: Culture Culture Is Learned Culture Involves Perception and Values Culture Involves Feelings Culture Is Shared Culture Is Expressed as Behavior Culture Is Dynamic and Heterogeneous

Building Block 2: Communication Culture and Communication

viii Communication, Cultural Worldviews, and Values Communication and Cultural Rituals and Rules Communication and Resistance to the Dominant Culture

Building Block 3: Context Building Block 4: Power Barriers to Intercultural Communication Ethnocentrism Stereotyping Prejudice Discrimination

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 3 History and Intercultural Communication From History to Histories Political, Intellectual, and Social Histories Family Histories National Histories Cultural Group Histories The Power of Other Histories

History and Identity Histories as Stories Nonmainstream Histories

Intercultural Communication and History Historical Legacies

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 4 Identity and Intercultural Communication Understanding Identity Identities Are Created through Communication Identities Are Created in Spurts Identities Are Multiple Identities Are Influenced by Society

ix Identities Are Dynamic Identities Are Developed in Different Ways in Different Cultures

Social and Cultural Identities Gender Identity Sexual Identity Age Identity Racial and Ethnic Identity Physical Ability Identity Religious Identity Class Identity National Identity Regional Identity Personal Identity

Identity Development Minority Identity Development Majority Identity Development Characteristics of Whiteness

Multicultural Identity Multiracial People Global Nomads Identity and Adaptation

Living “On the Border” Post-Ethnicity

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Part II Intercultural Communication Processes

Chapter 5 Verbal Issues in Intercultural Communication The Study of Language The Components of Language Language and Perception

Cultural Variations in Language Attitudes toward Speaking, Writing, and Silence Variations in Communication Style Influence of Interactive Media Use on Communication Style

x Variations in Slang and Humor Variations in Contextual Rules

Communicating Across Differences Language and Power Language and Social Position Assimilation Strategies Accommodation Strategies Separation Strategies

Moving between Languages Multilingualism Translation and Interpretation Language Politics and Policies

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 6 Nonverbal Communication Issues Defining Nonverbal Communication Comparing Verbal and Nonverbal Communication What Nonverbal Behavior Communicates

Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Behavior Nonverbal Codes Cultural Variation or Stereotype?

Defining Cultural Space Cultural Identity and Cultural Space Changing Cultural Space The Dynamic Nature of Cultural Spaces

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities

Endnotes

Part III Intercultural Communication in Everyday Life

Chapter 7 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication Viewing Others Through Popular Culture What Is “Popular Culture”?

xi U.S. Popular Culture and Power Global Circulation of Images/Commodities Popular Culture from Other Cultures Cultural Imperialism

Consuming and Resisting Popular Culture Consuming Popular Culture Resisting Popular Culture

Representing Cultural Groups Migrants’ Perceptions of Mainstream Culture Popular Culture and Stereotyping

Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 8 Culture, Communication, and Conflict Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict Ambiguity Language Issues Contradictory Conflict Styles

Conflict Types and Contexts Types of Conflict The Importance of Context

Influences on Conflict Management Cultural Values Influences Family Influences Two Approaches to Conflict Intercultural Conflict Styles Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict Religion and Conflict

Managing Intercultural Conflict Productive versus Destructive Conflict Competitive versus Cooperative Conflict

Understanding Conflict and Society Social and Economic Forces Historical and Political Forces Societal Responses to Conflict

xii Peacebuilding Forgiveness

Summary Building Intercultural Skills

Activity Endnotes

Chapter 9 Intercultural Relationships in Everyday Life Benefits of Intercultural Relationships Challenges in Intercultural Relationships Motivation Differences in Communication Styles, Values, and Perceptions Negative Stereotypes Anxiety Affirming Another Person’s Cultural Identity The Need for Explanations

Foundations of Intercultural Relationships Similarities and Differences Cultural Differences in Relationships

Relationships across Differences Communicating in Intercultural Relationships Intercultural Dating Intercultural Marriage Online Relationships

Society and Intercultural Relationships Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activity Endnotes

Part IV Intercultural Communication in Applied Settings

Chapter 10 Intercultural Communication in Tourism Contexts Intercultural Communication and Tourism Characteristics of Tourist–Host Encounters Social, Historical, and Economic Contexts of Tourism Attitudes of Hosts toward Tourists

xiii Communication Challenges in Tourism Contexts Language Challenges Social Norms and Expectations Culture Shock The Search for Authenticity

Cultural Learning and Tourism Tourism, Intercultural Communication, and Social Media Political and Environmental Impacts on Tourism Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 11 Intercultural Communication and Business The Domestic and Global Economy

Domestic Growth Global Growth

Power Issues in Intercultural Business Encounters Communication Challenges in Business Contexts Work-Related Values Language Issues Communication Styles Business Etiquette Virtual Communication International Negotiation Intercultural Relationship Building Diversity, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Intercultural Communication Training in Business Social and Political Contexts of Business Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 12 Intercultural Communication and Education Educational Goals Studying Abroad

xiv Culturally Specific Education Intercultural Communication in Educational Settings Roles for Teachers and Students Grading and Power Admissions, Affirmative Action, and Standardized Tests

Communication, Education, and Cultural Identity Social Issues and Education Summary Building Intercultural Skills Activities Endnotes

Chapter 13 Intercultural Communication and Health Care The Importance of Communication in Health Care Intercultural Barriers to Effective Health Care Historical Treatments of Cultural Groups Prejudicial Ideologies

Religion and Health Care Cultural Influences on Approaches to Medicine

Power in Communication about Health Care Imbalances of Power in Health Communication Health Care as a Business Intercultural Ethics and Health Issues

Summary Building Intercultural Skills

Activities Endnotes

Glossary

Index

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Preface s the once powerful Chinese economy slows down, what economic changes will ensue around the world? What changes will happen in Europe after the departure of the United Kingdom from the European Union? Economic

inequality, the disparity between the rich and the poor in the United States, is higher than ever and highest of all industrialized countries. These economic issues may drive the shape and character of intercultural contact in the future —because businesses drive what types and which cultures are more and less likely to come into contact. Changes in governmental systems seem to happen at a rapid rate. In the aftermath of the Arab Spring, governments

all over the Middle East—Libya, Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia, etc.—seem fragile or almost nonexistent. Rising regional identities may lead to new nations (e.g., Flanders, Catalonia, Scotland). Is a Palestinian state a future possibility, and how might it change the Middle East? As these changes and others appear on the horizon, how will intercultural conflict be managed? What role does intercultural communication play in these disputes? Natural disasters may also affect intercultural communication. Climate change may bring about significant changes

that require us to work with others around the world. Droughts, earthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons, tsunamis, and other natural disasters may increase the need for intercultural cooperation to help those in need. The rising use of social media presents new intercultural issues; social media enable both better intercultural

understanding as well as negative attacks on various cultural groups. The photo of the body of a tiny Syrian child washed up on a beach in Greece went viral on social media and garnered much sympathy for the plight of refugees fleeing war and tragedy in the Middle East. On the other hand, social media have been used to broadcast beheadings of journalists and others by the Islamic State and to recruit new members around the world. They are not alone in using social media to heighten intercultural tensions. How we use and misuse social media

leaves a trail that can build bridges to other cultures or reinforce walls between them. What role can intercultural communication play in the changing world that we all live in? How can we use our

intercultural skills to help enrich our lives and the lives of those around us? What should intercultural communication scholars be focusing on? What are the best ways to better understand intercultural communication in this dynamic world? As the world changes, how important is it for us to understand the past? Should we focus on culture-specific information? Or should we strive to develop more universal rules? How can anyone understand every culture around the world? Or every language? We wrote this book to shed light on these and many other questions about intercultural communication. As in our earlier books, we have tried to use information from a variety of approaches, drawing from social

psychological approaches as well as from ethnographic xvi studies and more recent critical media studies. However, the emphasis in this book is on the practical, experiential nature of intercultural communication. We still acknowledge that there are no easy answers to many intercultural situations. However, we attempt to give solid, practical guidelines, while noting the complexity of the task facing the student of intercultural communication.

FEATURES OF THE BOOK This book addresses the core issues and concerns of intercultural communication by introducing a group of general skills in Chapter 1 and emphasizing the concepts and the skills of communicating interculturally throughout the text. This textbook

Includes a balanced treatment of skills and theory. The skills focus is framed by the presentation of the conceptual aspects of culture and communication. Each chapter has a section called “Building Intercultural Skills” that provides guidelines for improving the reader’s intercultural communication. Provides a framework for understanding intercultural communication, focusing on four building blocks (culture, communication, context, and power) and four barriers (ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination). Focuses on personal experiences by including students’ narratives and the authors’ personal experiences highlighted throughout the text. Presents the material in a student-friendly way. There are four types of thoughtful and fun bits of information in the margin provided for students’ interest. This edition contains new updated examples and websites:

“What Do You Think?” includes information and questions that challenge students to think about their own culture and communication styles.

“Surf?’s Up!” suggests websites that students can visit for more information about culture and communication.

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“Pop Culture Spotlight” presents examples of culture and communication from today’s popular culture.

“Info Bites” provides fun facts and figures that illustrate issues related to intercultural communication.

Includes separate chapters on history and identity, with sections on Whiteness and assisting European American students in exploring their own cultural issues. Focuses on popular culture, both in a separate chapter and in examples woven throughout the book. Discusses important role of communication technologies in intercultural encounters in various contexts.

xvii Applies concepts to real-life contexts; the book includes four chapters on how intercultural communication works in everyday settings in tourism, business, education, and health.

NEW TO THE SIXTH EDITION This edition includes updated material addressing recent challenges of intercultural communication, including increased worldwide religious and ethnic conflict, the enormous numbers of migrants fleeing intercultural conflict and economic challenges, the impact of political context on intercultural encounters, and technological challenges. For example, Chapter 1 includes a discussion of how security concerns translated to anti-immigrant/refugee attitudes and legislation and their impacts on intercultural communication. In Chapter 8, we extended our discussion of ongoing religious and racial tensions in the United States and overseas, and added new material on peacebuilding efforts and “skilled disagreement” strategies as responses to protracted intercultural conflicts. We also recognize the continuing importance of political issues in intercultural contexts. For example, Chapter 2

includes a discussion of the slow reaction to finding lead in Flint Michigan drinking water; in Chapter 4, Canada’s welcoming stance to refugees, as part of its national identity; and in Chapter 13, the impact of various communication strategies about the Zika virus. To continue to recognize the increasing role technology plays in intercultural communication, in Chapter 1 we

acknowledge the increasing role, both negative and positive, of social media in intercultural encounters. Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the impact of machine translation on intercultural communication. Chapters 10 and 11 include new material on the role of social media in tourist and business contexts, and social media examples are interwoven throughout the other chapters.

OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK The first chapter focuses on the changing dynamics of social life and global conditions that provide a rationale for the study of intercultural communication, suggesting that intercultural learning is not just transformative for the individual, but also benefits the larger society and other cultural groups in our increasingly interdependent world. In this edition, we have updated statistics and examples as well as provided expanded discussions on the impact of income wealth and income inequality in the United States as well as the negative and positive impacts of social media on intercultural communication. Chapter 2 outlines a framework for the book and identifies four building blocks of intercultural communication—

culture, communication, context, and power, as well as four attitudinal and behavioral barriers to effective intercultural communication: ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In this edition, we discuss the most recent addition to the Hofstede value framework (indulgence vs. restraint) as well as examples of cultural resistance through social media (e.g., #blacklivesmatter) and also provide updated examples of anti-immigrant prejudice and discrimination. xviii Chapter 3 focuses on helping students see the importance of history in understanding contemporary intercultural

communication issues and a discussion of how postcolonial histories intertwine with today’s practices of outsourcing and global business. This edition provides updated examples of the use of history for contemporary situations and underscores the ways that intercultural relationships can be impacted. Chapter 4 discusses issues of identity and intercultural communication. In this chapter we address a number of

identities (gender, age, race, and ethnicity [including White identity], physical ability, religion, class, national and regional identity). We also discuss issues of multicultural identity—people who live on the borders—and issues of crossing borders and cultural shock and adaptation. This edition includes a discussion of Canada’s welcoming refugees and how it ties to Canadian identity, as well as new examples of popular culture products and their impact on various cultural identities. Chapter 5 addresses verbal issues in intercultural communication, describing cultural variations in language and

communication style, attitudes toward speaking, writing and silences, as well as issues of power and language. This edition includes an expanded discussion of how social media influences cultural differences in communication style, as well as a discussion of the impact of machine translation on intercultural encounters, and new material in code- switching. Chapter 6 focuses on the role of nonverbal behavior in intercultural interaction, describing universal and culture-

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specific aspects of nonverbal communication, and the ways nonverbal behavior can provide a basis for stereotyping and prejudice. This chapter also addresses cultural space and its dynamic, changing nature, and a discussion of cyberspace as cultural space. This edition includes recent research questioning the universality of facial expressions, and an expanded discussion focusing on micro-aggression—nonverbal expression of bias and prejudice. Chapter 7 addresses popular culture and intercultural communication. We define pop culture and discuss the ways in

which pop culture forms our images of culture groups and the ways in which we consume (or resist) popular culture products. This edition includes updated popular culture examples, including Beyoncé’s new music video, “Formation,” in the current context of concern over policing and race relations. Chapter 8 discusses the role of culture and conflict. The chapter identifies characteristics of intercultural conflict,

describes both personal and social/-political aspects of conflict, and examines the role of religion in intercultural conflict and the ways conflict management varies from culture to culture. This edition includes an updated discussion of the role economic conditions and social inequities play in intercultural conflict and peacebuilding efforts in protracted intercultural conflict situations. Chapter 9 focuses on intercultural relationships in everyday life. It identifies the challenges and benefits of

intercultural relationships, examining how relationships may differ across cultures and exploring a variety of relationship types: friendship, gay, dating, and marriage relationships. In this edition, we updated the status of same-sex marriages and included a discussion of transgender friendships. Chapters 10 through 13 focus on intercultural communication in specific contexts. Chapter 10 addresses issues of

intercultural communication in the tourism industry, exploring various ways in which hosts and tourists may interact, the ways varying cultural norms may affect tourist encounters, language issues and

xix communication style, and the sometimes-complex attitudes of hosts toward tourists. In this edition, we include discussions of the impacts of the recent economic downturn, political instability, terrorist attacks, health risks, and environmental disasters (earthquakes, hurricanes) on touristic encounters; new material on hosts’ attitude toward tourism; and the role of social media on tourism. Chapter 11 focuses on intercultural communication in business contexts, identifying several communication

challenges (work-related values, differences in management styles, language issues, and affirmative action) in both domestic and international contexts, and the social and political contexts of business. We also provide a discussion of how power relations affect intercultural business encounters—both interpersonal relationships and larger system impacts. This edition includes new material on workplace diversity issues as well as the impact of globalization, immigration, terrorist attacks, and intercultural communication in business contexts. Chapter 12 explores intercultural communication and education, discussing different kinds of educational

experiences (e.g., study abroad, culture-specific settings) and communication challenges (e.g., varying roles for teachers and students, grading, and power); addressing social concerns and the role of culture in admissions, affirmative action, and standardized tests; and examining the challenges of educating immigrants. We also explore minority serving institutions as well as gender issues, including campus rape. Chapter 13 addresses intercultural communication and health care, focusing on intercultural barriers to effective

health care, the historical treatment of cultural groups, and the ways power dynamics, religious beliefs, and language barriers influence communication in health care settings. It also includes a discussion on alternative and complementary medicine as other ways of thinking about health care. This edition provides information on the communication strategies in response to the Zika virus as well as issues with vaccines and updated information on the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare).

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