Shanghai baoqi baby bike seat

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CHINESE NATIONAL CINEMA

What does it mean to be ‘Chinese’? This controversial question has sparked off a never-ending process of image-making in Chinese and Chinese-speaking communities throughout the twentieth century. This introduction to Chinese national cinema, written for scholars and students by a leading critic, covers three ‘Chinas’: mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. It traces the formation, negotiation and problematization of the national on the Chinese screen over ninety years. Historical and comparative perspectives bring out the parallel developments in the three Chinas, while critical analysis explores thematic and stylistic changes over time.

As well as exploring artistic achievements and ideological debates, Chinese National Cinema also emphasizes industry research and market analysis. The author concludes that despite the rigid censorship systems and the pressures on filmmakers, Chinese national cinema has never succeeded in projecting a single unified picture, but rather portrays many Chinas.

Yingjin Zhang is Professor of Chinese, Comparative Literature, and Cultural Studies at the University of California-San Diego. His publications include Screening China (2002) and Routledge’s Encyclopedia of Chinese Film (1998) which he co-authored and edited with Zhiwei Xiao.

NATIONAL CINEMAS SERIES Series Editor: Susan Hayward

AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL CINEMA Tom O’Regan

BRITISH NATIONAL CINEMA Sarah Street

CANADIAN NATIONAL CINEMA Chris Gittings

CHINESE NATIONAL CINEMA Yingjin Zhang

FRENCH NATIONAL CINEMA Susan Hayward

GERMAN NATIONAL CINEMA Sabine Hake

ITALIAN NATIONAL CINEMA 1896–1996 Pierre Sorlin

NORDIC NATIONAL CINEMAS Tytti Soila, Astrid Söderbergh Widding and Gunnar Iversen

SPANISH NATIONAL CINEMA Núria Triana-Toribio

Forthcoming titles:

MEXICAN NATIONAL CINEMA Andrea Noble

SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL CINEMA Jacqueline Maingard

CHINESE NATIONAL CINEMA

Yingjin Zhang

First published 2004 by Routledge

29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

© 2004 Yingjin Zhang

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or

other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval

system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publisher nor the author can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In the case of

drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment mentioned within this book, you are strongly advised to

consult the manufacturer’s guidelines.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Zhang, Yingjin.

Chinese national cinema / Yingjin Zhang. – 1st ed. p. cm. – (National cinemas)

Includes bibliographical references and index. (paperback: alk. paper)

1. Motion pictures – China – History. 2. Motion pictures – Taiwan – History. I. Title. II. Series: National cinemas series.

PN1993.5.C4Z49 2004 791.43′0951 – dc22 2003023574

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0–415–17289–6 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–17290–X (pbk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.

ISBN 0-203-64583-9 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-67420-0 (Adobe eReader Format)

TO SU, MIMI AND ALEX

FOR LOVE, HOPE AND FUN WE HAVE SHARED TOGETHER

CONTENTS

List of illustrations ix List of tables xi Acknowledgments xii List of abbreviations xiv

1 Introduction: National cinema and China 1

2 Cinema and national traditions, 1896–1929 13

Introduction: early cinema 13 Cinema as attractions, 1896–1921 16 Cinema as narration, 1922–6 22 Cinema and speculations, 1927–9 37 Critical issues: arts, artists and artistic theory 51 Conclusion: a growing sense of nationalism 57

3 Cinema and the nation-people, 1930–49 58

Introduction: a ‘golden age’ period 58 Prewar cinema, 1930–7 59 Wartime cinema, 1937–45 83 Postwar cinema, 1946–9 95 Critical issues: cinema and modernity 104 Conclusion: in the name of the nation-people 111

4 Cinematic reinvention of the national in Taiwan, 1896–1978 113

Introduction: a maturing industry 113 Difficult postwar transition, 1945–54 114 Two competing cinemas, 1955–69 125

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Political and industrial restructuring, 1970–8 142 Conclusion: cinematic reinvention of the national 147

5 Cinematic revival of the regional in Hong Kong, 1945–78 150

Introduction 150 From Shanghai to Hong Kong, 1945–55 151 Competing studios, 1956–65 163 Reinventing genres, 1966–78 173 Conclusion: toward regional imagination 185

6 Cinema and the nation-state in the PRC, 1949–78 189

Introduction: socialist cinema of the PRC 189 The nationalization of cinema, 1949–52 190 Toward socialist realism, 1953–65 199 The Cultural Revolution and beyond, 1966–78 216 Conclusion: ideology and subjectivity 223

7 Cinema and national/regional cultures, 1979–89 225

Introduction: new waves in three Chinas 225 The PRC: humanism, the avant-garde and commercialism 226 New Taiwan Cinema: re-imaging the national 240 The Hong Kong new waves: genre, history, identity 249 Conclusion: history, culture and nationhood 256

8 Cinema and the transnational imaginary, 1990–2002 259

Introduction: transnational Chinese cinemas 259 Hong Kong: of the global and the local 260 Taiwan: art cinema beyond borders 271 The PRC: post-socialist cinema 281 Conclusion: art, capital and politics in the age of the WTO 292

Notes 297 Bibliography 308 Subject index 323 Name index 325 Film index 327

C O N T E N T S

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ILLUSTRATIONS

All illustrations are courtesy of the China Film Archive, Beijing

1.1 Zhang Yimou: an auteur from China’s fifth generation 8 2.1 Laborer’s Love (1922): the earliest extant feature in China 25 2.2 Lonely Orchid (1926): an adaptation of Bao Tianxiao’s novel, an

example of butterfly fiction 29 2.3 A poster for Dream of the Red Chamber (1927): calligraphy by

Bao Tianxiao 44 2.4 Hollywood in Shanghai: billboards outside the Peking Theater 49 2.5 Chinese filmmaking in the 1920s: fixed cameras and exaggerated

acting 52 3.1 The Plunder of Peach and Plum (1934): the advent of sound and

leftist ideology 69 3.2 Hu Die: movie queen of the 1930s 77 3.3 Street Angel (1937): a classic leftist film featuring Zhou Xuan

(right) 78 3.4 Ruan Lingyu (left): a tragic silent movie star in City Night (1933) 82 3.5 Confucius (1940): a historical film from the ‘orphan island’ period 87 3.6 Paradise on Orphan Island (1939): the emergence of Mandarin

film in Hong Kong 92 3.7 The Sky Rider (1940): wartime filmmaking in Chongqing 93 3.8 Long Live the Mistress! (1947): an entertaining comedy, with a

script by Eileen Chang 97 3.9 Spring River Flows East (1947): a popular postwar epic tear-jerker 98 3.10 Crows and Sparrows (1949): on the eve of a new society, with

Zhao Dan (right) 102 3.11 Spring in a Small Town (1948): a critically acclaimed art film

classic, directed by Fei Mu 103 3.12 Mise-en-scene of urban modernity: interior design in Heng

Niang (1931) 107 4.1 A poster for Oyster Girl (1964): an example of Taiwan’s healthy

realism in film 136

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4.2 The Love Eterne (1963): a popular Hong Kong opera movie in Taiwan 137

5.1 Zhuangzi Tests His Wife (1913): a Hong Kong short feature, with Li Minwei 152

5.2 Sorrows of the Forbidden City (1948): postwar Mandarin cinema in Hong Kong 159

5.3 Sun, Moon and Star (1962): female stars dominating the Hong Kong screen 167

5.4 Fist of Fury (1972): Bruce Lee and the worldwide gongfu craze 179 6.1 The White-Haired Girl (1950): staging class struggle and sexual

oppression 194 6.2 The White-Haired Girl (1972): revolutionary ballet performance

on celluloid 195 6.3 Song of Youth (1959): intellectuals and Communist revolution 204 6.4 New Year’s Sacrifice (1957): Xia Yan’s adaptation of a story by Lu

Xun, featuring Bai Yang 207 6.5 Five Golden Flowers (1959): romance and exoticism exhibited as

national solidarity 209 6.6 Guerrillas on the Plain (1955): war film as propaganda and

entertainment 211 6.7 It’s My Day Off (1959): altruism as a rewarding socialist virtue 212 6.8 Lin Zexu (1959): a historical lesson of the Opium War, featuring

Zhao Dan 213 6.9 Stage Sisters (1965): Xie Jin’s humanism and political melodrama 215 7.1 A Girl from Hunan (1986): a fascination with female sexuality

and regional culture 232 7.2 Sacrificed Youth (1985): exploring feminine beauty and female

consciousness 234 7.3 One and Eight (1984): realism and symbolism in Zhang Yimou’s

cinematography 236 7.4 Taipei Story (1985): urban alienation and the rise of New Taiwan

Cinema 245 7.5 City of Sadness (1989): rewriting history in post-martial law

Taiwan 246 8.1 Red Cherry (1995): commercial packaging of art and memory 283 8.2 In the Heat of the Sun (1995): nostalgia for the Cultural

Revolution 285

I L L U S T R AT I O N S

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TABLES

2.1 Approximate value of Chinese currencies, 1920s–90s 15 2.2 Sample ticket prices in China, 1890s–1940s 16 2.3 Salary comparison in China, 1910s–30s 30 2.4 Production costs per film in China, 1920s–40s 45 2.5 Film sales and rental prices, 1920s–60s 46 3.1 Salary comparison in Hong Kong, 1930s–90s 64–5 3.2 Production costs per film in Hong Kong, 1920s–90s 90 3.3 Film exhibition in major cities in China, 1927–48 99 4.1 Sample ticket prices in Taiwan, 1900s–90s 115 4.2 Production costs and revenues per film in Taiwan, 1929–2002 118 4.3 Movie theaters and annual attendance in Taiwan, 1941–94 120–1 4.4 Annual feature production in Taiwan, 1949–2002 129–30 4.5 Salary comparison in Taiwan, 1950s–80s 132 5.1 Theaters, attendance and population in Hong Kong, 1926–96 154 5.2 Annual number of feature productions in Hong Kong,

1913–2002 155–6 5.3 Sample ticket prices in Hong Kong, 1904–99 170 6.1 Select exhibition statistics in the PRC, 1949–2002 192 6.2 Annual feature production in the PRC, 1949–2002 196–7 8.1 Comparison of box-office revenues in Hong Kong, 1991–2002 261 8.2 Selected production costs in the PRC, 1959–2002 283

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The planning of this book began in 1996 when I was working on Encyclopedia of Chinese Film (Routledge, 1998) and Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai, 1922–1943 (Stanford, 1999). Since then I have moved from the Midwest to the Pacific Coast of the US. I would like to acknowledge major institutional support I received during these years: to the University of California (UC) at San Diego for a faculty fellowship from the Center for the Humanities, course reduc- tion from the Department of Literature, and research and travel grants from the Division of Arts and Humanities, the Academic Senate, as well as the UC Pacific Rim Research Program in 2001–3; to the Pacific Cultural Foundation, Taiwan, for a research grant in 1999–2000; to the National Endowment for the Humanities for a summer faculty stipend in 1999; to Indiana University at Bloomington for an Outstanding Junior Faculty Award in 1996–7, a sabbatical leave in the autumn of 1999, and a summer faculty fellowship in 2000. The archival research was undertaken on both sides of the Pacific. I specifically thank the Chinese Taipei Film Archive (Taiwan) and the Hong Kong Film Archive for granting generous access in 1999–2003. Thanks are also due to the centers for Chinese or East Asian studies at the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, as well as the Harvard-Yenching Library for library travel grants in 1996–9.

For encouragement and support I am grateful to my colleagues and friends Dudley Andrew, Ru-Shou Robert Chen, Cheng Jihua, David Desser, Michael Curtin, Eugene Chen Eoyang, Joseph Esherick, Yi-Tsi Mei Feuweuerker, Wendy Larson, Perry Link, Lisa Lowe, Sheldon Hsiao-peng Lu, Paul Pickowicz, Stanley Rosen, Julian Stringer, David Der-Wei Wang, Jing Wang, Zhiwei Xiao and Zhang Longxi. I presented parts of the book in earlier drafts at the University of Southern California, Indiana University, the University of Notre Dame, the University of Wisconsin at Madison, the University of Maryland, Yale University, as well as the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Lyon, France, the City University of Hong Kong, and the Hong Kong Baptist University in 2000–3, and I remain appreciative to my hosts at these institutions. My thanks also to Zhu Tianwei of the China Film Archive (Beijing) for supplying photographs; to Paul Pickowicz for sharing his rare collection of early Chinese films; to Qin Liyan for timely

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research assistance in 2003; to Rebecca Barden and Susan Hayward for their confidence and patience; to four initial Routledge reviewers for endorsing the project years ago and four final reviewers for their comments, questions and suggestions, especially to Peter Rist for being so meticulous; and to Routledge’s London staff – Lesley Riddle in particular – for seeing this book through review- ing, shortening (by 27,700 words), copy-editing, marketing, production and distribution.

This book is dedicated to my loving family: to Su for the twentieth anniversary of our marriage, to Mimi for her marvelous achievements in college education and to Alex for his growing appreciation of the power of images and words.

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

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ABBREVIATIONS

b/w black and white CCP Chinese Communist Party CMPC Central Motion Picture Company (Taiwan) dir. director GIO Government Information Office (Taiwan) HKFA Hong Kong Film Archive HKIFF Hong Kong International Film Festival KMT Kuomingtang (the Nationalist Party in China and Taiwan) MP&GI Motion Picture & General Investment (Hong Kong) NFCC National Film Censorship Committee (KMT, China) PLA People’s Liberation Army (China) PRC People’s Republic of China (mainland China) RMB Reminbi (PRC currency in yuan) ROC Republic of China (Taiwan) ZDC Zhongguo dianying chubanshe (China Film Press, Beijing) ZDX Zhongguo dianyingjia xiehui (China Film Association, Beijing) ZDYYZ Zhongguo dianying yishu yanjiu zhongxin (China Film Art Research

Center, Beijing) ZDZ Zhongguo dianying ziliao guan (China Film Archive, Beijing)

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1

INTRODUCTION

National cinema and China

‘NATIONAL’ CINEMA

At the start of the new millennium, the publication of another volume on national cinema may seem ironic for several reasons. First, in the age of globaliza- tion, operations of multinational corporations have increasingly criss-crossed and sometimes entirely obscured or bypassed national borders, while local, regional and transnational forces continue to undermine the legitimacy of any nation- state (Miyoshi 1993). Second, in response to the sweeping power of the ‘global popular’ (During 1997), media and cultural studies have looked to post- coloniality, postmodernity and transnationality for new conceptual frameworks, and any focus on a single national cinema appears rather narrow or even dated. Third, in the wake of new technological development, cinema itself is said to have entered its ‘late’ stage, and the current academic interest in early cinema and late cinema thus place in an unfavorable light a project that considers the entire history of a national cinema.

Admittedly, in regard to China, the national cinema paradigm seems utterly inadequate. China today consists of three territories: (1) The People’s Republic of China (PRC) ruled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the mainland; (2) Hong Kong, formerly a British colony but since July 1997 a special adminis- trative region of the PRC; (3) The Republic of China (ROC) controlled for decades by the Nationalists (KMT) but since 2000 ruled by the independence- minded Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) in Taiwan. The history of these territories further complicates the ‘national’ situation. The identification of mainland China as ‘Communist’ can only date back to 1949, the end of the KMT rule there. Similarly, the KMT control of Taiwan started only in 1945, at the end of half a century of Japanese occupation of the island (also known as ‘Formosa’, a term originated by Portuguese seafarers). For some, the history of the separation of film industries in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan ‘has formed quite distinctive national cinemas within each territory’ (Yeh 1998: 74). Such territorial concerns have occasioned a similar designation of national cinema status for Hong Kong and Taiwan. As Stephen Crofts notes, ‘In Hong Kong, the national cinema outsells Hollywood by a factor of four to one’ (1993: 55–6); Douglas Kellner

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believes that ‘the New Taiwan Cinema has produced an impressive succession of films comprising a distinctive national cinema’ (1998: 101).

A closer scrutiny of Crofts’ typology of national cinemas can help us locate its inadequacy vis-à-vis China. In 1993, he distinguished the following seven varieties (51–7). The first is European-model art cinema, characterized by art-house exhibition, state subsidy, a cultural mode of production, psychological characterization, narrational ambiguity and objective verisimilitude. The second is Third Cinema, distinct from the author’s cinema and marked by its political oppositionality. The third is Third World and European commercial cinema, populist in nature and reliant on such genres as the thriller, comedy and soft-core pornography. The fourth are cinemas that ignore Hollywood, such as those in Hong Kong and India, with large domestic markets and stable export markets. The fifth are cinemas that imitate Hollywood, as in several Anglophone countries, but with limited success. The sixth are totalitarian cinemas, as in fascist Germany and Italy, Communist China and the former Soviet bloc. The seventh are regional or ethnic cinemas, produced by ethnic or linguistic minorities, as in Quebec, Canada. In 1998, Crofts revised his typology and offered eight varieties along with a chart to illustrate them by way of a vertical axis defined by such terms as ‘industrial’, ‘cultural’, ‘political’ and a horizontal axis reflecting the mode of production as regulated or controlled by the state. The newly added variety is United States cinema (including its medium-budget ‘independent’ films), and the list goes in a new sequence according to each cinema’s relative place in relation to different modes of production: (1) United States cinema; (2) Asian commercial successes; (3) other entertainment cinemas in Europe and the Third World; (4) totalitarian cinemas; (5) art cinemas; (6) international co-productions; (7) Third Cinemas; and (8) sub-state cinemas (Crofts 1998: 389–90). Crofts’ inclusion of the United States notwithstanding, his proposal – based on his conviction that nations and states have been drifting apart in recent decades – ‘to write of states and nation-state cinemas rather than nations and national cinemas’ (1998: 386) deserves careful evaluation in the case of Chinese cinema.

Although he does not mention Taiwan, it is worthwhile contemplating where Crofts may place Taiwan in his chart of national cinemas. The first possibility is to treat Taiwan as an example of ‘Asian commercial successes’. This was indeed the case when Taiwan cinema did well domestically and in Southeast Asia in the 1960s (Lent 1990: 65; F. Lu 1998: 125–78). But this ‘commercial mode’ of production that ignores Hollywood is no longer in practice in Taiwan, for the sheer absence of a stable domestic market invalidates any attempt to construct a national cinema ‘industry’ in Taiwan nowadays. The second possibility is to treat Taiwan as an example of ‘art cinema’, which makes sense to a certain extent as Taiwan films have continued to win prestigious awards at international film festivals since the late 1980s. But a troubling question is that many such award- winning films are international co-productions and thus transnational in nature, and once again the national here becomes problematic. The third possibility is to

I N T R O D U C T I O N

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treat Taiwan cinema as a kind of ‘totalitarian cinema’, which is true for the majority of propaganda or ‘policy films’ (zhengce pian) from the state-run studios in the 1960s and 1970s (R. Huang 1994b). Yet, after the disintegration of the studio system, this ‘political mode’ of production is now a distant memory. The fourth possibility is to treat Taiwan films as an example of ‘Third Cinema’, distinguished by a radical oppositionality to the state on the one hand and to cultural and economic imperialism on the other. Buddha Bless America (Taiping tianguo, dir. Wu Nien-chen [Wu Nianzhen], 1996) is just one of very few such examples, which problematizes identity and identification in the era of postcoloniality (T. Lu 2002: 191–205).

Like Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China also challenge Crofts’ para- digm. Although he explicitly qualifies Hong Kong as a ‘nation-state cinema’, how could Crofts ever explain that up to July 1997 Hong Kong remained a British colony and specifically lacked nation-state status? Further, how would he reconcile the fact that even after Hong Kong officially became a special adminis- trative region of China in July 1997, the Taiwan government still classified Hong Kong films as ‘guopian’ (literally, ‘national films’)?1 Similarly, Crofts solicits more questions when he twice mentions China’s fifth generation in his 1993 typology. First, it is a kind of ‘exile’ filmmaking (included under Third Cinema) boosted by international funding but often ‘banned’ at home; second, it is ‘political art cinema’ peripheral to the core production of totalitarian cinema (1993: 54–7). Indeed, fifth generation films prove difficult to be pigeonholed in Crofts’ typology because of a fundamental mutation. This group started as the state- subsidized production of an ideologically subversive ‘art cinema’ in the mid- 1980s and has mutated to the internationally (or intra-nationally) funded co-production of ‘ethnographic cinema’ of ‘authentic’ Chinese culture and his- tory since the early 1990s (Y. Zhang 2002: 220–51). Furthermore, where should we place the ‘underground’ filmmaking of China’s sixth generation in the national cinema paradigm? Many of these films are not so much ‘banned’ in China as considered ‘illegal’ by the authorities because they did not wait for official approval for exhibition at international film festivals (Cui 2001). Ironic- ally, the rumored ‘banned’ status often adds to the political capital of these films, which often win sympathy, prizes and future financial backing in the West and are acclaimed as ‘truthful’ depictions of contemporary Chinese life (Y. Zhang 2004).

Obviously, Chinese cinema does not sit easily in Crofts’, or any national cinema paradigm, although I should clarify that the Chinese case as elaborated here is not meant to deny the validity of national cinema in many other countries. Here, I am tempted to follow Tom O’Regan and declare that Chinese cinema, like Australian cinema, ‘is a messy affair’, not the least because Chinese cinema is ‘fundamentally dispersed’ (1996: 2) – historically, politically, territorially, culturally, ethnically and linguistically. The messy state of Chinese cinema means that the question of the ‘national’ will not go away if we substitute ‘national cinema’ with ‘nation-state cinema’. Indeed, the association with the nation-state is precisely what makes the term ‘Chinese cinema’ problematic.

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‘Chinese’ cinema

Recently, the very term ‘Chinese’ has been put under intense interrogation, if not always ‘under erasure’ (Chow 1998: 24). Is ‘Chinese’ in ‘Chinese cinema’ meant as an ethnic, cultural, linguistic, political or territorial marker? If so, ‘Chinese cinema’ itself turns out to be a problematic designation. In ethnic terms, mainland China consists of the majority Han people and fifty-six officially classified national minorities, while Taiwan claims a long history of aboriginal peoples (shandi ren, literally ‘mountain folks’), and Hong Kong has a multiracial, multi-ethnic population. In cultural terms, although most Chinese may choose to identify themselves with a civilization thousands of years old, in reality they are aware of regional differences such as those existing between northerners and southerners in the mainland, or mainlanders (waisheng ren) and islanders in Taiwan. Perhaps the most striking difference is the widespread, diverse, often mutually unintelligible dialects all over China. Thus, in linguistic terms, Mandarin cinema (guoyu pian) stands in opposition to Cantonese cinema in Hong Kong and to Taiwanese-dialect film (Taiyu pian) in Taiwan. In political terms, furthermore, ideological and institutional differences in the governments of mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan after 1949 have left indelible marks on film productions from what are often referred to as three Chinas.

The problematic nature of ‘Chinese’ as a signifier should suffice to demythify ‘Chineseness’ as a pre-given, monolithic and immutable essence. The question to be pursued further is whether we are content with speaking of Chineseness in the plural, as so many kinds of Chinese cinemas and their corresponding Chinesenesses. For Rey Chow, ‘the problem of Chineseness is . . . not likely to be resolved simply by way of the act of pluralizing’, and ‘the poststructuralist theoretical move of splitting and multiplying a monolithic identity (such as China and Chinese) from within . . . is by itself inadequate as a method of reading’ (1998: 24). Chow’s warning of the theoretical inadequacy of pluraliza- tion notwithstanding, what we have seen since the mid-1990s is the apparent consensus that films from all three Chinas may be covered under the umbrella term ‘Chinese cinema(s)’, with or without the plural form.

The point at issue here is not that ‘Chinese’ will ever be an adequate marker. After all, critics like Yueh-yu Yeh (1998) can suggest no better term to replace ‘Chinese cinema’ than ‘Chinese-language cinema’ (huayu dianying or Zhongwen dianying). Anxiety about the equation of ‘Chinese cinema’ to ‘Zhongguo dianying’ (literally, ‘cinema of the Chinese nation-state’) finds a better articula- tion in Xiaobing Tang’s explication of the term ‘Chinese literature’ (2000: 347):

The history and vitality of Taiwan and Hong Kong literatures in the twen- tieth century . . . make an ever more compelling case that by ‘modern Chinese literature’ we understand not a narrow nation-state institution . . . nor just one geopolitically bounded literary production, but rather a vast literature written in modern Chinese and interacting with long and

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uneven literary and cultural traditions – regional as much as national . . . ‘Chinese literature’ should be usefully broadened to mean ‘Zhongwen wenxue’ (literature in Chinese) and replace a narrowing ‘Zhongguo wenxue’ (literature of China, or even, of the Chinese nation-state).

Ideally, like ‘literature in Chinese’, ‘Chinese-language cinema’ should be a broader term than ‘Chinese cinema’ as the former may include Chinese-language films directed by the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia, West Europe and North America. However, ‘Chinese-language cinema’ may also be a narrower term because it is misleading to assume that what binds Chinese cinema together are its common linguistic features. A casual look at Chinese subtitles in many Hong Kong films since the 1980s would convince one that their intentionally hybridized lin- guistic practice – one that mixes standard written Chinese with invented characters to match spoken Cantonese – is meant precisely to highlight their regional differ- ence and to subvert the myth of a unified, universal and unchanging Chinese script (Kam 1993). A new trend in the late 1990s also challenges an exclusively lin- guistic definition of Chinese cinema because several ethnic Chinese directors have made English-language films, sometimes with a separate soundtrack in Chinese.

It should be clear by now that a principal source of the anxiety about Zhongguo dianying is the association of guo in Chinese with the ‘nation-state’ or simply ‘state’. But this problem is not as serious in Chinese as in English because, contrary to Crofts’ proposal to envision a ‘state cinema’, we can strategically approach the ‘Chinese’ in ‘Chinese cinema’ in predominantly cultural and historical terms. For this book I prefer to use ‘Chinese national cinema’ to cover all films produced in mainland China (including those prior to 1949), Hong Kong and Taiwan, and instruct the reader to keep in mind all problematics or messiness – theoretical as well as geopolitical – surrounding ‘China’ and ‘Chineseness’. This general and potentially comparative framework of Chinese national cinema enables us to trace the interactions between Beijing, Shanghai and Hong Kong (all marked by distinctive dialect uses) in early cinema and transnational cinema throughout the twentieth century. It also directs our attention to the remarkable similarities between nationalist state policies (such as film censorship and state subsidy) of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) regime in the mainland and the Kuomingtang (KMT) regime in Taiwan after 1949. Rather than being constantly apprehensive about the unsettling, multi- faceted Chineseness in Chinese national cinema, I believe it is the ‘national’ as historically constructed, circulated and contested in Chinese cinema that demands our in-depth investigation.

THE ‘NATIONAL’ AS CINEMATIC PROJECTS

Here, we must confront another kind of messiness unique to Chinese cinema: the Chinese language does not possess an exact equivalent to the English word

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‘nation’. A nation can be translated as both minzu (nation-people) or guojia (nation-state) in Chinese (Y. Zhang 2002: 152–7), and a national cinema thus means more than a nation-state cinema, for it also implies a cinema of, by or for the nation-people. The construction of the national has consequently become an ongoing project of contestation whereby the state and the people compete for the right to speak in the name of the nation.

Historically, this tension between people and state has resulted in a cyclical or spiral pattern of development in Chinese cinema: from cinemas of the nation-people during the 1920s through to the 1940s (e.g., early cinema and leftist cinema) to cinemas of the nation-state during the 1950s to the 1970s (e.g., socialist realism in mainland China and healthy realism in Taiwan) and back to cinemas of the nation-people during the 1980s and 1990s (e.g., New Chinese Cinema marked by its cultural reflection and New Taiwan Cinema marked by its rewriting of Taiwan history). The increasing interdependence of people and state in both mainland China and Taiwan at the turn of the new millennium thus lends legitimacy to guo/zu (nation/people), a shorthand new coinage originated from Taiwan. But even this new integrative term is built on an inherent split of the two fundamentally incompatible parts, thereby further foregrounding the messiness of the national in Chinese cinema.

I suggest that we take the messiness of Chinese cinema positively, as a sign that producers, filmmakers, exhibitors, state regulators, critics and audiences in different Chinese geopolitical regions and over different periods of time have aspired to different constructions of the national. Given the fundamentally messy and dispersed attributes of Chinese cinema, its enunciation of the national must be examined at multiple levels, historically, typologically and theoretically, all at once.