Sttss homework

Laura A.Freberg

John T. Cacioppo University of Chicago

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California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Discovering Psychology

The Science of Mind

9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

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Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind John T. Cacioppo and Laura A. Freberg

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Taste buds contained in the papillae of the tongue are far more responsive to bitter tastes than to sweet tastes.

9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

The Science of Mind

The Discipline of Psychology

1 Explain the subject matter that psychologists study, addressing the meaning of mind and psychology’s role as a hub science.

2 Analyze the respective contributions of philosophy and the physical sciences as the “roots” of modern psychology.

3 Compare and contrast the early movements in psychology—structuralism, Gestalt psychology, functionalism, behaviorism, psychodynamic theory, and humanism—in terms of leading figures, core principles, and contributions to modern psychology.

4 Differentiate the seven major perspectives of modern psychology in terms of typical research questions, research methods, and focal causes of behavior.

5 Analyze the ways in which the seven major perspectives can be integrated to address a single psychological problem or topic.

6 Explain why psychology’s role as a “hub science” allows psychologists to pursue a wide range of career paths with respect to professional specialties and research areas.

Learning Objectives

3

Studying the science of psychology can lead you to see yourself and other people in completely new

ways. A lifetime of observation teaches us many things about our own behavior and about the behavior of others,

but psychological science can uncover new and exciting explanations for behavior that we otherwise might miss. Let’s begin with a seemingly simple and familiar example: our ability to taste. We all know a lot about taste—what we like or dislike, the different qualities of taste, and so on. You might even be aware that some

types of taste seem stronger than others. Most of us can taste sweetness in a solution of one part sugar in 200

parts water; this ability shows an impressive taste

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Chapter 1 4

Introspection is the personal observation of our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because we are not perfect observers of the operations of our own minds, psychologists developed other methods that provide truly scientific insight into the mind. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan, areas of the brain that were activated when the participant was hungry are highlighted. Through technology, researchers can better understand how the brain regulates hunger. From D. Fuhrer, S. Zysset, & M. Stumvoll, “Brain

Activity in Hunger and Satiety: An

Exploratory Visually Stimulated fMRI

Study,” in Obesity (2008) 16: 945–950.

© Nature Publishing Group.

sensitivity, to be sure. As remarkable as this sensitivity appears to be, however, people can detect one part bitter substance (like quinine) in 2 million parts water. This contrast in taste sensitivity between sweet and bitter does not reflect the actual difference between sweet and bitter sub- stances—that is, bitter tastes are not 10,000 times stronger than sweet tastes, but that is how we experience them. Why would we have such a vast difference in sensitivity between these tastes?

Our observations of taste do not help us out much in answering this question, but psychology can. As it turns out, our greater sensitivity to bit- ter tastes is highly adaptive: Most poisons or toxins taste bitter, and if you want to stay alive, it is more important to avoid swallowing poison than to enjoy something sweet. Being far more sensitive to tastes that are bitter is a trait that has served our species well, because it helps us avoid eating things that could potentially kill us. Psychology helps us understand why

we do the things we do by providing a context for understanding behavior. To gain that understanding, psychology has to act like the zoom feature in Google Earth. In some parts of this textbook, we will be zooming in on human behaviors, like looking at the highly magnified image at the beginning of the chapter of the tongue, which allows us to taste, and tracing the messages about taste sent from the tongue to the brain. At other times, we’ll zoom back out again to take in the

larger picture, to better understand why the boy on the previous page is giv- ing his bitter-tasting broccoli a skeptical look. Psychologists zoom in to the study of the mind using in-depth per- spectives, which we will be describing in this chapter. For example, we can look at the little boy’s reaction to his broccoli from a developmental perspective, which tells us that taste sensitivity decreases over the life- span. Or, using the social perspective, we can think about social influences like culture on food preferences. Cottage cheese, enjoyed by many Ameri- cans, is viewed with disgust in some other parts of the world. Fruit bat pie, a delicacy in Palau, might not be a popular item for a campus dining facility in the United States. Although single perspectives can tell us a lot about a phenomenon like our sensitivity to bitter tastes, no one perspective can give us a com- plete answer. The best view of all comes from zooming back out again by putting multiple perspectives together into a whole. You can learn a lot about your house from Google Earth by zooming in, but when you see how your home fits into the larger scene of city, state, country, and planet, that viewpoint adds something special to your understanding. We’ll start by learning more about psy- chology’s main perspectives, along with a little background about their origins. At that point, we’ll be in a better position to understand how these perspectives come together to give us the big picture.

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Psycychoholologig sttss zozooom iinn to tthehe stuudydy oof f ththe e mmindd uusingng iin-n-dedeptthh peperr spectives, which we will be describing in this chapter. For example, w can lookok at the little boyy’s reaction to hhisis broccoli from aa developmen perspeecttive,, wwhihichch ttelellsls uuss ththat tasastete senensittivivityty ddececrereasaseseses over the life span. OrOr, usining g hthe sosociciaal ppeerspecectivve, wewe ccann thihinkk aabobout social influe like culultuturere onn fofo dod pprereffererenncess. Coottttagagee chcheesese, ennjojoyeyed by many Am cans is viewed with disgust in some other parts off ththee world Fruit ba

9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 5

What Is Psychology? The study of the mind is as fascinating as it is complex. Psychological sci- entists view the mind as a way of talking about the brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior. A quick look at this textbook’s table of contents will show you the variety of approaches to mind that you will encounter along this voyage, such as the thinking mind (cognitive psy- chology) and the troubled mind (abnormal psychology).

The word psychology is a combination of two Greek words: psyche (or psuche), or “soul,” and logos, “the study of.” For the ancient Greeks, the use of the word “soul” was closer to our modern view of a spirit or mind. Logos is the source of all our “ologies,” such as biology, anthropology, and so on. Literally translated, therefore, psychology means “the study of the mind.”

Contemporary definitions of psychology refine this basic meaning. Most psychologists today define their field as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes—that is, the scientific study of the mind.

The phrase behavior and mental processes has undergone several changes over the history of psychology. Behavior refers to any action that we can observe. As we will see in our chapter on research methods, obser- vation has been an important tool for psychologists from the very early days of the discipline. Notice, too, that our definition does not specify whose behavior is to be examined. Although the bulk of psychology focuses on human behavior, animal behavior has been an essential part of the dis- cipline, both for its own sake and for the sake of comparison with human behavior.

The study of mental processes has been highly dependent on the meth- ods available to psychologists. Early efforts to study mental processes were generally unsatisfactory, as they relied on the use of introspection, or the personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because it is difficult for others to confirm an individual’s introspections, this subjective approach does not lend itself well to the scientific method. If you say that you are feeling hungry, how can anyone else really know if your observation is accurate or not? In the last 30 years, however, revolutions in the methods used to observe brain activity have allowed psychologists to revisit the question of mental processes with much greater objectivity and success.

As you learn more about psychology, some conclusions will seem obvi- ous to you. After all, we already know a great deal about the mind from our own experiences. In other cases, the conclusions of psychological research might challenge your firmly held beliefs. You may be surprised to learn that having a “good cry” can make you feel worse instead of better, or that people are less likely to come to another person’s aid when they are part of a crowd of observers than when they are the only ones available to help. Sometimes, we even believe ideas that contradict each other. Everyone knows that opposites attract and that birds of a feather flock together. It takes the science of psychology to determine when and under what condi- tions these beliefs are actually correct.

mind The brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior.

psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

introspection Personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

of the discciplinne. Notice, too,, that our definition does not spep cifyy se beehahaviv or iis to bbe examinedd. AlAlththooughgh tthhe buulk k ofo psysycholologogy fofocuseess umanan bbeehavvioior,r, aanimam l behahavvior has bbeen an eessssenentit alal parart ofof ttheh disis-- ne,, bboth for its owown saake andnd ffor ttheh ssaake of ccoompaarir sson n wiwith hhumumanan vivior.

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY6

What Are Psychology’s Roots? Psychology is a relatively young discipline, dating back only to the 1870s. However, topics that interest modern psychologists go back much farther in the history of human thought. People living as long ago as 6000–5000 bce in Assyria described their dreams (Restak, 1988). Among these accounts are descriptions of being chased, which are still among the most common dreams experienced by people (Nielsen et al., 2003). See ● Figure 1.1 for common dream themes that many people experience.

The psychology family tree includes two major roots: philosophy and the physical sciences. Psychologists answer questions traditionally posed by philosophers by borrowing the methods of the physical sciences. We examine scientific methods in detail in our next chapter.

Philosophers and psychologists share an interest in questions regarding the nature of the self, the effects of early experience, the existence of free will, and the origin of knowledge. Both disciplines consider the relative bal- ance of biological factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in the resulting human behavior. Both attempt to determine the relationships between self-interest and the welfare of the community, between body and mind, and between humans and the other species with whom we share the planet. Although we typically consider questions of the unconscious mind

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philosophy The discipline that systematically examines basic concepts, including the source of knowledge.

physical science Any science that studies nonliving matter, including physics, chemistry, astronomy, and geology.

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS? 7

and abnormal behavior to be the realm of the psychologist, philosophers investigated these issues thousands of years before the first psychologist was born.

The Philosophers’ Questions

A comprehensive survey of the philosophical roots of psychology is beyond the scope of an introductory textbook like this one, but we can

provide you with a small sample of this heritage. The point we would like you to take away from this discussion is that many of the ques- tions you will read about in this textbook are not unique to psychol- ogy, but have fascinated thinkers for thousands of years. What is the mind? What is the relationship between the body and mind? Is the mind inborn or is it formed through experience?

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 bce) was one of the earliest thinkers to tackle the question “What is the mind?” Plato’s version of the mind featured three parts that must be in balance: reason, spirit, and appetite. He compared these parts to a team of horses (spirit and appetite) guided by a driver (reason). Plato’s division of the mind is echoed in the more modern work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Freud also divided the mind into three parts: the id (inborn aggressive and sexual impulses), the ego (the self ), and the superego (conscience). Later in this textbook, we will see that Freud’s concept of the ego serves the role of Plato’s driver, oversee- ing and balancing the two horses: the impulses of the id and the restrictions imposed by the superego. You might relate to the dilemma of the driver (reason/ego) when you are faced with an opportunity to indulge an impulse (id) while hearing that little voice in the back of your head (superego) tell- ing you that this really isn’t a very good idea.

Another question with ancient roots asks about the relationship between body and mind, a topic that we will explore further in our chapter on biological psychology. On one side of the question were thinkers who believed in dualism, or the idea that body and mind are quite different and separate. To the dualist, our bodies are physical, but our minds are some- thing nonphysical and somewhat more mysterious. Arguing against this point of view were the proponents of monism, the idea that mind and body are not separate. Another way of thinking about monism is to assume that the mind is the result of activity in the brain. Does one of these positions seem closer to your own way of thinking than the other?

The ancient Greek philosophers were nearly evenly split between monism and dualism. Democritus (460–370 bce) and Aristotle (384–322 bce) argued in favor of monism, while Pythagoras (580–500 bce), Socrates (469–399 bce), and Plato believed in dualism. As the classical world of Greece and Rome gave way, monism moved to the background while medi- eval Christian thinkers wrote about a dualism between body and soul. Dual- ism continued to dominate discussion during the Renaissance. The French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was a vocal proponent of dualism. He saw the body as mechanical but the mind as a nonphysical entity not suit- able for scientific inquiry.

Plato viewed the mind as a charioteer (reason) driving two horses (spirit and appetite).

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY8

Contemporary scientists studying the brain support monism, but they agree with Descartes’ belief that the mind and body influence one another. In our biological psychology chapter, we emphasize the reciprocal rela- tionships between biology and behavior. Our biology clearly impacts our behavior, as when hormones released during times of stress increase our heart rate and make our palms sweaty, but our behavior also affects our biology, as the situations we choose to enter (e.g., skydiving) influence the release of stress hormones. This reciprocal influence between biology and behavior can be seen in social situations, too. We know that among primates, males’ testosterone levels predict their amount of sexual activity. At the same time, however, the males’ testosterone levels increase in the presence of larger numbers of available and receptive females (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1992). That is, the social context affects the physiology of the male primates.

Just as philosophers disagreed about the relationship of mind and body, they argued about whether the mind’s knowledge was inborn or the product René Descartes (1596–1650) believed

in mind-body dualism, or the separation of the physical body from the nonphysical mind.

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Psychology as a Hub Science

Psychology Connects to Other Disciplines

sychology is all about peo- ple, and there are very few

occupations that do not require an understanding of people and their behavior. An architect can- not design a functional space without

considering how people respond to crowding. An attorney cannot cross- examine a witness without an under- standing of memory, motivation, emotion, and stress. A teacher can- not encourage students to reach their potential without an understanding of child development. The study of psychology, then, provides you with better insight into and understanding of many different occupations and fields of study.

You have probably seen applica- tions that allow you to map your friendship networks on social media, with shorter links indicating greater connectivity than longer links and

with larger bubbles indicating more overlapping friendships with another person. Kevin Boyack and his col- leagues generated a similar map of the sciences (see ● Figure 1.2), but used reference lists in journal articles instead of friendship networks (Boy- ack, Klavans, & Börner, 2005). The resulting analysis shows that psychol- ogy is one of the major “hub” sci- ences, with strong connections to the medical sciences, the social sciences, and education. In our upcoming chapters, we will highlight these con- nections with examples that are rel- evant to each particular chapter.

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9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

F O S T E R , C E D R I C 1 6 9 2 T S

WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS? 9

John Locke (1632–1704) and other empiricist philosophers believed that the mind was a “blank slate” at birth and that knowledge was gained through experience.

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EARTH SCIENCES

CHEMISTRY MEDICINE

Psychology as a Hub Science. This map of science was generated by comparing citations from over 1 million papers published in more than 7,000 journals since 2000. Psychology appears among the seven major areas of science, indicated in the map by large fonts. The other six major areas are social sciences, mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth sciences, and medicine. Source: Adapted from “Mapping the Backbone

of Science,” by Kevin W. Boyack

et al., 2005, Scientometrics, 64(3).

With kind permission from Springer

Science+Business Media.

F i g u r e 1 . 2

of experience. Some philosophers, including Descartes, argued that ideas and emotions were innate or inborn. More commonly, philosophers begin- ning with Aristotle believed that all knowledge is gained through sensory experience. Beginning in the 17th century, this idea flourished in the Brit- ish philosophical school of empiricism. The empiricists viewed the mind as a “blank slate” at birth that was filled with ideas gained by observing the world. As one of the major empiricists, John Locke (1632–1704), wrote in An Essay Concerning Human