Software engineering practitioner's approach pdf

Praise for earlier editions of

Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach “Roger Pressman has written a solid comprehensive guidebook for the � eld of software engineering for both students of the discipline and software developers and managers practicing it—or needing to practice it.” IEEE Software

“This is a classic modern textbook, clear and authoritative, with lots of pictures, examples, questions and references ... . I recommend it to anyone who asks, ‘What is software engineering and where is it now?’ ACM Computing Reviews

“An up-to-the minute, in-depth treatment of the software engineering process.” Byte Book Club (main selection)

“... had the best explanations of what I want to cover ...”

“... The de� nitive book on the subject as far as I’m concerned ...”

“... A good textbook as well as reference ...” from comp.software-eng FAQ

“As a practicing Software Engineer, I � nd this book to be invaluable. It has served as a great reference for all the projects that I have worked on.”

“This book is a framework on how to develop high quality software.” reviews from Amazon.com

For almost three decades, Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach has been the best selling guide to software engineering for students and industry professionals alike.

In its seventh edition, the book has been restructured and redesigned, undergoing a substantial content update that addresses every important topic in what many have called “the engineering discipline of the 21st century.” Unique sidebars and marginal content have been expanded and enhanced, o� ering the reader an entertaining and informative complement to chapter topics. New chapters and a new organization make the book still easier to use in the classroom and as a self-study guide.

Part 1, The Software Process, presents both prescriptive and agile process models.

Part 2, Modeling, presents modern analysis and design methods with a new emphasis on UML-based modeling.

Part 3, Quality Management, is new for the seventh edition and address all aspects of software testing, quality assurance, formal veri� cation techniques, and change management.

Part 4, Managing Software Projects, presents topics that are relevant to those who plan, manage, and control a software project.

Part 5, Advanced Topics, presents dedicated chapters that address software process improvement and future software engineering trends.

Roger Pressman, continuing in the tradition of his earlier editions, has written a book that will serve as an excellent guide to software engineering for everyone who must understand, build, or manage computer-based systems.

Visit the book’s On-Line Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/pressman.

The site, visited by thousands of readers each month, has been signi� cantly expanded and updated to provide comprehensive software engineering resources for students, instructors, and industry professionals.

Software Engineering A Practitioner’s Approach

Seventh Edition

Roger S. Pressman

Seventh Edition

Softw are Engineering

A Practitioner’s Approach

Pressman

Roger S. Pressman, Ph.D

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Software Engineering A P R A C T I T I O N E R ’ S A P P R O A C H

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Software Engineering A P R A C T I T I O N E R ’ S A P P R O A C H

SEVENTH EDITION

Roger S. Pressman, Ph.D.

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SOFTWARE ENGINEERING: A PRACTITIONER’S APPROACH, SEVENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2005, 2001, and 1997. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 9

ISBN 978–0–07–337597–7 MHID 0–07–337597–7

Global Publisher: Raghothaman Srinivasan Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts Senior Marketing Manager: Curt Reynolds Senior Managing Editor: Faye M. Schilling Lead Production Supervisor: Sandy Ludovissy Senior Media Project Manager: Sandra M. Schnee Associate Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri (USE) Cover Image: © The Studio Dog/Getty Images Compositor: Macmillan Publishing Solutions Typeface: 8.5/13.5 Leawood Printer: R. R. Donnelley Crawfordsville, IN

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pressman, Roger S. Software engineering : a practitioner’s approach / Roger S. Pressman. — 7th ed.

p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978–0–07–337597–7 — ISBN 0–07–337597–7 (hard copy : alk. paper)

1. Software engineering. I. Title. QA76.758.P75 2010 005.1—dc22

2008048802

www.mhhe.com

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In loving memory of my father who lived 94 years and taught me, above all, that honesty and integrity were the best guides for my journey through life.

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Roger S. Pressman is an internationally recognized authority in software processimprovement and software engineering technologies. For almost four decades, he has worked as a software engineer, a manager, a professor, an author, and a con-

sultant, focusing on software engineering issues.

As an industry practitioner and manager, Dr. Pressman worked on the development

of CAD/CAM systems for advanced engineering and manufacturing applications. He

has also held positions with responsibility for scientific and systems programming.

After receiving a Ph.D. in engineering from the University of Connecticut,

Dr. Pressman moved to academia where he became Bullard Associate Professor of

Computer Engineering at the University of Bridgeport and director of the university’s

Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing Center.

Dr. Pressman is currently president of R.S. Pressman & Associates, Inc., a consulting

firm specializing in software engineering methods and training. He serves as principal

consultant and has designed and developed Essential Software Engineering, a complete

video curriculum in software engineering, and Process Advisor, a self-directed system

for software process improvement. Both products are used by thousands of companies

worldwide. More recently, he has worked in collaboration with EdistaLearning in India

to develop comprehensive Internet-based training in software engineering.

Dr. Pressman has written many technical papers, is a regular contributor to

industry periodicals, and is author of seven technical books. In addition to Software

Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, he has co-authored Web Engineering

(McGraw-Hill), one of the first books to apply a tailored set of software engineering

principles and practices to the development of Web-based systems and applications.

He has also written the award-winning A Manager’s Guide to Software Engineering

(McGraw-Hill); Making Software Engineering Happen (Prentice Hall), the first book to

address the critical management problems associated with software process

improvement; and Software Shock (Dorset House), a treatment that focuses on soft-

ware and its impact on business and society. Dr. Pressman has been on the editorial

boards of a number of industry journals, and for many years, was editor of the

“Manager” column in IEEE Software.

Dr. Pressman is a well-known speaker, keynoting a number of major industry

conferences. He is a member of the IEEE, and Tau Beta Pi, Phi Kappa Phi, Eta Kappa

Nu, and Pi Tau Sigma.

On the personal side, Dr. Pressman lives in South Florida with his wife, Barbara.

An athlete for most of his life, he remains a serious tennis player (NTRP 4.5) and a

single-digit handicap golfer. In his spare time, he has written two novels, The Aymara

Bridge and The Puppeteer, and plans to begin work on another.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

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CONTENTS AT A GLANCE

CHAPTER 1 Software and Software Engineering 1

PART ONE THE SOFTWARE PROCESS 29

CHAPTER 2 Process Models 30

CHAPTER 3 Agile Development 65

PART TWO MODELING 95

CHAPTER 4 Principles that Guide Practice 96

CHAPTER 5 Understanding Requirements 119

CHAPTER 6 Requirements Modeling: Scenarios, Information, and Analysis Classes 148

CHAPTER 7 Requirements Modeling: Flow, Behavior, Patterns, and WebApps 186

CHAPTER 8 Design Concepts 215

CHAPTER 9 Architectural Design 242

CHAPTER 10 Component-Level Design 276

CHAPTER 11 User Interface Design 312

CHAPTER 12 Pattern-Based Design 347

CHAPTER 13 WebApp Design 373

PART THREE QUALITY MANAGEMENT 397

CHAPTER 14 Quality Concepts 398

CHAPTER 15 Review Techniques 416

CHAPTER 16 Software Quality Assurance 432

CHAPTER 17 Software Testing Strategies 449

CHAPTER 18 Testing Conventional Applications 481

CHAPTER 19 Testing Object-Oriented Applications 511

CHAPTER 20 Testing Web Applications 529

CHAPTER 21 Formal Modeling and Verification 557

CHAPTER 22 Software Configuration Management 584

CHAPTER 23 Product Metrics 613

PART FOUR MANAGING SOFTWARE PROJECTS 645

CHAPTER 24 Project Management Concepts 646

CHAPTER 25 Process and Project Metrics 666 vii

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CHAPTER 26 Estimation for Software Projects 691

CHAPTER 27 Project Scheduling 721

CHAPTER 28 Risk Management 744

CHAPTER 29 Maintenance and Reengineering 761

PART FIVE ADVANCED TOPICS 785

CHAPTER 30 Software Process Improvement 786

CHAPTER 31 Emerging Trends in Software Engineering 808

CHAPTER 32 Concluding Comments 833

APPENDIX 1 An Introduction to UML 841

APPENDIX 2 Object-Oriented Concepts 863

REFERENCES 871

INDEX 889

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface xxv

CHAPTER 1 SOFTWARE AND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 1

1.1 The Nature of Software 3 1.1.1 Defining Software 4 1.1.2 Software Application Domains 7 1.1.3 Legacy Software 9

1.2 The Unique Nature of WebApps 10 1.3 Software Engineering 12 1.4 The Software Process 14 1.5 Software Engineering Practice 17

1.5.1 The Essence of Practice 17 1.5.2 General Principles 19

1.6 Software Myths 21 1.7 How It All Starts 24 1.8 Summary 25 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 25 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 26

PART ONE THE SOFTWARE PROCESS 29

CHAPTER 2 PROCESS MODELS 30

2.1 A Generic Process Model 31 2.1.1 Defining a Framework Activity 32 2.1.2 Identifying a Task Set 34 2.1.3 Process Patterns 35

2.2 Process Assessment and Improvement 37 2.3 Prescriptive Process Models 38

2.3.1 The Waterfall Model 39 2.3.2 Incremental Process Models 41 2.3.3 Evolutionary Process Models 42 2.3.4 Concurrent Models 48 2.3.5 A Final Word on Evolutionary Processes 49

2.4 Specialized Process Models 50 2.4.1 Component-Based Development 50 2.4.2 The Formal Methods Model 51 2.4.3 Aspect-Oriented Software Development 52

2.5 The Unified Process 53 2.5.1 A Brief History 54 2.5.2 Phases of the Unified Process 54

2.6 Personal and Team Process Models 56 2.6.1 Personal Software Process (PSP) 57 2.6.2 Team Software Process (TSP) 58

2.7 Process Technology 59 2.8 Product and Process 60 ix

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2.9 Summary 61 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 62 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 63

CHAPTER 3 AGILE DEVELOPMENT 65

3.1 What Is Agility? 67 3.2 Agility and the Cost of Change 67 3.3 What Is an Agile Process? 68

3.3.1 Agility Principles 69 3.3.2 The Politics of Agile Development 70 3.3.3 Human Factors 71

3.4 Extreme Programming (XP) 72 3.4.1 XP Values 72 3.4.2 The XP Process 73 3.4.3 Industrial XP 77 3.4.4 The XP Debate 78

3.5 Other Agile Process Models 80 3.5.1 Adaptive Software Development (ASD) 81 3.5.2 Scrum 82 3.5.3 Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM) 84 3.5.4 Crystal 85 3.5.5 Feature Driven Development (FDD) 86 3.5.6 Lean Software Development (LSD) 87 3.5.7 Agile Modeling (AM) 88 3.5.8 Agile Unified Process (AUP) 89

3.6 A Tool Set for the Agile Process 91 3.7 Summary 91 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 92 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 93

PART TWO MODELING 95

CHAPTER 4 PRINCIPLES THAT GUIDE PRACTICE 96

4.1 Software Engineering Knowledge 97 4.2 Core Principles 98

4.2.1 Principles That Guide Process 98 4.2.2 Principles That Guide Practice 99

4.3 Principles That Guide Each Framework Activity 101 4.3.1 Communication Principles 101 4.3.2 Planning Principles 103 4.3.3 Modeling Principles 105 4.3.4 Construction Principles 111 4.3.5 Deployment Principles 113

4.4 Summary 115 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 116 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 116

CHAPTER 5 UNDERSTANDING REQUIREMENTS 119

5.1 Requirements Engineering 120 5.2 Establishing the Groundwork 125

5.2.1 Identifying Stakeholders 125

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5.2.2 Recognizing Multiple Viewpoints 126 5.2.3 Working toward Collaboration 126 5.2.4 Asking the First Questions 127

5.3 Eliciting Requirements 128 5.3.1 Collaborative Requirements Gathering 128 5.3.2 Quality Function Deployment 131 5.3.3 Usage Scenarios 132 5.3.4 Elicitation Work Products 133

5.4 Developing Use Cases 133 5.5 Building the Requirements Model 138

5.5.1 Elements of the Requirements Model 139 5.5.2 Analysis Patterns 142

5.6 Negotiating Requirements 142 5.7 Validating Requirements 144 5.8 Summary 145 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 145 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 146

CHAPTER 6 REQUIREMENTS MODELING: SCENARIOS, INFORMATION, AND ANALYSIS CLASSES 148

6.1 Requirements Analysis 149 6.1.1 Overall Objectives and Philosophy 150 6.1.2 Analysis Rules of Thumb 151 6.1.3 Domain Analysis 151 6.1.4 Requirements Modeling Approaches 153

6.2 Scenario-Based Modeling 154 6.2.1 Creating a Preliminary Use Case 155 6.2.2 Refining a Preliminary Use Case 158 6.2.3 Writing a Formal Use Case 159

6.3 UML Models That Supplement the Use Case 161 6.3.1 Developing an Activity Diagram 161 6.3.2 Swimlane Diagrams 162

6.4 Data Modeling Concepts 164 6.4.1 Data Objects 164 6.4.2 Data Attributes 164 6.4.3 Relationships 165

6.5 Class-Based Modeling 167 6.5.1 Identifying Analysis Classes 167 6.5.2 Specifying Attributes 171 6.5.3 Defining Operations 171 6.5.4 Class-Responsibility-Collaborator (CRC) Modeling 173 6.5.5 Associations and Dependencies 180 6.5.6 Analysis Packages 182

6.6 Summary 183 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 183 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 184

CHAPTER 7 REQUIREMENTS MODELING: FLOW, BEHAVIOR, PATTERNS, AND WEBAPPS 186

7.1 Requirements Modeling Strategies 186 7.2 Flow-Oriented Modeling 187

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7.2.1 Creating a Data Flow Model 188 7.2.2 Creating a Control Flow Model 191 7.2.3 The Control Specification 191 7.2.4 The Process Specification 192

7.3 Creating a Behavioral Model 195 7.3.1 Identifying Events with the Use Case 195 7.3.2 State Representations 196

7.4 Patterns for Requirements Modeling 199 7.4.1 Discovering Analysis Patterns 200 7.4.2 A Requirements Pattern Example: Actuator-Sensor 200

7.5 Requirements Modeling for WebApps 205 7.5.1 How Much Analysis Is Enough? 205 7.5.2 Requirements Modeling Input 206 7.5.3 Requirements Modeling Output 207 7.5.4 Content Model for WebApps 207 7.5.5 Interaction Model for WebApps 209 7.5.6 Functional Model for WebApps 210 7.5.7 Configuration Models for WebApps 211 7.5.8 Navigation Modeling 212

7.6 Summary 213 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 213 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 214

CHAPTER 8 DESIGN CONCEPTS 215

8.1 Design within the Context of Software Engineering 216 8.2 The Design Process 219

8.2.1 Software Quality Guidelines and Attributes 219 8.2.2 The Evolution of Software Design 221

8.3 Design Concepts 222 8.3.1 Abstraction 223 8.3.2 Architecture 223 8.3.3 Patterns 224 8.3.4 Separation of Concerns 225 8.3.5 Modularity 225 8.3.6 Information Hiding 226 8.3.7 Functional Independence 227 8.3.8 Refinement 228 8.3.9 Aspects 228 8.3.10 Refactoring 229 8.3.11 Object-Oriented Design Concepts 230 8.3.12 Design Classes 230

8.4 The Design Model 233 8.4.1 Data Design Elements 234 8.4.2 Architectural Design Elements 234 8.4.3 Interface Design Elements 235 8.4.4 Component-Level Design Elements 237 8.4.5 Deployment-Level Design Elements 237

8.5 Summary 239 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 240 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 240

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CHAPTER 9 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 242

9.1 Software Architecture 243 9.1.1 What Is Architecture? 243 9.1.2 Why Is Architecture Important? 245 9.1.3 Architectural Descriptions 245 9.1.4 Architectural Decisions 246

9.2 Architectural Genres 246 9.3 Architectural Styles 249

9.3.1 A Brief Taxonomy of Architectural Styles 250 9.3.2 Architectural Patterns 253 9.3.3 Organization and Refinement 255

9.4 Architectural Design 255 9.4.1 Representing the System in Context 256 9.4.2 Defining Archetypes 257 9.4.3 Refining the Architecture into Components 258 9.4.4 Describing Instantiations of the System 260

9.5 Assessing Alternative Architectural Designs 261 9.5.1 An Architecture Trade-Off Analysis Method 262 9.5.2 Architectural Complexity 263 9.5.3 Architectural Description Languages 264

9.6 Architectural Mapping Using Data Flow 265 9.6.1 Transform Mapping 265 9.6.2 Refining the Architectural Design 272

9.7 Summary 273 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 274 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 274

CHAPTER 10 COMPONENT-LEVEL DESIGN 276

10.1 What Is a Component? 277 10.1.1 An Object-Oriented View 277 10.1.2 The Traditional View 279 10.1.3 A Process-Related View 281

10.2 Designing Class-Based Components 282 10.2.1 Basic Design Principles 282 10.2.2 Component-Level Design Guidelines 285 10.2.3 Cohesion 286 10.2.4 Coupling 288

10.3 Conducting Component-Level Design 290 10.4 Component-Level Design for WebApps 296

10.4.1 Content Design at the Component Level 297 10.4.2 Functional Design at the Component Level 297

10.5 Designing Traditional Components 298 10.5.1 Graphical Design Notation 299 10.5.2 Tabular Design Notation 300 10.5.3 Program Design Language 301

10.6 Component-Based Development 303 10.6.1 Domain Engineering 303 10.6.2 Component Qualification, Adaptation, and Composition 304 10.6.3 Analysis and Design for Reuse 306 10.6.4 Classifying and Retrieving Components 307

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10.7 Summary 309 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 310 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 311

CHAPTER 11 USER INTERFACE DESIGN 312

11.1 The Golden Rules 313 11.1.1 Place the User in Control 313 11.1.2 Reduce the User’s Memory Load 314 11.1.3 Make the Interface Consistent 316

11.2 User Interface Analysis and Design 317 11.2.1 Interface Analysis and Design Models 317 11.2.2 The Process 319

11.3 Interface Analysis 320 11.3.1 User Analysis 321 11.3.2 Task Analysis and Modeling 322 11.3.3 Analysis of Display Content 327 11.3.4 Analysis of the Work Environment 328

11.4 Interface Design Steps 328 11.4.1 Applying Interface Design Steps 329 11.4.2 User Interface Design Patterns 330 11.4.3 Design Issues 331

11.5 WebApp Interface Design 335 11.5.1 Interface Design Principles and Guidelines 336 11.5.2 Interface Design Workflow for WebApps 340

11.6 Design Evaluation 342 11.7 Summary 344 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 345 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 346

CHAPTER 12 PATTERN-BASED DESIGN 347

12.1 Design Patterns 348 12.1.1 Kinds of Patterns 349 12.1.2 Frameworks 352 12.1.3 Describing a Pattern 352 12.1.4 Pattern Languages and Repositories 353

12.2 Pattern-Based Software Design 354 12.2.1 Pattern-Based Design in Context 354 12.2.2 Thinking in Patterns 356 12.2.3 Design Tasks 357 12.2.4 Building a Pattern-Organizing Table 358 12.2.5 Common Design Mistakes 359

12.3 Architectural Patterns 360 12.4 Component-Level Design Patterns 362 12.5 User Interface Design Patterns 364 12.6 WebApp Design Patterns 368

12.6.1 Design Focus 368 12.6.2 Design Granularity 369

12.7 Summary 370 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 371 FURTHER READING AND INFORMATION SOURCES 372

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CHAPTER 13 WEBAPP DESIGN 373

13.1 WebApp Design Quality 374 13.2 Design Goals 377 13.3 A Design Pyramid for WebApps 378 13.4 WebApp Interface Design 378 13.5 Aesthetic Design 380

13.5.1 Layout Issues 380 13.5.2 Graphic Design Issues 381

13.6 Content Design 382 13.6.1 Content Objects 382 13.6.2 Content Design Issues 382

13.7 Architecture Design 383 13.7.1 Content Architecture 384 13.7.2 WebApp Architecture 386

13.8 Navigation Design 388 13.8.1 Navigation Semantics 388 13.8.2 Navigation Syntax 389

13.9 Component-Level Design 390 13.10 Object-Oriented Hypermedia Design Method (OOHDM) 390

13.10.1 Conceptual Design for OOHDM 391 13.10.2 Navigational Design for OOHDM 391 13.10.3 Abstract Interface Design and Implementation 392

13.11 Summary 393 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 394 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 395

PART THREE QUALITY MANAGEMENT 397

CHAPTER 14 QUALITY CONCEPTS 398

14.1 What Is Quality? 399 14.2 Software Quality 400

14.2.1 Garvin’s Quality Dimensions 401 14.2.2 McCall’s Quality Factors 402 14.2.3 ISO 9126 Quality Factors 403 14.2.4 Targeted Quality Factors 404 14.2.5 The Transition to a Quantitative View 405

14.3 The Software Quality Dilemma 406 14.3.1 “Good Enough” Software 406 14.3.2 The Cost of Quality 407 14.3.3 Risks 409 14.3.4 Negligence and Liability 410 14.3.5 Quality and Security 410 14.3.6 The Impact of Management Actions 411

14.4 Achieving Software Quality 412 14.4.1 Software Engineering Methods 412 14.4.2 Project Management Techniques 412 14.4.3 Quality Control 412 14.4.4 Quality Assurance 413

14.5 Summary 413 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 414 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 414

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CHAPTER 15 REVIEW TECHNIQUES 416

15.1 Cost Impact of Software Defects 417 15.2 Defect Amplification and Removal 418 15.3 Review Metrics and Their Use 420

15.3.1 Analyzing Metrics 420 15.3.2 Cost Effectiveness of Reviews 421

15.4 Reviews: A Formality Spectrum 423 15.5 Informal Reviews 424 15.6 Formal Technical Reviews 426

15.6.1 The Review Meeting 426 15.6.2 Review Reporting and Record Keeping 427 15.6.3 Review Guidelines 427 15.6.4 Sample-Driven Reviews 429

15.7 Summary 430 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 431 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 431

CHAPTER 16 SOFTWARE QUALITY ASSURANCE 432

16.1 Background Issues 433 16.2 Elements of Software Quality Assurance 434 16.3 SQA Tasks, Goals, and Metrics 436

16.3.1 SQA Tasks 436 16.3.2 Goals, Attributes, and Metrics 437

16.4 Formal Approaches to SQA 438 16.5 Statistical Software Quality Assurance 439

16.5.1 A Generic Example 439 16.5.2 Six Sigma for Software Engineering 441

16.6 Software Reliability 442 16.6.1 Measures of Reliability and Availability 442 16.6.2 Software Safety 443

16.7 The ISO 9000 Quality Standards 444 16.8 The SQA Plan 445 16.9 Summary 446 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 447 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 447

CHAPTER 17 SOFTWARE TESTING STRATEGIES 449

17.1 A Strategic Approach to Software Testing 450 17.1.1 Verification and Validation 450 17.1.2 Organizing for Software Testing 451 17.1.3 Software Testing Strategy—The Big Picture 452 17.1.4 Criteria for Completion of Testing 455

17.2 Strategic Issues 455 17.3 Test Strategies for Conventional Software 456

17.3.1 Unit Testing 456 17.3.2 Integration Testing 459

17.4 Test Strategies for Object-Oriented Software 465 17.4.1 Unit Testing in the OO Context 466 17.4.2 Integration Testing in the OO Context 466

17.5 Test Strategies for WebApps 467 17.6 Validation Testing 467

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17.6.1 Validation-Test Criteria 468 17.6.2 Configuration Review 468 17.6.3 Alpha and Beta Testing 468

17.7 System Testing 470 17.7.1 Recovery Testing 470 17.7.2 Security Testing 470 17.7.3 Stress Testing 471 17.7.4 Performance Testing 471 17.7.5 Deployment Testing 472

17.8 The Art of Debugging 473 17.8.1 The Debugging Process 473 17.8.2 Psychological Considerations 474 17.8.3 Debugging Strategies 475 17.8.4 Correcting the Error 477

17.9 Summary 478 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 478 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 479

CHAPTER 18 TESTING CONVENTIONAL APPLICATIONS 481

18.1 Software Testing Fundamentals 482 18.2 Internal and External Views of Testing 484 18.3 White-Box Testing 485 18.4 Basis Path Testing 485

18.4.1 Flow Graph Notation 485 18.4.2 Independent Program Paths 487 18.4.3 Deriving Test Cases 489 18.4.4 Graph Matrices 491

18.5 Control Structure Testing 492 18.5.1 Condition Testing 492 18.5.2 Data Flow Testing 493 18.5.3 Loop Testing 493

18.6 Black-Box Testing 495 18.6.1 Graph-Based Testing Methods 495 18.6.2 Equivalence Partitioning 497 18.6.3 Boundary Value Analysis 498 18.6.4 Orthogonal Array Testing 499

18.7 Model-Based Testing 502 18.8 Testing for Specialized Environments, Architectures, and Applications 503

18.8.1 Testing GUIs 503 18.8.2 Testing of Client-Server Architectures 503 18.8.3 Testing Documentation and Help Facilities 505 18.8.4 Testing for Real-Time Systems 506

18.9 Patterns for Software Testing 507 18.10 Summary 508 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 509 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 510

CHAPTER 19 TESTING OBJECT-ORIENTED APPLICATIONS 511

19.1 Broadening the View of Testing 512 19.2 Testing OOA and OOD Models 513

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19.2.1 Correctness of OOA and OOD Models 513 19.2.2 Consistency of Object-Oriented Models 514

19.3 Object-Oriented Testing Strategies 516 19.3.1 Unit Testing in the OO Context 516 19.3.2 Integration Testing in the OO Context 516 19.3.3 Validation Testing in an OO Context 517

19.4 Object-Oriented Testing Methods 517 19.4.1 The Test-Case Design Implications of OO Concepts 518 19.4.2 Applicability of Conventional Test-Case Design Methods 518 19.4.3 Fault-Based Testing 519 19.4.4 Test Cases and the Class Hierarchy 519 19.4.5 Scenario-Based Test Design 520 19.4.6 Testing Surface Structure and Deep Structure 522

19.5 Testing Methods Applicable at the Class Level 522 19.5.1 Random Testing for OO Classes 522 19.5.2 Partition Testing at the Class Level 524

19.6 Interclass Test-Case Design 524 19.6.1 Multiple Class Testing 524 19.6.2 Tests Derived from Behavior Models 526

19.7 Summary 527 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 528 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 528

CHAPTER 20 TESTING WEB APPLICATIONS 529

20.1 Testing Concepts for WebApps 530 20.1.1 Dimensions of Quality 530 20.1.2 Errors within a WebApp Environment 531 20.1.3 Testing Strategy 532 20.1.4 Test Planning 532

20.2 The Testing Process—An Overview 533 20.3 Content Testing 534

20.3.1 Content Testing Objectives 534 20.3.2 Database Testing 535

20.4 User Interface Testing 537 20.4.1 Interface Testing Strategy 537 20.4.2 Testing Interface Mechanisms 538 20.4.3 Testing Interface Semantics 540 20.4.4 Usability Tests 540 20.4.5 Compatibility Tests 542

20.5 Component-Level Testing 543 20.6 Navigation Testing 545

20.6.1 Testing Navigation Syntax 545 20.6.2 Testing Navigation Semantics 546

20.7 Configuration Testing 547 20.7.1 Server-Side Issues 547 20.7.2 Client-Side Issues 548

20.8 Security Testing 548 20.9 Performance Testing 550

20.9.1 Performance Testing Objectives 550 20.9.2 Load Testing 551 20.9.3 Stress Testing 552

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20.10 Summary 553 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 554 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 555

CHAPTER 21 FORMAL MODELING AND VERIFICATION 557

21.1 The Cleanroom Strategy 558 21.2 Functional Specification 560

21.2.1 Black-Box Specification 561 21.2.2 State-Box Specification 562 21.2.3 Clear-Box Specification 562

21.3 Cleanroom Design 563 21.3.1 Design Refinement 563 21.3.2 Design Verification 564

21.4 Cleanroom Testing 566 21.4.1 Statistical Use Testing 566 21.4.2 Certification 567

21.5 Formal Methods Concepts 568 21.6 Applying Mathematical Notation for Formal Specification 571 21.7 Formal Specification Languages 573

21.7.1 Object Constraint Language (OCL) 574 21.7.2 The Z Specification Language 577

21.8 Summary 580 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 581 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 582

CHAPTER 22 SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT 584

22.1 Software Configuration Management 585 22.1.1 An SCM Scenario 586 22.1.2 Elements of a Configuration Management System 587 22.1.3 Baselines 587 22.1.4 Software Configuration Items 589

22.2 The SCM Repository 590 22.2.1 The Role of the Repository 590 22.2.2 General Features and Content 591 22.2.3 SCM Features 592

22.3 The SCM Process 593 22.3.1 Identification of Objects in the Software Configuration 594 22.3.2 Version Control 595 22.3.3 Change Control 596 22.3.4 Configuration Audit 599 22.3.5 Status Reporting 600

22.4 Configuration Management for WebApps 601 22.4.1 Dominant Issues 601 22.4.2 WebApp Configuration Objects 603 22.4.3 Content Management 603 22.4.4 Change Management 606 22.4.5 Version Control 608 22.4.6 Auditing and Reporting 609

22.5 Summary 610 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 611 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 612

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CHAPTER 23 PRODUCT METRICS 613

23.1 A Framework for Product Metrics 614 23.1.1 Measures, Metrics, and Indicators 614 23.1.2 The Challenge of Product Metrics 615 23.1.3 Measurement Principles 616 23.1.4 Goal-Oriented Software Measurement 617 23.1.5 The Attributes of Effective Software Metrics 618

23.2 Metrics for the Requirements Model 619 23.2.1 Function-Based Metrics 620 23.2.2 Metrics for Specification Quality 623

23.3 Metrics for the Design Model 624 23.3.1 Architectural Design Metrics 624 23.3.2 Metrics for Object-Oriented Design 627 23.3.3 Class-Oriented Metrics—The CK Metrics Suite 628 23.3.4 Class-Oriented Metrics—The MOOD Metrics Suite 631 23.3.5 OO Metrics Proposed by Lorenz and Kidd 632 23.3.6 Component-Level Design Metrics 632 23.3.7 Operation-Oriented Metrics 634 23.3.8 User Interface Design Metrics 635

23.4 Design Metrics for WebApps 636 23.5 Metrics for Source Code 638 23.6 Metrics for Testing 639

23.6.1 Halstead Metrics Applied to Testing 639 23.6.2 Metrics for Object-Oriented Testing 640

23.7 Metrics for Maintenance 641 23.8 Summary 642 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 642 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 643

PART FOUR MANAGING SOFTWARE PROJECTS 645

CHAPTER 24 PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS 646

24.1 The Management Spectrum 647 24.1.1 The People 647 24.1.2 The Product 648 24.1.3 The Process 648 24.1.4 The Project 648

24.2 People 649 24.2.1 The Stakeholders 649 24.2.2 Team Leaders 650 24.2.3 The Software Team 651 24.2.4 Agile Teams 654 24.2.5 Coordination and Communication Issues 655

24.3 The Product 656 24.3.1 Software Scope 656 24.3.2 Problem Decomposition 656

24.4 The Process 657 24.4.1 Melding the Product and the Process 657 24.4.2 Process Decomposition 658

24.5 The Project 660 24.6 The W5HH Principle 661

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24.7 Critical Practices 662 24.8 Summary 663 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 663 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 664

CHAPTER 25 PROCESS AND PROJECT METRICS 666

25.1 Metrics in the Process and Project Domains 667 25.1.1 Process Metrics and Software Process Improvement 667 25.1.2 Project Metrics 670

25.2 Software Measurement 671 25.2.1 Size-Oriented Metrics 672 25.2.2 Function-Oriented Metrics 673 25.2.3 Reconciling LOC and FP Metrics 673 25.2.4 Object-Oriented Metrics 675 25.2.5 Use-Case–Oriented Metrics 676 25.2.6 WebApp Project Metrics 677

25.3 Metrics for Software Quality 679 25.3.1 Measuring Quality 680 25.3.2 Defect Removal Efficiency 681

25.4 Integrating Metrics within the Software Process 682 25.4.1 Arguments for Software Metrics 683 25.4.2 Establishing a Baseline 683 25.4.3 Metrics Collection, Computation, and Evaluation 684

25.5 Metrics for Small Organizations 684 25.6 Establishing a Software Metrics Program 686 25.7 Summary 688 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 688 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 689

CHAPTER 26 ESTIMATION FOR SOFTWARE PROJECTS 691

26.1 Observations on Estimation 692 26.2 The Project Planning Process 693 26.3 Software Scope and Feasibility 694 26.4 Resources 695

26.4.1 Human Resources 695 26.4.2 Reusable Software Resources 696 26.4.3 Environmental Resources 696

26.5 Software Project Estimation 697 26.6 Decomposition Techniques 698

26.6.1 Software Sizing 698 26.6.2 Problem-Based Estimation 699 26.6.3 An Example of LOC-Based Estimation 701 26.6.4 An Example of FP-Based Estimation 702 26.6.5 Process-Based Estimation 703 26.6.6 An Example of Process-Based Estimation 704 26.6.7 Estimation with Use Cases 705 26.6.8 An Example of Use-Case–Based Estimation 706 26.6.9 Reconciling Estimates 707

26.7 Empirical Estimation Models 708 26.7.1 The Structure of Estimation Models 709 26.7.2 The COCOMO II Model 709 26.7.3 The Software Equation 711

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26.8 Estimation for Object-Oriented Projects 712 26.9 Specialized Estimation Techniques 713

26.9.1 Estimation for Agile Development 713 26.9.2 Estimation for WebApp Projects 714

26.10 The Make/Buy Decision 715 26.10.1 Creating a Decision Tree 715 26.10.2 Outsourcing 717

26.11 Summary 718 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 719 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 719

CHAPTER 27 PROJECT SCHEDULING 721

27.1 Basic Concepts 722 27.2 Project Scheduling 724

27.2.1 Basic Principles 725 27.2.2 The Relationship Between People and Effort 725 27.2.3 Effort Distribution 727

27.3 Defining a Task Set for the Software Project 728 27.3.1 A Task Set Example 729 27.3.2 Refinement of Software Engineering Actions 730

27.4 Defining a Task Network 731 27.5 Scheduling 732

27.5.1 Time-Line Charts 732 27.5.2 Tracking the Schedule 734 27.5.3 Tracking Progress for an OO Project 735 27.5.4 Scheduling for WebApp Projects 736

27.6 Earned Value Analysis 739 27.7 Summary 741 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 741 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 743

CHAPTER 28 RISK MANAGEMENT 744

28.1 Reactive versus Proactive Risk Strategies 745 28.2 Software Risks 745 28.3 Risk Identification 747

28.3.1 Assessing Overall Project Risk 748 28.3.2 Risk Components and Drivers 749

28.4 Risk Projection 749 28.4.1 Developing a Risk Table 750 28.4.2 Assessing Risk Impact 752

28.5 Risk Refinement 754 28.6 Risk Mitigation, Monitoring, and Management 755 28.7 The RMMM Plan 757 28.8 Summary 759 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 759 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 760

CHAPTER 29 MAINTENANCE AND REENGINEERING 761

29.1 Software Maintenance 762 29.2 Software Supportability 764

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29.3 Reengineering 764 29.4 Business Process Reengineering 765

29.4.1 Business Processes 765 29.4.2 A BPR Model 766

29.5 Software Reengineering 768 29.5.1 A Software Reengineering Process Model 768 29.5.2 Software Reengineering Activities 770

29.6 Reverse Engineering 772 29.6.1 Reverse Engineering to Understand Data 773 29.6.2 Reverse Engineering to Understand Processing 774 29.6.3 Reverse Engineering User Interfaces 775

29.7 Restructuring 776 29.7.1 Code Restructuring 776 29.7.2 Data Restructuring 777

29.8 Forward Engineering 778 29.8.1 Forward Engineering for Client-Server Architectures 779 29.8.2 Forward Engineering for Object-Oriented Architectures 780

29.9 The Economics of Reengineering 780 29.10 Summary 781 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 782 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 783

PART FIVE ADVANCED TOPICS 785

CHAPTER 30 SOFTWARE PROCESS IMPROVEMENT 786

30.1 What Is SPI? 787 30.1.1 Approaches to SPI 787 30.1.2 Maturity Models 789 30.1.3 Is SPI for Everyone? 790

30.2 The SPI Process 791 30.2.1 Assessment and Gap Analysis 791 30.2.2 Education and Training 793 30.2.3 Selection and Justification 793 30.2.4 Installation/Migration 794 30.2.5 Evaluation 795 30.2.6 Risk Management for SPI 795 30.2.7 Critical Success Factors 796

30.3 The CMMI 797 30.4 The People CMM 801 30.5 Other SPI Frameworks 802 30.6 SPI Return on Investment 804 30.7 SPI Trends 805 30.8 Summary 806 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 806 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 807

CHAPTER 31 EMERGING TRENDS IN SOFTWARE ENGINEERING 808

31.1 Technology Evolution 809 31.2 Observing Software Engineering Trends 811

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31.3 Identifying “Soft Trends” 812 31.3.1 Managing Complexity 814 31.3.2 Open-World Software 815 31.3.3 Emergent Requirements 816 31.3.4 The Talent Mix 816 31.3.5 Software Building Blocks 817 31.3.6 Changing Perceptions of “Value” 818 31.3.7 Open Source 818

31.4 Technology Directions 819 31.4.1 Process Trends 819 31.4.2 The Grand Challenge 821 31.4.3 Collaborative Development 822 31.4.4 Requirements Engineering 824 31.4.5 Model-Driven Software Development 825 31.4.6 Postmodern Design 825 31.4.7 Test-Driven Development 826

31.5 Tools-Related Trends 827 31.5.1 Tools That Respond to Soft Trends 828 31.5.2 Tools That Address Technology Trends 830

31.6 Summary 830 PROBLEMS AND POINTS TO PONDER 831 FURTHER READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES 831

CHAPTER 32 CONCLUDING COMMENTS 833

32.1 The Importance of Software—Revisited 834 32.2 People and the Way They Build Systems 834 32.3 New Modes for Representing Information 835 32.4 The Long View 837 32.5 The Software Engineer’s Responsibility 838 32.6 A Final Comment 839

APPENDIX 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO UML 841 APPENDIX 2 OBJECT-ORIENTED CONCEPTS 863 REFERENCES 871 INDEX 889

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When computer software succeeds—when it meets the needs of the people who useit, when it performs flawlessly over a long period of time, when it is easy to modify and even easier to use—it can and does change things for the better. But when software fails—when its users are dissatisfied, when it is error prone, when it is difficult to change and even harder to use—bad things can and do happen. We all want to build software that makes things better, avoiding the bad things that lurk in the shadow of failed efforts. To succeed, we need discipline when software is designed and built. We need an engineer- ing approach.

It has been almost three decades since the first edition of this book was written. During that time, software engineering has evolved from an obscure idea practiced by a relatively small number of zealots to a legitimate engineering discipline. Today, it is recognized as a subject worthy of serious research, conscientious study, and tumultuous debate. Through- out the industry, software engineer has replaced programmer as the job title of preference. Software process models, software engineering methods, and software tools have been adopted successfully across a broad spectrum of industry segments.

Although managers and practitioners alike recognize the need for a more disciplined approach to software, they continue to debate the manner in which discipline is to be applied. Many individuals and companies still develop software haphazardly, even as they build systems to service today’s most advanced technologies. Many professionals and students are unaware of modern methods. And as a result, the quality of the software that we produce suffers, and bad things happen. In addition, debate and controversy about the true nature of the software engineering approach continue. The status of software engi- neering is a study in contrasts. Attitudes have changed, progress has been made, but much remains to be done before the discipline reaches full maturity.

The seventh edition of Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach is intended to serve as a guide to a maturing engineering discipline. Like the six editions that preceded it, the seventh edition is intended for both students and practitioners, retaining its appeal as a guide to the industry professional and a comprehensive introduction to the student at the upper-level undergraduate or first-year graduate level.

The seventh edition is considerably more than a simple update. The book has been revised and restructured to improve pedagogical flow and emphasize new and important software engineering processes and practices. In addition, a revised and updated “support system,” illustrated in the figure, provides a comprehensive set of student, instructor, and professional resources to complement the content of the book. These resources are pre- sented as part of a website (www.mhhe.com/ pressman) specifically designed for Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach.

The Seventh Edition. The 32 chapters of the seventh edition have been reorganized into five parts. This organization, which differs considerably from the sixth edition, has been done to better compartmentalize topics and assist instructors who may not have the time to complete the entire book in one term.

PREFACE

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Part 1, The Process, presents a variety of different views of software process, consider- ing all important process models and addressing the debate between prescriptive and agile process philosophies. Part 2, Modeling, presents analysis and design methods with an emphasis on object-oriented techniques and UML modeling. Pattern-based design and design for Web applications are also considered. Part 3, Quality Management, presents the concepts, procedures, techniques, and methods that enable a software team to assess software quality, review software engineering work products, conduct SQA procedures, and apply an effective testing strategy and tactics. In addition, formal modeling and veri- fication methods are also considered. Part 4, Managing Software Projects, presents topics that are relevant to those who plan, manage, and control a software development project. Part 5, Advanced Topics, considers software process improvement and software engineer- ing trends. Continuing in the tradition of past editions, a series of sidebars is used through- out the book to present the trials and tribulations of a (fictional) software team and to provide supplementary materials about methods and tools that are relevant to chapter topics. Two new appendices provide brief tutorials on UML and object-oriented thinking for those who may be unfamiliar with these important topics.

xxvi PREFACE

Web resources (1,000+ links) Reference library (500+ links) Checklists Work product templates Tiny tools Adaptable process model Umbrella activities task set Comprehensive case study

Student resources

Instructor resources

Solved problems

Instructor manual

Test bank

Industry comment

Distance learning

Professional resources

Power- point slides

Practice quizzes

Other SE

topics

SEPA 7/e

Chapter study

guides

Support System for SEPA, 7/e

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The five-part organization of the seventh edition enables an instructor to “cluster” topics based on available time and student need. An entire one-term course can be built around one or more of the five parts. A software engineering survey course would select chapters from all five parts. A software engineering course that emphasizes analysis and design would select topics from Parts 1 and 2. A testing-oriented software engineering course would select topics from Parts 1 and 3, with a brief foray into Part 2. A “manage- ment course” would stress Parts 1 and 4. By organizing the seventh edition in this way, I have attempted to provide an instructor with a number of teaching options. In every case, the content of the seventh edition is complemented by the following elements of the SEPA, 7/e Support System.