Seo3 2 lewis structure

Wave refraction and beach erosion.As a wave approaches the beach, the speed of water in the orbit of the wave begins to change: at the surface of the orbit the speed of the water remains more or less the same, but the water located at the bottom portion of the orbit begins to slow down as it encounters or “touches” the bottom, a friction effect. The “slower” moving water can cause an interesting change in the direction of the wave depending upon whether the wave front strikes the bottom contour head on (90 deg angle), or it comes in contact with the bottom at an angle to the beach. If the wave front comes in at an angle towards a headland (geomorphic point on the beach), the wave front will begin to bend as it “feels” the first contour; the wave front will “bend” even more as it hits the next contour etc.--of course the contours are continuous so the bending (bending is called refraction, or vice versa, just like light can be bent or refracted) of the wave front is a continuous process. The refracted wavewill “hit straight on” the headland resulting in possible erosion of the sand and soil that make up the headland. If the headland is made primarily of sand and is a spit (point in the beach), the waves will destroy the spit in time. If the headland is volcanic rock, which is common along the Oregon and Northern California Coasts, wave diffraction processes will slowly erode the area. Likewise, along a coastal area with bays or inland, a refraction process also occurs. But in these areas, the refraction process diffuses the force of the waves as the waves spread themselves over a greater distances within the bay or embayment; hence destructive forces leading to erosion are relatively decreased. The net result of waves striking a beach, given enough time,will be a straight beach. In reality this may not occur because of the composition or structure of the material making up the beach or the headland/embayment system. I will show a number of illustrations in class to demonstrate the refraction process. These illustrations show the moving wave fronts, the topography, orthogonal, and the location of the beach. Your textbook also has a number illustrations showing refraction.OrthogonalOrthogonal are hypothetical lines drawn perpendicular to the moving wave fronts. Basically waves and the orthogonal lines “want to be” “orthogonal”, or 90 deg, to each other. If a situation occurs such as a change in depth then the wave will move and change its direction so that it becomes orthogonal. I think you can see thatthe orthogonal lines are like “ideal” depth contours. As the depthcontours changes, the waves refract (change direction) because the waves “want” to be orthogonal to the contours. If you look on page 302 of your text, you will see Figures 11-10 showing that wave fronts change direction as they approach the beach. Willard Bascom in his fine little book Waves and Beaches(Doubleday, 1980) shows many examples of wave refraction and wave refraction diagrams. One of interest, which I will show in class, is the diagram for the piers in the region of Long Beach and San Pedro, California. A somewhat unusual change in bottom topography in the region resulted in wave energy focusingin on the Long Beach piers but not on the San Pedro Pier. Knowledge of the topography and movement/direction of oncoming waves allowed one to explain why the piers experienced different amounts of wave energy. Since the explanation came after the piers were constructed, we call thishindcasting. Ideally, we should do forecasting, that isunderstand the system ahead of construction to forecast what could happen.Besides refraction, wave diffraction can also occur in some coastal areas. Diffraction occurs when waves (orthogonal to the bottom) pass by a protruding point or move into an embayment or other feature whose depth contours change. Thus, as the moving wave front encounters the change in topography after it passes a point or moves into an nearly enclosed embayment a wave will spread apart (diffract); overall the energy of the passingwave is spread over a larger area. If the embayment is separated by an island or breakwater, then the oncoming wave that passes through the two openings (the space on each side of the island or breakwater) will undergo diffraction at both openings. Thus, two wave fronts will emerge. When these wave fronts intersect they interact. The interaction will result in a larger “crest” as waves are additive. Greater erosion/sandmovement will occur at the point or region where this larger crest strikes the beach.Waves and Rip CurrentsWe have all heard of the dreaded “rip currents”. Florida, this area especially, has rip currents. If you swim in the beach you need to know where they are; and you should avoid them but you should also know how rips are formed. Basically there is nothing magic about the origin of rip currents. Rip currents are streams of relatively fast moving water (about 4 ft (1.1 m)/sec according to Willard Bascom)) that rush out to sea from whence they came,
probably just a fewminutes. The rip occurs because the water that came breaking onto the beach and “piled up” has to return to sea somewhere along the beach. If there is no bar (see below), or slightly elevated deposit of sand just off the beach right around the breaking wave, then the water simply flows back to sea more or less continuously. But if there is a bar, the excess water begins to really pile up. As the piled water must eventually get back to sea (it obviously can’t stay there long--its a fluid, working under the force of gravity), it will rush into and over the bar with some streams having more energy than others; these fast moving currents causes a break in the bar which of course reinforces the flow (as all the other water now wants to join in) of water back and beyond the area ofthe breakingwaves. There can be a number of “breaks” in the bar, hence there can be anumber of rip currents along a particular beach. If you get trapped in the current (“rip current”) returning to the sea, don’t fight your way out of it; just stay in the current. As soon as the rip current gets beyond the bar, it ceases to be a current and you will be “free” from fast moving water. You just swim to an area on either side and then swim back to shore (or ride the surf!). Of course you should (must) stay out of rip currents. You may be able to spot the currents from an elevated spot on shore, or you can talk to a life guard who may be on duty or with local people who know where the rip currents are. I will show you several pictures of rip currents during class.Beach Processes; Some Basic ConceptsObviously a beach is very much shaped by the breaking waves striking it. The waves themselves are the result of wind forces which may have occurred hundreds to thousands of kilometers out at sea (see Tuesday's lecture). Storm events perturb the process; hurricanes can destroy a beach (and beachfront property/houses/business) completely. As a storm passes, the normal steady state beach processes resume and the beach may be rebuilt naturally. Or, in the case of severe storms, “man” must come in at great expense to replenish the beach with sand.We can begin a discussion of beach processes by defining the important features of a beach. First we have the headland or the area beyond the beach proper. The headland could be a cliff or a less elevated structure. In Florida of course we have few if any (probably none!) cliffs. Next comes the berm which is really another word for beach as we see it. Moving out to sea, we will likely have a bar, an elevated portion of the bottom topography. Further out from the beach beyond the first bar may be a second bar. In moving from summer to winter to summer and so on the berm-beach-bar system undergoes shifts. In the summer the beach is generally wider; or one could say that the “berm”(where the sand is) is wider. As winter comes on and the waves become stronger, the berm is eroded. Thesand in the berm moves out to sea, but not too far. Basically, the sand goes to build the bar. Think of it this way. Turbulent water comes in due to wave action, loosens the sand, and the sand goes to sea. But very quickly and in a relatively short distance, the sand encounters lessturbulent water. The sand now sinks to form the bar. The processes is continuous and in steady state until a storm comes up. The storm, if fierce, can not only take the sand farther out to sea but can also wipe out the bar completely. If the bar is wiped out, then the supply of sand for creation of a summer berm may be gone. Hence, no beach, or at least only a small one is left. After the next storm go to Melbourne Beachto see for yourself.Miami Beach is famous of course for its hotels/condos. In the long run, it is losing sand. This is mother nature working. But the economic impact is most serious; without sand and beaches, Miami Beach would not be Miami Beach. Hence, sand is brought in to replenish the area. Who paysfor this? Most likely the Hotel/condo management but also government organizations. SUMMARY OF MAIN POINTSWaves encountering a beach may be refracted, causing possible erosion of a headland, or deposition of sand in an embayment. Extent of refraction will depend upon the offshore topography and the angle of the wave fronts approaching the beach. Additionally, in special situations waves will be diffracted or spread as they pass by a protruding point or move into an embayment;, again, the extent depends on the topography. Rip currents are a likely characteristic of many beaches, including Florida beaches, especially those locally. Rip currents are formed by water rushing backto the sea through a break in the bar where the breaking waves can be seen; swimmers should stay out of these currents. The beach-berm-bar system is dynamic process, with beaches eroded in the winter resulting in the build up of bars. In thespring-summer period, the beach, or berm, isbuilt up by sand; the sand can be supplied by the previously built bar created in the winter. Storms can wipe out the beach-berm-bar system completely. Recovery of a beach from storm events can occur naturally or can be accelerated (by man) via beach replenishment projects which aregenerally expensive and never-ending.