Strong pressures for local responsiveness emerge when

Module 4 Readings and Assignments

Complete the following reading before starting work on the assignments:

Module 4 online lectures

From your course text, Global Business Today,9th read the following:

The Strategy of International Business

Entering Foreign Markets

Exporting, Importing & Countertrade

https://digitalbookshelf.argosy.edu/#/books/1259669432/cfi/6/38!/4/4/2/2/4/2@0:0

learning objectives

12-1 Explain the concept of strategy.

12-2 Recognize how firms can profit by expanding globally.

12-3 Understand how pressures for cost reductions and pressures for local responsiveness influence strategic choice.

12-4 Identify the different strategies for competing globally and their pros and cons.

12-5 Explain the pros and cons of using strategic alliances to support global strategies.

Page 337

The Strategy of International Business

IKEA

opening case

Walk into an IKEA store anywhere in the world, and you would recognize it instantly. The warehouse-type stores all sell the same broad range of affordable home furnishings, kitchens, and accessories. Most of the products are instantly recognizable as IKEA merchandise, with their clean yet tasteful lines and functional design. The outside of the store will be wrapped in the blue and yellow colors of the Swedish flag. The store itself will be laid out as a maze that requires customers to walk through every department before they reach the checkout stations. Immediately before the checkout, there is an in-store warehouse where customers can pick up the items they purchased. The furniture is all flat, packed for ease of transportation, and requires assembly by the customer. If you look at the customers in the store, you will see that many of them are in there 20s and 30s. IKEA sells to the same basic customer set the world over: young upwardly mobile people who are looking for tasteful yet inexpensive “disposable” furniture.

A global network of more than 1,050 suppliers based in 53 countries manufactures most of the 9,500 or so products that IKEA sells. IKEA itself focuses on the design of products and works closely with suppliers to bring down manufacturing costs. Developing a new product line can be a painstaking process that takes years. IKEA’s designers will develop a prototype design—a small couch, for example—look at the price that rivals charge for a similar piece, and then work with suppliers to figure out a way to cut prices by 40 percent without compromising on quality. IKEA also manufactures about 10 percent of what it sells in-house and uses the knowledge gained to help its suppliers improve their productivity, thereby lowering costs across the entire supply chain.

It’s a formula that has worked remarkably well. From its roots in Scandinavia, IKEA has grown to become the largest furniture retailer in the world with almost 300 stores in 26 countries and revenues of more than 27 billion euros. IKEA is particularly strong in Europe, where it has 227 stores, but it also has around 50 stores in North America. Its strongest growth recently has been in China, where it had 17 stores in 2013, and Russia, where it had 14 stores.

Page 338Look a little closer, however, and you will see subtle differences between the IKEA offerings in North America, Europe, and China. In North America, sizes are different to reflect the American demand for bigger beds, furnishings, and kitchenware. This adaptation to local tastes and preferences was the result of a painful learning experience for IKEA. When the company first entered the United States in the late 1980s, it thought that consumers would flock to their stores the same way that they had in western Europe. At first they did, but they didn’t buy as much, and sales fell short of expectations. IKEA discovered that its European-style sofas were not big enough, wardrobe drawers were not deep enough, glasses were too small, and kitchens didn’t fit U.S. appliances. So the company set about redesigning its offerings to better match American tastes and was rewarded with accelerating sales growth.

Lesson learned, when IKEA entered China in the 2000s, it made adaptations to the local market. The store layout reflects the layout of many Chinese apartments, where most people live, and because many Chinese apartments have balconies, IKEA’s Chinese stores include a balcony section. IKEA has also had to shift its locations in China, where car ownership lags behind that in Europe and North America. In the West, IKEA stores are located in suburban areas and have lots of parking space. In China, stores are located near public transportation, and IKEA offers a delivery service so that Chinese customers can get their purchases home. images

Sources: J. Leland, “How the Disposable Sofa Conquered America,” The New York Times Magazine, October 5, 2005, p. 45; “The Secret of IKEA’s Success,” The Economist, February 24, 2011; B. Torekull, Leading by Design: The IKEA Story (New York: Harper Collins, 1998); and P. M. Miller, “IKEA with Chinese Characteristics,” Chinese Business Review, July–August 2004, pp. 36–69.

images

Introduction

The primary concern thus far in this book has been with aspects of the larger environment in which international businesses compete. As described in the preceding chapters, this environment has included the different political, economic, and cultural institutions found in nations; the international trade and investment framework; and the international monetary system. Now, our focus shifts from the environment to the firm itself and, in particular, to the actions managers can take to compete more effectively as an international business. This chapter looks at how firms can increase their profitability by expanding their operations in foreign markets. We discuss the different strategies that firms pursue when competing internationally, consider the pros and cons of these strategies, and study the various factors that affect a firm’s choice of strategy. We also look at why firms often enter into strategic alliances with their global competitors, and we discuss the benefits, costs, and risks of strategic alliances.

The strategy of furniture retailer IKEA, which was discussed in the opening case, gives us a preview of some of the key issues discussed in this chapter. IKEA’s business-level strategy is to target young, upwardly mobile people and offer them affordable, tastefully designed, furniture and accessories. IKEA differentiates its offering by design. At the same time, the company does everything it can to lower the costs of the products it sells, thereby enabling it to underprice its rivals and still make good profits. IKEA developed its basic formula for competing in Scandinavia in the 1950s and 1960s. This formula, or business model, includes self-service warehouse-type stores, a maze-like store layout that funnels customers through every department and maximizes impulse purchases, the design of furniture so that it can be flat-packed, an in-store warehouse, and so on. IKEA initially expanded into other countries by using exactly the same segmentation strategy and retailing formula and selling the same set of products. We refer to such a standardized approach as a global strategy. One of its great Page 339virtues is that it can help a company attain a low-cost position through the realization of economies of scale. However, as the opening case makes clear, while this worked in the western European region, it did not work in North America where IKEA had to adapt its product design to the tastes and preferences of North American consumers. In other words, IKEA found that it needed to localize some of its offerings. As we shall see in this chapter, there is often a tension between the desire to standardize a product offering in order to attain low costs and the need to localize the offering to better match the tastes and preferences of local consumers, which can make it more difficult to attain scale economies and raise costs.

images LO 12-1

Explain the concept of strategy.

Strategy and the Firm

Before we discuss the strategies that managers in the multinational enterprise can pursue, we need to review some basic principles of strategy. A firm’s strategy can be defined as the actions that managers take to attain the goals of the firm. For most firms, the preeminent goal is to maximize the value of the firm for its owners, its shareholders (subject to the constraint that this is done in a legal, ethical, and socially responsible manner—see Chapter 5 for details). To maximize the value of a firm, managers must pursue strategies that increase the profitability of the enterprise and its rate of profit growth over time (see Figure 12.1). Profitability can be measured in a number of ways, but for consistency, we shall define it as the rate of return that the firm makes on its invested capital (ROIC), which is calculated by dividing the net profits of the firm by total invested capital.1 Profit growth is measured by the percentage increase in net profits over time. In general, higher profitability and a higher rate of profit growth will increase the value of an enterprise and thus the returns garnered by its owners, the shareholders.2

Strategy

Actions managers take to attain the firm’s goals.

Profitability

A ratio or rate of return concept.

Profit Growth

The percentage increase in net profits over time.

Managers can increase the profitability of the firm by pursuing strategies that lower costs or by pursuing strategies that add value to the firm’s products, which enables the firm to raise prices. Managers can increase the rate at which the firm’s profits grow over time by pursuing strategies to sell more products in existing markets or by pursuing strategies to enter new markets. As we shall see, expanding internationally can help managers boost the firm’s profitability and increase the rate of profit growth over time.

VALUE CREATION The way to increase the profitability of a firm is to create more value. The amount of value a firm creates is measured by the difference between its costs of production and the value that consumers perceive in its products. In general, the more value customers place on a firm’s products, the higher the price the firm can charge for those products. However, the price a firm charges for a good or service is typically less than the value placed on that good or service by the customer. This is because the customer captures some of that value in the form of what economists call a consumer surplus.3 The customer is able to do this because the firm is competing with other firms for the customer’s business, so the firm must charge a lower price than it could were it a monopoly supplier. Also, it is normally impossible to segment the market to such a degree that the firm can charge each customer a price that reflects that individual’s assessment of the value of a product, which economists refer to as a customer’s reservation price. For these reasons, the price that gets charged tends to be less than the value placed on the product by many customers.

12.1 FIGURE

Determinants of Enterprise Value

12.2 FIGURE

Value Creation

Figure 12.2 illustrates these concepts. The value of a product to an average consumer is V, the average price that the firm can charge a consumer for that product given competitive pressures and its ability to segment the market is P, and the average unit cost of producing that product is C (C comprises all relevant costs, including the firm’s cost of capital). The firm’s profit per unit sold (π) is equal to P − C, while the consumer surplus per unit is equal to V − P (another way of thinking of the consumer surplus is as “value for the money”; the greater the consumer surplus, the greater the value for the money the consumer gets). The firm makes a profit so long as P is greater than C, and its profit will be greater the lower C is relative to P. The difference between V and P is in part determined by the intensity of competitive pressure in the marketplace; the lower the intensity of competitive pressure, the higher the price charged relative to V.4 In general, the higher the firm’s profit per unit sold is, the greater its profitability will be, all else being equal.

The firm’s value creation is measured by the difference between V and C (V − C); a company creates value by converting inputs that cost C into a product on which consumers place a value of V. A company can create more value (V − C) either by lowering production costs, C, or by making the product more attractive through superior design, styling, functionality, features, reliability, after-sales service, and the like, so that consumers place a greater value on it (V increases) and, consequently, are willing to pay a higher price (P increases). This discussion suggests that a firm has high profits when it creates more value for its customers and does so at a lower cost. We refer to a strategy that focuses primarily on lowering production costs as a low-cost strategy. We refer to a strategy that focuses primarily on increasing the attractiveness of a product as a differentiation strategy.5 IKEA’s strategy is primarily about lowering costs, although you will note from the opening case that the company also tries to differentiate itself by design.

Value Creation

Performing activities that increase the value of goods or services to consumers.

Michael Porter has argued that low cost and differentiation are two basic strategies for creating value and attaining a competitive advantage in an industry.6 According to Porter, superior profitability goes to those firms that can create superior value, and the way to create superior value is to drive down the cost structure of the business and/or differentiate the Page 341product in some way so that consumers value it more and are prepared to pay a premium price. Superior value creation relative to rivals does not necessarily require a firm to have the lowest cost structure in an industry, or to create the most valuable product in the eyes of consumers. However, it does require that the gap between value (V) and cost of production (C) be greater than the gap attained by competitors.

STRATEGIC POSITIONING Porter notes that it is important for a firm to be explicit about its choice of strategic emphasis with regard to value creation (differentiation) and low cost, and to configure its internal operations to support that strategic emphasis.7 Figure 12.3 illustrates his point. The convex curve in Figure 12.3 is what economists refer to as an efficiency frontier. The efficiency frontier shows all of the different positions that a firm can adopt with regard to adding value to the product (V) and low cost (C) assuming that its internal operations are configured efficiently to support a particular position (note that the horizontal axis in Figure 12.3 is reverse scaled—moving along the axis to the right implies lower costs). The efficiency frontier has a convex shape because of diminishing returns. Diminishing returns imply that when a firm already has significant value built into its product offering, increasing value by a relatively small amount requires significant additional costs. The converse also holds, when a firm already has a low-cost structure, it has to give up a lot of value in its product offering to get additional cost reductions.

Figure 12.3 plots three hotel firms with a global presence that cater to international travelers: Four Seasons, Marriott International, and Starwood (Starwood owns the Sheraton and Westin chains). Four Seasons positions itself as a luxury chain and emphasizes the value of its product offering, which drives up its costs of operations. Marriott and Starwood are positioned more in the middle of the market. Both emphasize sufficient value to attract international business travelers, but are not luxury chains like Four Seasons. In Figure 12.3, Four Seasons and Marriott are shown to be on the efficiency frontier, indicating that their internal operations are well configured to their strategy and run efficiently. Starwood is inside the frontier, indicating that its operations are not running as efficiently as they might be and that its costs are too high. This implies that Starwood is less profitable than Four Seasons and Marriott and that its managers must take steps to improve the company’s performance.

Porter emphasizes that it is very important for management to decide where the company wants to be positioned with regard to value (V) and cost (C), to configure operations accordingly, and to manage them efficiently to make sure the firm is operating on the efficiency frontier. However, not all positions on the efficiency frontier are viable. In the international hotel industry, for example, there might not be enough demand to support a chain that emphasizes very low cost and strips all the value out of its product offering (see Figure 12.3). International travelers are relatively affluent and expect a degree of comfort (value) when they travel away from home.

12.3 FIGURE

Strategic Choice in the International Hotel Industry

A central tenet of the basic strategy paradigm is that to maximize its profitability, a firm must do three things: (1) pick a position on the efficiency frontier that is viable in the sense that there is enough demand to support that choice; (2) configure its internal operations, such as manufacturing, marketing, logistics, information systems, human resources, and so on, so that they support that position; and (3) make sure that the firm has the right organization structure in place to execute its strategy. The strategy, operations, and organization of the firm must all be consistent with each other if it is to attain a competitive advantage and garner superior profitability. By operations we mean the different value creation activities a firm undertakes, which we shall review next.

OPERATIONS: THE FIRM AS A VALUE CHAIN The operations of a firm can be thought of as a value chain composed of a series of distinct value creation activities, including production, marketing and sales, materials management, R&D, human resources, information systems, and the firm infrastructure. We can categorize these value creation activities, or operations, as primary activities and support activities (see Figure 12.4).8 As noted earlier, if a firm is to implement its strategy efficiently, and position itself on the efficiency frontier shown in Figure 12.3, it must manage these activities effectively and in a manner that is consistent with its strategy.

Operations

The various value creation activities a firm undertakes.

Primary Activities Primary activities have to do with the design, creation, and delivery of the product; its marketing; and its support and after-sale service. Following normal practice, in the value chain illustrated in Figure 12.4, the primary activities are divided into four functions: research and development, production, marketing and sales, and customer service.

Research and development (R&D) is concerned with the design of products and production processes. Although we think of R&D as being associated with the design of physical products and production processes in manufacturing enterprises, many service companies also undertake R&D. For example, banks compete with each other by developing new financial products and new ways of delivering those products to customers. Online banking and smart debit cards are two examples of product development in the banking industry. Earlier examples of innovation in the banking industry included automated teller machines, credit cards, and debit cards. Through superior product design, R&D can increase the functionality of products, which makes them more attractive to consumers (raising V). Alternatively, R&D may result in more efficient production processes, thereby cutting production costs (lowering C). Either way, the R&D function can create value.

12.4 FIGURE

The Value Chain

Production is concerned with the creation of a good or service. For physical products, when we talk about production, we generally mean manufacturing. Thus, we can talk about the production of an automobile. For services such as banking or health care, “production” typically occurs when the service is delivered to the customer (e.g., when a bank originates a loan for a customer it is engaged in “production” of the loan). For a retailer such as Walmart, “production” is concerned with selecting the merchandise, stocking the store, and ringing up the sale at the cash register. For MTV, production is concerned with the creation, programming, and broadcasting of content, such as music videos and thematic shows. The production activity of a firm creates value by performing its activities efficiently so lower costs result (lower C) and/or by performing them in such a way that a higher-quality product is produced (which results in higher V).

A Caterpillar motor factory in Germany helps to ensure product after-sales and service outside the U.S.

The marketing and sales functions of a firm can help to create value in several ways. Through brand positioning and advertising, the marketing function can increase the value (V) that consumers perceive to be contained in a firm’s product. If these create a favorable impression of the firm’s product in the minds of consumers, they increase the price that can be charged for the firm’s product. For example, Ford produced a high-value version of its Ford Expedition SUV. Sold as the Lincoln Navigator and priced around $10,000 higher, the Navigator has the same body, engine, chassis, and design as the Expedition, but through skilled advertising and marketing, supported by some fairly minor features changes (e.g., more accessories and the addition of a Lincoln-style engine grille and nameplate), Ford has fostered the perception that the Navigator is a “luxury SUV.” This marketing strategy has increased the perceived value (V) of the Navigator relative to the Expedition and enables Ford to charge a higher price for the car (P).

Marketing and sales can also create value by discovering consumer needs and communicating them back to the R&D function of the company, which can then design products that better match those needs. For example, the allocation of research budgets at Pfizer, the world’s largest pharmaceutical company, is determined by the marketing function’s assessment of the potential market size associated with solving unmet medical needs. Thus, Pfizer is currently directing significant monies to R&D efforts aimed at finding treatments for Alzheimer’s disease, principally because marketing has identified the treatment of Alzheimer’s as a major unmet medical need in nations around the world where the population is aging.

The role of the enterprise’s service activity is to provide after-sale service and support. This function can create a perception of superior value (V) in the minds of consumers by solving customer problems and supporting customers after they have purchased the product. Caterpillar, the U.S.-based manufacturer of heavy earthmoving equipment, can get spare parts to any point in the world within 24 hours, thereby minimizing the amount of downtime its customers have to suffer if their Caterpillar equipment malfunctions. This is an extremely valuable capability in an industry where downtime is very expensive. It has helped to increase the value that customers associate with Caterpillar products and thus the price that Caterpillar can charge.

Support Activities The support activities of the value chain provide inputs that allow the primary activities to occur (see Figure 12.4). In terms of attaining a competitive advantage, support activities can be as important as, if not more important than, the primary activities of the firm. Consider information systems; these systems refer to the electronic systems for managing inventory, tracking sales, pricing products, selling products, dealing with customer service inquiries, and so on. Information systems, when coupled with the communications features of the Internet, can alter the efficiency and effectiveness with which a firm manages its other value creation activities. Dell, for example, has used its information systems to attain a competitive advantage over rivals. When customers place an order for a Dell product over the firm’s website, that information is immediately transmitted, via the Internet, to suppliers, who then configure their production schedules to produce and ship that product so that it arrives at the right assembly plant at the right time. These systems have reduced the amount of inventory that Dell holds at assembly plants to under two days, which is a major source of cost savings.

Page 344images International Business Resources

In Chapter 12, we are bringing you closer to running a globally oriented company based on the issues we have covered on country differences, global trade and investment environment, and the global money system. This is where many of you will “make your money” as strategic decision makers in corporations. This also means you need to know what is current, important, and strategic in the global marketplace; your company’s products or services; and your company’s uniqueness in satisfying the needs and wants of customers. The globalEDGE Business Review (gBR) is a leading source for cutting-edge global business knowledge with a main target audience of business executives (globaledge.msu.edu/gbr). Note that gBR complements the overall globalEDGE site content by publishing cutting-edge articles dealing with a variety of international business issues facing managers in different world areas, industries, and management functions. With millions of visitors to the site and some 30,000 subscribers, gBR reaches farther and has more impact and visibility than any business journal in international business. One gBR article is titled “From Domestic to International to Global Sourcing.” Based on this article, how much should a company engage in “international/global purchasing activities” versus “domestic purchasing only” to best operate a global strategy?

The logistics function controls the transmission of physical materials through the value chain, from procurement through production and into distribution. The efficiency with which this is carried out can significantly reduce cost (lower C), thereby creating more value. The combination of logistics systems and information systems is a particularly potent source of cost savings in many enterprises, such as Dell, where information systems tell Dell on a real-time basis where in its global logistics network parts are, when they will arrive at an assembly plant, and thus how production should be scheduled.

The human resource function can help create more value in a number of ways. It ensures that the company has the right mix of skilled people to perform its value creation activities effectively. The human resource function also ensures that people are adequately trained, motivated, and compensated to perform their value creation tasks. In a multinational enterprise, one of the things human resources can do to boost the competitive position of the firm is to take advantage of its transnational reach to identify, recruit, and develop a cadre of skilled managers, regardless of their nationality, who can be groomed to take on senior management positions. They can find the very best, wherever they are in the world. Indeed, the senior management ranks of many multinationals are becoming increasingly diverse, as managers from a variety of national backgrounds have ascended to senior leadership positions.

Is Education Creating Value for You?

The concept of a value chain can be used to examine the role your education plays in your life plans, if you look closely at your personal development plans (education, internship, work, physical and emotional fitness, and extracurricular activities) and think about them in terms of primary and support activities. If we use the logic that the amount of value you receive from your education is the difference between the costs (e.g., tuition, time, lost income) and what you receive in the form of education (e.g., knowledge, tools, networks), how does your choice of major area of focus in your education fit into your personal development strategy? How do your choices of how you spend your time fit into your value chain? Do you ever spend time doing things that do not support the strategic goals of your personal value chain? But, most importantly, what is the one thing you should do more of to drive the value higher for yourself today and in the future?

The final support activity is the company infrastructure, or the context within which all the other value creation activities occur. The infrastructure includes the organizational structure, control systems, and culture of the firm. Because top management can exert considerable influence in shaping these aspects of a firm, top management should also be viewed as part of the firm’s infrastructure. Through strong leadership, top management can consciously shape the infrastructure of a firm and through that the performance of all its value creation activities.

Page 34512.5 FIGURE

Organization Architecture

Organization: The Implementation of Strategy The strategy of a firm is implemented through its organization. For a firm to have superior ROIC, its organization must support its strategy and operations. The term organization architecture can be used to refer to the totality of a firm’s organization, including formal organizational structure, control systems and incentives, organizational culture, processes, and people.9 Figure 12.5 illustrates these different elements. By organizational structure, we mean three things: first, the formal division of the organization into subunits such as product divisions, national operations, and functions (most organizational charts display this aspect of structure); second, the location of decision-making responsibilities within that structure (e.g., centralized or decentralized); and third, the establishment of integrating mechanisms to coordinate the activities of subunits including cross functional teams and or pan-regional committees.

Organization Architecture

The totality of a firm’s organization, including formal organizational structure, control systems and incentives, organizational culture, processes, and people.

Organizational Structure

The three-part structure of an organization, including its formal division into subunits such as product divisions, its location of decision-making responsibilities within that structure, and the establishment of integrating mechanisms to coordinate the activities of all subunits.

Controls are the metrics used to measure the performance of subunits and make judgments about how well managers are running those subunits. Incentives are the devices used to reward appropriate managerial behavior. Incentives are very closely tied to performance metrics. For example, the incentives of a manager in charge of a national operating subsidiary might be linked to the performance of that company. Specifically, she might receive a bonus if her subsidiary exceeds its performance targets.

Controls

The metrics used to measure the performance of subunits and make judgments about how well managers are running those subunits.

Incentives

The devices used to reward appropriate managerial behavior.

Processes are the manner in which decisions are made and work is performed within the organization. Examples are the processes for formulating strategy, for deciding how to allocate resources within a firm, or for evaluating the performance of managers and giving feedback. Processes are conceptually distinct from the location of decision-making responsibilities within an organization, although both involve decisions. While the CEO might have ultimate responsibility for deciding what the strategy of the firm should be (i.e., the decision-making responsibility is centralized), the process he or she uses to make that decision might include the solicitation of ideas and criticism from lower-level managers.

Processes

The manner in which decisions are made and work is performed within any organization.

Organizational culture is the norms and value systems that are shared among the employees of an organization. Just as societies have cultures (see Chapter 4 for details), so do organizations. Organizations are societies of individuals who come together to perform collective tasks. They have their own distinctive patterns of culture and subculture.10 As we shall see, organizational culture can have a profound impact on how a firm performs. Finally, by people we mean not just the employees of the organization, but also the strategy used to recruit, compensate, and retain those individuals and the type of people that they are in terms of their skills, values, and orientation (discussed in depth in Chapter 17).

Organizational Culture

The values and norms shared among an organization’s employees.

People

The employees of the organization, the strategy used to recruit, compensate, and retain those individuals and the type of people that they are in terms of their skills, values, and orientation.

As illustrated by the arrows in Figure 12.5, the various components of an organization’s architecture are not independent of each other: Each component shapes, and is shaped by, Page 346other components of architecture. An obvious example is the strategy regarding people. This can be used proactively to hire individuals whose internal values are consistent with those that the firm wishes to emphasize in its organization culture. Thus, the people component of architecture can be used to reinforce (or not) the prevailing culture of the organization. If a firm is going to maximize its profitability, it must pay close attention to achieving internal consistency among the various components of its architecture, and the architecture must support the strategy and operations of the firm.

12.6 FIGURE

Strategic Fit

In Sum: Strategic Fit In sum, as we have repeatedly stressed, for a firm to attain superior performance and earn a high return on capital, its strategy (as captured by its desired strategic position on the efficiency frontier) must make sense given market conditions (there must be sufficient demand to support that strategic choice). The operations of the firm must be configured in a way that supports the strategy of the firm, and the organization architecture of the firm must match the operations and strategy of the firm. In other words, as illustrated in Figure 12.6, market conditions, strategy, operations, and organization must all be consistent with each other, or fit each other, for superior performance to be attained.

images test PREP

Use LearnSmart to help retain what you have learned. Access your instructor’s Connect course to check out LearnSmart or go to learnsmartadvantage.com for help.

Of course, the issue is more complex than illustrated in Figure 12.6. For example, the firm can influence market conditions through its choice of strategy—it can create demand by leveraging core skills to create new market opportunities. In addition, shifts in market conditions caused by new technologies, government action such as deregulation, demographics, or social trends can mean that the strategy of the firm no longer fits the market. In such circumstances, the firm must change its strategy, operations, and organization to fit the new reality—which can be an extraordinarily difficult challenge. And last but by no means least, international expansion adds another layer of complexity to the strategic challenges facing the firm. We shall now consider this.

images LO 12-2

Recognize how firms can profit by expanding globally.

Global Expansion, Profitability, and Profit Growth

Expanding globally allows firms to increase their profitability and rate of profit growth in ways not available to purely domestic enterprises.11 Firms that operate internationally are able to:

1. Expand the market for their domestic product offerings by selling those products in international markets.

Page 3472. Realize location economies by dispersing individual value creation activities to those locations around the globe where they can be performed most efficiently and effectively.

3. Realize greater cost economies from experience effects by serving an expanded global market from a central location, thereby reducing the costs of value creation.

4. Earn a greater return by leveraging any valuable skills developed in foreign operations and transferring them to other entities within the firm’s global network of operations.

As we will see, however, a firm’s ability to increase its profitability and profit growth by pursuing these strategies is constrained by the need to customize its product offering, marketing strategy, and business strategy to differing national or regional conditions—that is, by the imperative of localization.

EXPANDING THE MARKET: LEVERAGING PRODUCTS AND COMPETENCIES A company can increase its growth rate by taking goods or services developed at home and selling them internationally. Almost all multinationals started out doing just this. For example, Procter & Gamble developed most of its best-selling products (such as Pampers disposable diapers and Ivory soap) in the United States and subsequently sold them around the world. Likewise, although Microsoft developed its software in the United States, from its earliest days the company has always focused on selling that software in international markets. Automobile companies such as Volkswagen and Toyota also grew by developing products at home and then selling them in international markets. The returns from such a strategy are likely to be greater if indigenous competitors in the nations that a company enters lack comparable products. Thus, Toyota increased its profits by entering the large automobile markets of North America and Europe, offering products that were different from those offered by local rivals (Ford and GM) by their superior quality and reliability.

The success of many multinational companies that expand in this manner is based not just upon the goods or services that they sell in foreign nations, but also upon the core competencies that underlie the development, production, and marketing of those goods or services. The term core competence refers to skills within the firm that competitors cannot easily match or imitate.12 These skills may exist in any of the firm’s value creation activities—production, marketing, R&D, human resources, logistics, general management, and so on. Such skills are typically expressed in product offerings that other firms find difficult to match or imitate. Core competencies are the bedrock of a firm’s competitive advantage. They enable a firm to reduce the costs of value creation and/or to create perceived value in such a way that premium pricing is possible. For example, Toyota has a core competence in the production of cars. It is able to produce high-quality, well-designed cars at a lower delivered cost than any other firm in the world. The competencies that enable Toyota to do this seem to reside primarily in the firm’s production and logistics functions.13 Similarly, IKEA has a core competence in the design of stylish and affordable furniture that can be manufactured at a low cost and flat-packed, McDonald’s has a core competence in managing fast-food operations (it seems to be one of the most skilled firms in the world in this industry), and Procter & Gamble has a core competence in developing and marketing name-brand consumer products (it is one of the most skilled firms in the world in this business.

Core Competence

Firm skills that competitors cannot easily match or imitate.

Because core competencies are, by definition, the source of a firm’s competitive advantage, the successful global expansion by manufacturing companies such as Toyota and P&G was based not just on leveraging products and selling them in foreign markets, but also on the transfer of core competencies to foreign markets where indigenous competitors lacked them. The same can be said of companies engaged in the service sectors of an economy, such as financial institutions, retailers like IKEA, restaurant chains, and hotels. Expanding the market for their services often means replicating their business model in foreign nations (albeit with some changes to account for local differences, which we will discuss in more detail shortly). Firms like Star-bucks and IKEA, for example, expanded rapidly outside of their home markets the United States by taking the basic business model that they developed at home and using that as a blueprint for establishing international operations.

P&G’s core competency in marketing is evidenced in this photo of Olay men’s skin care products for sale in a Shanghai, China supermarket.

Page 348LOCATION ECONOMIES Earlier chapters revealed that countries differ along a range of dimensions—including the economic, political, legal, and cultural—and that these differences can either raise or lower the costs of doing business in a country. The theory of international trade also teaches that due to differences in factor costs, certain countries have a comparative advantage in the production of certain products. Japan might excel in the production of automobiles and consumer electronics; the United States in the production of computer software, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology products, and financial services; Switzerland in the production of precision instruments and pharmaceuticals; South Korea in the production of semiconductors; and Vietnam in the production of apparel.14

For a firm that is trying to survive in a competitive global market, this implies that trade barriers and transportation costs permitting, the firm will benefit by basing each value creation activity it performs at that location where economic, political, and cultural conditions—including relative factor costs—are most conducive to the performance of that activity. Thus, if the best designers for a product live in France, a firm should base its design operations in France. If the most productive labor force for assembly operations is in Mexico, assembly operations should be based in Mexico. If the best marketers are in the United States, the marketing strategy should be formulated in the United States. And so on.

Firms that pursue such a strategy can realize what we refer to as location economies, which are the economies that arise from performing a value creation activity in the optimal location for that activity, wherever in the world that might be (transportation costs and trade barriers permitting). Locating a value creation activity in the optimal location for that activity can have one of two effects. It can lower the costs of value creation and help the firm to achieve a low-cost position, and/or it can enable a firm to differentiate its product offering from those of competitors. In terms of Figure 12.2, it can lower C and/or increase V (which, in general, supports higher pricing), both of which boost the profitability of the enterprise.

Location Economies

Cost advantages from performing a value creation activity at the optimal location for that activity.

For an example of how this works in an international business, consider Clear Vision, a manufacturer and distributor of eyewear. Started by David Glassman, the firm now generates annual gross revenues of more than $100 million. Not exactly small, but no corporate giant either, Clear Vision is a multinational firm with production facilities on three continents and customers around the world. Clear Vision began its move toward becoming a multinational when its sales were still less than $20 million. At the time, the U.S. dollar was very strong, and this made U.S.-based manufacturing expensive. Low-priced imports were taking an ever-larger share of the U.S. eyewear market, and Clear Vision realized it could not survive unless it also began to import. Initially, the firm bought from independent overseas manufacturers, primarily in Hong Kong. However, the firm became dissatisfied with these suppliers’ product quality and delivery. As Clear Vision’s volume of imports increased, Glassman decided the best way to guarantee quality and delivery was to set up Clear Vision’s own manufacturing operation overseas. Accordingly, Clear Vision found a Chinese partner, and together they opened a manufacturing facility in Hong Kong, with Clear Vision being the majority shareholder.

The choice of the Hong Kong location was influenced by its combination of low labor costs, a skilled workforce, and tax breaks given by the Hong Kong government. The firm’s objective at this point was to lower production costs by locating value creation activities at an appropriate location. After a few years, however, the increasing industrialization of Hong Kong and a growing labor shortage had pushed up wage rates to the extent that it was no longer a low-cost location. In response, Glassman and his Chinese partner moved part of their manufacturing to a plant in mainland China to take advantage of the lower wage rates there. Again, the goal was to lower production costs. The parts for eyewear frames manufactured at this plant are shipped to the Hong Kong factory for final assembly and then distributed to markets in North and South America. The Hong Kong factory employs 80 people and the China plant between 300 and 400.

Page 349At the same time, Clear Vision was looking for opportunities to invest in foreign eyewear firms with reputations for fashionable design and high quality. Its objective was not to reduce production costs but to launch a line of high-quality, differentiated, “designer” eye-wear. Clear Vision did not have the design capability in-house to support such a line, but Glassman knew that certain foreign manufacturers did. As a result, Clear Vision invested in factories in Japan, France, and Italy, holding a minority shareholding in each case. These factories now supply eyewear for Clear Vision’s Status Eye division, which markets high-priced designer eyewear.15

Thus, to deal with a threat from foreign competition, Clear Vision adopted a strategy intended to lower its cost structure (lower C): shifting its production from a high-cost location, the United States, to a low-cost location, first Hong Kong and later China. Then Clear Vision adopted a strategy intended to increase the perceived value of its product (increase V) so it could charge a premium price (P). Reasoning that premium pricing in eyewear depended on superior design, its strategy involved investing capital in French, Italian, and Japanese factories that had reputations for superior design. In sum, Clear Vision’s strategies included some actions intended to reduce its costs of creating value and other actions intended to add perceived value to its product through differentiation. The overall goal was to increase the value created by Clear Vision and thus the profitability of the enterprise. To the extent that these strategies were successful, the firm should have attained a higher profit margin and greater profitability than if it had remained a U.S.-based manufacturer of eyewear.

Creating a Global Web Generalizing from the Clear Vision example, one result of this kind of thinking is the creation of a global web of value creation activities, with different stages of the value chain being dispersed to those locations around the globe where perceived value is maximized or where the costs of value creation are minimized.16 Consider Lenovo’s ThinkPad laptop computers (Lenovo is the Chinese computer company that purchased IBM’s personal computer operations in 2005).17 This product is designed in the United States by engineers because Lenovo believes that the United States is the best location in the world to do the basic design work. The case, keyboard, and hard drive are made in Thailand; the display screen and memory in South Korea; the built-in wireless card in Malaysia; and the microprocessor in the United States. In each case, these components are manufactured and sourced from the optimal location given current factor costs. These components are then shipped to an assembly operation in China, where the product is assembled before being shipped to the United States for final sale. Lenovo assembles the ThinkPad in Mexico because managers have calculated that due to low labor costs, the costs of assembly can be minimized there. The marketing and sales strategy for North America is developed by Lenovo personnel in the United States, primarily because managers believe that due to their knowledge of the local marketplace, U.S. personnel add more value to the product through their marketing efforts than personnel based elsewhere.

Global Web

When different stages of value chain are dispersed to those locations around the globe where value added is maximized or where costs of value creation are minimized.

In theory, a firm that realizes location economies by dispersing each of its value creation activities to its optimal location should have a competitive advantage vis-à-vis a firm that bases all of its value creation activities at a single location. It should be able to better differentiate its product offering (thereby raising perceived value, V) and lower its cost structure (C) than its single-location competitor. In a world where competitive pressures are increasing, such a strategy may become an imperative for survival.

Some Caveats Introducing transportation costs and trade barriers complicates this picture. Due to favorable factor endowments, New Zealand may have a comparative advantage for automobile assembly operations, but high transportation costs would make it an uneconomical location from which to serve global markets. Another caveat concerns the importance of assessing political and economic risks when making location decisions. Even if a country looks very attractive as a production location when measured against all the standard criteria, if its government is unstable or totalitarian, the firm might be advised not to base production there. (Political risk is discussed in Chapter 3.) Similarly, if the government appears to be pursuing inappropriate economic policies that could lead to foreign Page 350exchange risk, that might be another reason for not basing production in that location, even if other factors look favorable.

12.7 FIGURE

The Experience Curve

EXPERIENCE EFFECTS The experience curve refers to systematic reductions in production costs that have been observed to occur over the life of a product.18 A number of studies have observed that a product’s production costs decline by some quantity about each time cumulative output doubles. The relationship was first observed in the aircraft industry, where each time cumulative output of airframes was doubled, unit costs typically declined to 80 percent of their previous level.19 Thus, production cost for the fourth airframe would be 80 percent of production cost for the second airframe, the eighth airframe’s production costs 80 percent of the fourth’s, the sixteenth’s 80 percent of the eighth’s, and so on. Figure 12.7 illustrates this experience curve relationship between unit production costs and cumulative output (the relationship is for cumulative output over time, and not output in any one period, such as a year). Two things explain this: learning effects and economies of scale.

Experience Curve

Systematic production cost reductions that occur over the life of a product.

Learning Effects Learning effects refer to cost savings that come from learning by doing. Labor, for example, learns by repetition how to carry out a task, such as assembling airframes, most efficiently. Labor productivity increases over time as individuals learn the most efficient ways to perform particular tasks. Equally important in new production facilities, management typically learns how to manage the new operation more efficiently over time. Hence, production costs decline due to increasing labor productivity and management efficiency, which increases the firm’s profitability.

Learning Effects

Cost savings from learning by doing.

Learning effects tend to be more significant when a technologically complex task is repeated because there is more that can be learned about the task. Thus, learning effects will be more significant in an assembly process involving 1,000 complex steps than in one of only 100 simple steps. No matter how complex the task, however, learning effects typically disappear after a while. It has been suggested that they are important only during the startup period of a new process and that they cease after two or three years.20 Any decline in the experience curve after such a point is due to economies of scale.

Economies of Scale Economies of scale refer to the reductions in unit cost achieved by producing a large volume of a product. Attaining economies of scale lowers a firm’s unit costs and increases its profitability. Economies of scale have a number of sources. One is the ability to spread fixed costs over a large volume.21 Fixed costs are the costs required to set up a production facility, develop a new product, and the like. They can be substantial. For example, the fixed cost of establishing a new production line to manufacture semiconductor chips now exceeds $1 billion. Similarly, according to one estimate, developing a new drug and bringing it to market costs about $800 million and takes about 12 years.22 The only way to recoup such high fixed costs may be to sell the product worldwide, which reduces average unit costs by spreading fixed costs over a larger volume. The more rapidly that cumulative sales volume is built up, the more rapidly fixed costs can be amortized over a large production volume, and the more rapidly unit costs will fall.

Economies of Scale

Cost advantages associated with large-scale production.

Page 351Second, a firm may not be able to attain an efficient scale of production unless it serves global markets. In the automobile industry, for example, an efficiently scaled factory is one designed to produce about 200,000 units a year. Automobile firms would prefer to produce a single model from each factory because this eliminates the costs associated with switching production from one model to another. If domestic demand for a particular model is only 100,000 units a year, the inability to attain a 200,000-unit output will drive up average unit costs. By serving international markets as well, however, the firm may be able to push production volume up to 200,000 units a year, thereby reaping greater scale economies, lowering unit costs, and boosting profitability. By serving domestic and international markets from its production facilities, a firm may be able to utilize those facilities more intensively. For example, if Intel sold microprocessors only in the United States, it might be able to keep its factories open for only one shift, five days a week. By serving international markets from the same factories, Intel can utilize its productive assets more intensively, which translates into higher capital productivity and greater profitability.

Finally, as global sales increase the size of the enterprise, its bargaining power with suppliers increases as well, which may allow it to attain economies of scale in purchasing, bargaining down the cost of key inputs and boosting profitability that way. For example, Walmart has used its enormous sales volume as a lever to bargain down the price it pays suppliers for merchandise sold through its stores.

Strategic Significance The strategic significance of the experience curve is clear. Moving down the experience curve allows a firm to reduce its cost of creating value (to lower C in Figure 12.2) and increase its profitability. The firm that moves down the experience curve most rapidly will have a cost advantage vis-à-vis its competitors. Firm A in Figure 12.7, because it is farther down the experience curve, has a clear cost advantage over firm B.

Many of the underlying sources of experience-based cost economies are plant based. This is true for most learning effects as well as for the economies of scale derived by spreading the fixed costs of building productive capacity over a large output, attaining an efficient scale of output, and utilizing a plant more intensively. Thus, one key to progressing downward on the experience curve as rapidly as possible is to increase the volume produced by a single plant as rapidly as possible. Because global markets are larger than domestic markets, a firm that serves a global market from a single location is likely to build accumulated volume more quickly than a firm that serves only its home market or that serves multiple markets from multiple production locations. Thus, serving a global market from a single location is consistent with moving down the experience curve and establishing a low-cost position. In addition, to get down the experience curve rapidly, a firm may need to price and market aggressively so demand will expand rapidly. It will also need to build sufficient production capacity for serving a global market. Also, the cost advantages of serving the world market from a single location will be even more significant if that location is the optimal one for performing the particular value creation activity.

Once a firm has established a low-cost position, it can act as a barrier to new competition. Specifically, an established firm that is well down the experience curve, such as firm A in Figure 12.7, can price so that it is still making a profit while new entrants, which are farther up the curve, are suffering losses. Intel is one of the masters of this kind of strategy. The costs of building a state-of-the-art facility to manufacture microprocessors are so large (now around $5 billion) that to make this investment pay Intel must pursue experience curve effects, serving world markets from a limited number of plants to maximize the cost economies that derive from scale and learning effects.

Page 352LEVERAGING SUBSIDIARY SKILLS Implicit in our earlier discussion of core competencies is the idea that valuable skills are developed first at home and then transferred to foreign operations. However, for more mature multinationals that have already established a network of subsidiary operations in foreign markets, the development of valuable skills can just as well occur in foreign subsidiaries.23 Skills can be created anywhere within a multinational’s global network of operations, wherever people have the opportunity and incentive to try new ways of doing things. The creation of skills that help to lower the costs of production, or to enhance perceived value and support higher product pricing, is not the monopoly of the corporate center.

Leveraging the skills created within subsidiaries and applying them to other operations within the firm’s global network may create value. McDonald’s is increasingly finding that its foreign franchisees are a source of valuable new ideas. Faced with slow growth in France, its local franchisees began to experiment not only with the menu, but also with the layout and theme of restaurants. Gone are the ubiquitous golden arches; gone too are many of the utilitarian chairs and tables and other plastic features of the fast-food giant. Many McDonald’s restaurants in France now have hardwood floors, exposed brick walls, and even armchairs. The menu, too, has been changed to include premier sandwiches, such as chicken on focaccia bread, priced some 30 percent higher than the average hamburger. In France at least, the strategy seems to be working. Following the change, increases in same-store sales rose from 1 percent annually to 3.4 percent, and France is now the second largest national market for McDonald’s. Impressed with the impact, McDonald’s executives are considering similar changes at other McDonald’s restaurants in markets where same-store sales growth is sluggish, including the United States.24

For the managers of the multinational enterprise, this phenomenon creates important new challenges. First, they must have the humility to recognize that valuable skills that lead to competencies can arise anywhere within the firm’s global network, not just at the corporate center. Second, they must establish an incentive system that encourages local employees to acquire new skills. This is not as easy as it sounds. Creating new skills involves a degree of risk. Not all new skills add value. For every valuable idea created by a McDonald’s subsidiary in a foreign country, there may be several failures. The management of the multinational must install incentives that encourage employees to take the necessary risks. The company must reward people for successes and not sanction them unnecessarily for taking risks that did not pan out. Third, managers must have a process for identifying when valuable new skills have been created in a subsidiary. And finally, they need to act as facilitators, helping to transfer valuable skills within the firm.

PROFITABILITY AND PROFIT GROWTH SUMMARY We have seen how firms that expand globally can increase their profitability and profit growth by entering new markets where indigenous competitors lack similar competencies, by lowering costs and adding value to their product offering through the attainment of location economies, by exploiting experience curve effects, and by transferring valuable skills among their global network of subsidiaries. For completeness, it should be noted that strategies that increase profitability may also expand a firm’s business and thus enable it to attain a higher rate of profit growth. For example, by simultaneously realizing location economies and experience effects, a firm may be able to produce a more highly valued product at a lower unit cost, thereby boosting profitability. The increase in the perceived value of the product may also attract more customers, thereby growing revenues and profits as well. Furthermore, rather than raising prices to reflect the higher perceived value of the product, the firm’s managers may elect to hold prices low in order to increase global market share and attain greater scale economies (in other words, they may elect to offer consumers better “value for money”). Such a strategy could increase the firm’s rate of profit growth even further, because consumers will be attracted by prices that are low relative to value. The strategy might also increase profitability if the scale economies that result from market share gains are substantial. In sum, managers need to keep in mind the complex relationship between profitability and profit growth when making strategic decisions about pricing.

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Understand how pressures for cost reductions and pressures for local responsiveness influence strategic choice.

Cost Pressures and Pressures for Local Responsiveness

Firms that compete in the global marketplace typically face two types of competitive pressure that affect their ability to realize location economies and experience effects, and to leverage products and transfer competencies and skills within the enterprise. They face pressures for cost reductions and pressures to be locally responsive (see Figure 12.8).25 These competitive pressures place conflicting demands on a firm. Responding to pressures for cost reductions requires that a firm try to minimize its unit costs. But responding to pressures to be locally responsive requires that a firm differentiate its product offering and marketing strategy from country to country (or in some cases region to region) in an effort to accommodate the diverse demands arising from national (or regional) differences in consumer tastes and preferences, business practices, distribution channels, competitive conditions, and government policies. Because differentiation across countries can involve significant duplication and a lack of product standardization, it may raise costs.

While some enterprises, such as firm A in Figure 12.8, face high pressures for cost reductions and low pressures for local responsiveness, and others, such as firm B, face low pressures for cost reductions and high pressures for local responsiveness, many companies are in the position of firm C. They face high pressures for both cost reductions and local responsiveness. Dealing with these conflicting and contradictory pressures is a difficult strategic challenge, primarily because being locally responsive tends to raise costs.

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Pressures for Cost Reductions

In competitive global markets, international businesses often face pressures for cost reductions. Responding to pressures for cost reduction requires a firm to try to lower the costs of value creation. A manufacturer, for example, might mass-produce a standardized product at the optimal locations in the world, wherever that might be, to realize economies of scale, learning effects, and location economies. Alternatively, a firm might outsource certain functions to low-cost foreign suppliers in an attempt to reduce costs. Thus, many computer companies have outsourced their telephone-based customer service functions to India, where qualified technicians who speak English can be hired for a lower wage rate than in the United States. In the same manner, a retailer such as Walmart might push its suppliers (manufacturers) to do the same. (The pressure that Walmart has placed on its suppliers to reduce prices has been cited as a major cause of the trend among North American manufacturers to shift production to China.26) A service business such as a bank might respond to cost pressures by moving some back-office functions, such as information processing, to