Succeeding in early world history mcgraw hill textbook answers

A HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE MODERN WORLD

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E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N

A HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE MODERN WORLD

R.R. Palmer Joel Colton Lloyd Kramer

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A HISTORY OF EUROPE IN THE MODERN WORLD, ELEVENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2007, 2002, and 1995. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN 978-0-07-338554-9 MHID 0-07-338554-9

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Palmer, R. R. (Robert Roswell), 1909-2002.

[History of the modern world] A history of Europe in the modern world / R.R. Palmer, Joel Colton, Lloyd Kramer. — Eleventh edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-338554-9 (acid-free paper) — ISBN 978-0-07-759960-7 (acid-free paper) — ISBN 978-0-07-759958-4 (acid-free paper) 1. History, Modern. 2. Europe—History—1492- I. Colton, Joel, 1918-2011. II. Kramer, Lloyd S. III. Title. D209.P26 2014 090.08—dc23 2013018526

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

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v

R.R. PALMER was born in Chicago. After graduating from the University of Chicago he received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1934. From 1936 to 1963 he taught at Princeton University, taking leave during World War II to work on historical projects in Washington, D.C. In 1963 he moved to Washington University in St. Louis to serve as dean of arts and sciences but in 1969 resumed his career in teaching and research, this time at Yale. After his retirement he lived in Princeton, where he was affi liated with the Institute for Advanced Study, and then in a retirement community in Newtown Pennsylvania. Of the numerous books he wrote, translated, and edited, three of the most important have been his Catholics and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (1939); Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution (1941, 1989); and his two-volume Age of the Democratic Revolution (1959, 1964), the fi rst volume of which won the Bancroft Prize. He served as president of the American Historical Association in 1970, received honorary degrees from universities in the United States and abroad, and was awarded the Antonio Feltrinelli International Prize for History in Rome in 1990. He was a long-time fellow of the American Philosophical Society and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died in 2002, widely recognized as one of the preeminent historians of his generation.

JOEL COLTON was born in New York City. A graduate of the City College of New York, he served as a military intelligence offi cer in Europe in World War II, and received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1950. He served on the faculty of Duke University for more than four decades, chairing the History Department from 1967 to1974 and chairing the university’s academic council from 1971 to 1973. On leave from Duke, he served from 1974 to 1981 with the Rockefeller Foundation in New York as director of its research and fellowship program in the humanities. In 1986 Duke voted him a Distinguished Teaching Award. He received Guggenheim, Rockefeller Foundation, and National Endowment for the Humanities fellowships. He served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Modern History, French Historical Studies and Historical Abstracts, and was co-president of the International Commission on the History of Social Movements and Social Structures. In 1979 he was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. His writings include Compulsory Labor Arbitration in France, 1936–1939 (1951); Léon Blum: Humanist in Politics (1966, 1987), for which he received a Mayfl ower Award; Twentieth Century (1968,1980) in The Time-Life Great Ages of Man Series; and numerous contributions to journals, encyclopedias, and collaborative volumes. He died in 2011, having served as the distinguished co-author of A History of the Modern World for every revision after the fi rst edition.

LLOYD KRAMER was born in Maryville, Tennessee, and graduated from Maryville College. He received his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1983. Before entering Cornell, he was a teacher in Hong Kong and he traveled widely in Asia. After completing his graduate studies, he taught at Stanford University and Northwestern University. Since 1986 he has been a member of the faculty at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, where he is currently a professor of History. He has served two terms as chair of his Department and received two awards for distinguished undergradu- ate teaching. His writings include Threshold of a New World: Intellectuals and the Exile Experience in Paris, 1830–1848 (1988); Lafayette in Two Worlds: Public Cultures and Personal Identities in an Age of Revolutions (1996), which won the Gilbert Chinard Prize from the Society for French His- torical Studies and the Annibel Jenkins Biography Prize from the American Society for Eighteenth- Century Studies; and Nationalism in Europe and America: Politics, Cultures, and Identities since 1775 (2011). He has also co-edited several books, including a collection of essays on historical edu- cation in America and A Companion to Western Historical Thought (2002). He has been a member of the School of Historical Studies at the Institute for Advanced Study and a Fellow at the National Humanities Center; and he served as president of the Society for French Historical Studies.

A b o u t t h e A u t h o r s

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vi

List of Chapter Illustrations xiv

List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts,

and Tables xxii

Preface xxv

Geography and History 1

Chapter 1 The Rise of Europe 9 Chapter 2 The Upheaval in Western Christendom, 1300–1560 49 Chapter 3 The Atlantic World, Commerce, and Wars of Religion,

1560–1648 99

Chapter 4 The Growing Power of Western Europe, 1640–1715 147 Chapter 5 The Transformation of Eastern Europe, 1648–1740 195 Chapter 6 The Scientifi c View of the World 233 Chapter 7 The Global Struggle for Wealth and Empire 267 Chapter 8 The Age of Enlightenment 309 Chapter 9 The French Revolution 363 Chapter 10 Napoleonic Europe 411 Chapter 11 Industries, Ideas, and the Struggle for Reform, 1815–1848 449 Chapter 12 Revolutions and the Reimposition of Order, 1848–1870 501 Chapter 13 The Consolidation of Large Nation-States, 1859–1871 535 Chapter 14 European Civilization, 1871–1914: Economy and Politics 569 Chapter 15 European Civilization, 1871–1914: Society and Culture 611 Chapter 16 Europe’s World Supremacy, 1871–1914 643 Chapter 17 The First World War 689 Chapter 18 The Russian Revolution and the Emergence of the

Soviet Union 735

Chapter 19 Democracy, Anti-Imperialism, and the Economic Crisis after the First World War 779

Chapter 20 Democracy and Dictatorship in the 1930s 811 Chapter 21 The Second World War 843 Chapter 22 The Cold War and Reconstruction after the Second

World War 883

Chapter 23 Decolonization and the Breakup of the European Empires 925 Chapter 24 Coexistence, Confrontation, and the New European Economy 959

B r i e f C o n t e n t s

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viiBrief Contents

Chapter 25 The International Revolt against Soviet Communism 987 Chapter 26 Europe and the Changing Modern World 1019 Appendix Rulers and Regimes A1

Index I1 Suggestions for Further Reading Online at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e

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viii

List of Chapter Illustrations xiv

List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts,

and Tables xxii

Preface xxv

Geography and History 1

Chapter 1 THE RISE OF EUROPE 9 1. Ancient Times: Greece, Rome, and Christianity 11 2. The Early Middle Ages: The Formation of Europe 19 3. The High Middle Ages: Secular Civilization 29 4. The High Middle Ages: The Church 38

Chapter 2 THE UPHEAVAL IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM, 1300–1560 49 5. Disasters of the Fourteenth Century 50 6. The Renaissance in Italy 56 7. The Renaissance Outside Italy 70 8. The New Monarchies 74 9. The Protestant Reformation 77 10. Catholicism Reformed and Reorganized 93

Chapter 3 THE ATLANTIC WORLD, COMMERCE, AND WARS OF RELIGION, 1560–1648 99 11. The Opening of the Atlantic 100 12. The Commercial Revolution 108 13. Changing Social Structures 117 14. The Wars of Catholic Spain: The Netherlands and England 124 15. The Disintegration and Reconstruction of France 133 16. The Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648: The Disintegration

of Germany 138

Chapter 4 THE GROWING POWER OF WESTERN EUROPE, 1640–1715 147 17. The Grand Monarque and the Balance of Power 148 18. The Dutch Republic 151

C o n t e n t s

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Contents ix

19. Britain: The Civil War 158 20. Britain: The Triumph of Parliament 165 21. The France of Louis XIV, 1643–1715: The Triumph

of Absolutism 173

22. The Wars of Louis XIV: The Peace of Utrecht, 1713 186

Chapter 5 THE TRANSFORMATION OF EASTERN EUROPE, 1648–1740 195 23. Three Aging Empires 196 24. The Formation of an Austrian Monarchy 206 25. The Formation of Prussia 210 26. The Transformation of Russia 218

Chapter 6 THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW OF THE WORLD 233 27. The Emergence of a Scientifi c Culture: Bacon and Descartes 234 28. The Road to Newton: The Law of Universal Gravitation 240 29. New Knowledge of Human Beings and Society 251 30. Political Theory: The School of Natural Law 260

Chapter 7 THE GLOBAL STRUGGLE FOR WEALTH AND EMPIRE 267 31. Elite and Popular Cultures 268 32. The Global Economy of the Eighteenth Century 275 33. Western Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713–1740 285 34. The Great War of the Mid-Eighteenth Century: The Peace

of Paris, 1763 294

Chapter 8 THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT 309 35. The Philosophes—and Others 310 36. Enlightened Despotism: France, Austria, Prussia 324 37. Enlightened Despotism: Russia 333 38. The Partitions of Poland 339 39. New Stirrings: The British Reform Movement 343 40. The American Revolution 352

Chapter 9 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 363 41. Social and Cultural Backgrounds 364 42. The Revolution and the Reorganization of France 369

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Contentsx

43. The Revolution and Europe: The War and the “Second” Revolution, 1792 385

44. The Emergency Republic, 1792–1795: The Terror 389 45. The Constitutional Republic: The Directory, 1795–1799 400 46. The Authoritarian Republic: The Consulate, 1799–1804 405

Chapter 10 NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 411 47. The Formation of the French Imperial System 412 48. The Grand Empire: Spread of the Revolution 420 49. The Continental System: Britain and Europe 425 50. The National Movements and New Nationalist Cultures 431 51. The Overthrow of Napoleon: The Congress of Vienna 437

Chapter 11 INDUSTRIES, IDEAS, AND THE STRUGGLE FOR REFORM, 1815–1848 449 52. The Industrial Revolution in Britain 451 53. The Advent of the “ISMS” 460 54. The Leaking Dam and the Flood: Domestic 475 55. The Leaking Dam and the Flood: International 479 56. The Breakthrough of Liberalism in the West:

Revolutions of 1830–1832 487

57. Triumph of the West European Bourgeoisie 495

Chapter 12 REVOLUTIONS AND THE REIMPOSITION OF ORDER, 1848–1870 501 58. Paris: The Specter of Social Revolution in the West 502 59. Vienna: The Nationalist Revolutions in Central Europe

and Italy 508

60. Frankfurt and Berlin: The Question of a Liberal Germany 515 61. The New European “ISMS”: Realism, Positivism,

Marxism 520

62. Bonapartism: The Second French Empire, 1852–1870 530

Chapter 13 THE CONSOLIDATION OF LARGE NATION-STATES, 1859–1871 535 63. Backgrounds: The Idea of the Nation-State 536 64. Cavour and the Italian War of 1859: The Unifi cation

of Italy 539

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Contents xi

65. The Founding of a German Empire and the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary 544

66. Tsarist Russia: Social Change and the Limits of Political Reform 555

67. Nation-Building in the Wider Atlantic World: The United States and Canada 563

Chapter 14 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914: ECONOMY AND POLITICS 569 68. The Modern “Civilized World” 570 69. Basic Demography: The Increase of Europe’s Population 573 70. The World Economy of the Nineteenth Century 583 71. The Advance of Democracy: Third French Republic, United

Kingdom, German Empire 593

Chapter 15 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914: SOCIETY AND CULTURE 611 72. The Advance of Democracy: Socialism, Labor Unions, and

Feminism 612

73. Science, Philosophy, the Arts, and Religion 620 74. The Waning of Classical Liberalism 636

Chapter 16 EUROPE’S WORLD SUPREMACY, 1871–1914 643 75. Imperialism: Its Nature and Causes 645 76. The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 653 77. The Partition of Africa 662 78. Imperialism in Asia: The Dutch, the British, and the Russians 671 79. Imperialism in Asia: China and Europe 678 80. The Russo-Japanese War and Its Consequences 685

Chapter 17 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 689 81. The International Anarchy 689 82. The Armed Stalemate 699 83. The Collapse of Russia and the Intervention

of the United States 709

84. The Collapse of the Austrian and German Empires 714 85. The Economic, Social, and Cultural Impact of the War 716 86. The Peace of Paris, 1919 724

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Contentsxii

Chapter 18 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE SOVIET UNION 735 87. Backgrounds 737 88. The Revolution of 1905 744 89. The Revolution of 1917 749 90. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 758 91. Stalin: The Five-Year Plans and the Purges 765 92. The International Impact of Communism, 1919–1939 774

Chapter 19 DEMOCRACY, ANTI-IMPERIALISM, AND THE ECONOMIC CRISIS AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR 779 93. The Advance of Democracy after 1919 779 94. The German Republic and the Spirit of Locarno 784 95. Anti-Imperialist Movements in Asia 790 96. The Great Depression: Collapse of the World Economy 802

Chapter 20 DEMOCRACY AND DICTATORSHIP IN THE 1930S 811 97. Trials and Adjustments of Democracy in Britain and France 812 98. Italian Fascism 821 99. Totalitarianism: Germany’s Third Reich 827

Chapter 21 THE SECOND WORLD WAR 843 100. The Weakness of the Democracies: Again to War 844 101. The Years of Axis Triumph 853 102. The Western-Soviet Victory 861 103. The Foundations of the Peace 876

Chapter 22 THE COLD WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 883 104. The Cold War: The Opening Decade, 1945–1955 884 105. Western Europe: Economic Reconstruction 897 106. Western Europe: Political Reconstruction 901 107. Europe and the Global Economy 912 108. Communist Societies in the U.S.S.R.

and Eastern Europe 918

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Contents xiii

Chapter 23 DECOLONIZATION AND THE BREAKUP OF THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES 925 109. The Emergence of Independent Nations in South Asia and

Southeast Asia 927

110. The African Revolution 936 111. Europe and the Modern Middle East 947

Chapter 24 COEXISTENCE, CONFRONTATION, AND THE NEW EUROPEAN ECONOMY 959 112. Confrontation and Détente, 1955–1975 960 113. Collapse and Recovery of the European and Global Economy:

The 1970s and 1980s 970

114. The Cold War Rekindled and Defused 981

Chapter 25 THE INTERNATIONAL REVOLT AGAINST SOVIET COMMUNISM 987 115. The Crisis in the Soviet Union 988 116. The Collapse of Communism in Central and Eastern

Europe 992

117. The Collapse of the Soviet Union 1000 118. After Communism 1005

Chapter 26 EUROPE AND THE CHANGING MODERN WORLD 1019 119. Western Europe after the Cold War 1020 120. Nation-States and Economies in the Age of Globalization 1024 121. Intellectual and Social Transitions in Modern Cultures 1036 122. Europe and International Confl icts in the Early Twenty-First

Century 1058

123. Social and Environmental Challenges in the Twenty-First Century 1067

Appendix RULERS AND REGIMES A1

Index I1

Suggestions for Further Reading Online at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e

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xiv

The Parthenon 12

Ruins of the Roman Forum 14

Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus 15

St. Augustine 18

Hagia Sophia 22

Medieval Spanish Monastery 27

Medieval Peasant 31

Symbol of Florentine Wool Guild 35

The Meeting of St. Anthony and St. Paul by Sassetta 43

Thomas Aquinas by Fra Bartelemo 44

European Crusaders at Antioch 47

Religious Procession of Medieval Flagellants 54

Renaissance Italian Bankers 57

Renaissance Italian Wool Merchants 58

Procession of the Three Kings to Bethlehem by Benozzo Gozzoli 59

Lorenzo de’ Medici Examining a Model of His Villa 60

Portrait of a Condottiere by Giovanni Bellini 62

Detail from Zacharias in the Temple by Domenico Ghirlandaio 64

Portrait of a Family by Lavinia Fontana 66

Florentine Council Debating on War with Pisa by Giorgio Vasari 68

Niccoló Machiavelli 69

Erasmus of Rotterdam by Hans Holbein, the Younger 73

Interrogation of the Jews 78

Martin Luther and His Wife Catherine by Lucas Cranach, the Elder 81

Siege of Munster, Germany, in 1534 83

John Calvin 87

Queen Elizabeth I 90

Pierre de Moucheron and Family 92

St. Ignatius Loyola by Peter Paul Rubens 96

Detail from An Episode in the Conquest of America by Jan Mostaert 103

European Meeting with an African Council in Guinea 106

Slaves Processing Diamonds in Brazil 106

The Aztec Language in the Latin Alphabet 109

The Silver Mines at Potosí 110

Jakob Fugger by Albrecht Dürer 111

Study of Two Black Heads by Rembrandt van Rijn 112

The Four Estates of Society: Work by Jean Bourdichon 114

L i s t o f C h a p t e r I l l u s t r a t i o n s

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List of Chapter Illustrations xv

The Dutch East India Company Headquarters 117

Old Woman Cooking Eggs by Diego Valázquez 120

Monk Teaching Students at the University of Salamanca 122

King Philip II of Spain by Titian 126

The Spanish Armada 130

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre by François Dubois 136

“The Hanging Tree” [from] The Great Miseries of War by Jacques Callot 141

Masters of the Cloth Guild by Rembrandt Van Rijn 152

Portrait of the Artist with Isabelle Brandt by Peter Paul Rubens 153

Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window by Jan Vermeer 154

The Geographer by Jan Vermeer 156

William Shakespeare 159

The Execution of King Charles I 164

Woman Speaking at a Quaker Meeting 165

Molière Performing in “The School for Wives” by François Delpech 175

Inspiration of the Epic Poet by Nicolas Poussin 177

Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud 180

The Building of Versailles by Adam François van der Mueleh 182

View of the Château of Versailles by Pierre Denis Martin 182

Persecution of the Huguenots 186

The Battle of Blenheim 190

Peasant Family in a Room by Louis Le Nain 191

Count Stanislas Potocki by Jacques-Louis David 201

Suleiman the Magnifi cent 204

Turkish Siege of Vienna in 1683 208

Frederick William, the Great Elector 213

Prussian Army Uniforms 219

Stephen Razin as Painted by Surikov 223

Peter the Great 225

The Construction of St. Petersburg 228

Execution for Witchcraft in the Seventeenth Century 236

René Descartes by Frans Hals 239

A Scholar Holding a Thesis on Botany by Willem Moreelse 241

The Copernican Conception of the Solar System 243

Galileo and His Telescope 244

Founding of the Academy of Sciences and the Observatory in 1666 by Henri Testelin 249

Isaac Newton 250

Ambassadors from Siam at Versailles 253

Seventeenth-Century Library 256

Baruch Spinoza by Samuel Van Hoogstraten 260

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List of Chapter Illustrationsxvi

John Locke by John Greenhill 265

Gin Lane by William Hogarth 271

Café Frascati by Philibert-Louis Debucourt 271

A Carnival on the Feast Day of Saint George by Pieter Bruegel, the Younger 274

Women at Work in an Irish Cottage 276

Enslaved Workers on a Plantation in Barbados 282

The Duet by Arthur Devis 284

John Law, Wind Monopolist 289

M. Bachelier, Director of the Lyons Farms by Jean-Baptiste Oudry 292

Frederick the Great of Prussia as a Young Man 296

Maria Theresa and Her Family by Martin van Meytens 298

Schönbrunn Palace 300

The Battle of Quebec 304

A British Army Offi cer’s Wife in India 306

Reading at the Salon of Mme. de Geoffrin by Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier 315

Voltaire by Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 316

Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Allan Ramsay 321

The Parlement of Paris 330

Catherine the Great by Alexander Roslin 336

Emelian Pugachev in an Iron Cage 337

The Hon. Mrs. Graham by Thomas Gainsborough 347

Edmund Burke 349

Mrs. Isaac Smith by John Singleton Copley 354

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense 357

Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull 360

Eighteenth-Century French Peasants Working in Fields 365

Meeting of the French Estates General 372

The Tennis Court Oath by Jacques-Louis David 374

The Capture of the Bastille 376

Olympe de Gouges 377

A Woman of the Revolution by Jacques-Louis David 378

Frenchmen Creating a New Constitution 380

French Paper Money, the “Assignats” 382

The Festival of the Federation, 1790 384

Parisians Pulling Down a Statue of Louis XIV 392

The Battle of Fleurus 397

The Execution of Robespierre 398

Napoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis David 407

Toussaint L’Ouverture 413

Napoleon and Alexander I Meeting on the Niemen River 417

The Third of May 1808 by Francisco de Goya 419

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List of Chapter Illustrations xvii

Germaine de Staël by François Gérard 426

The Arch of Triumph in Paris 429

The Madeleine Church in Paris 430

Blowing Up the Corsican Bottle Conjurer 433

The French Army’s Retreat from Russia 440

The Congress of Vienna 443

English Cotton Mill 453

Early Train in Nineteenth-Century England 456

The British Houses of Parliament 464

Mary Wollstonecraft 467

Saint-Simonian Feminist by Malreuve 469

Caricature of George Sand by Alcide Lorentz 471

Coronation of Charles X in Reims 477

German Students at a Festival in 1817 479

The “Peterloo Massacre” by Cruikshank 480

Simón Bolívar 485

Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix 490

Big Investments by Honoré Daumier 497

The London Police 500

Parisian Crowd in the Revolution of 1848 504

Crowds in the Streets of Vienna in 1848 510

Joseph Mazzini 515

The Frankfurt Assembly in 1848 519

A Burial at Ornans by Gustave Courbet 524

Workers in Manchester during the 1840s 525

Karl Marx 528

Construction Workers and the Rebuilding of Paris 533

Florence Nightingale at a Military Hospital in Crimea 539

Giuseppe Garibaldi 544

Otto von Bismarck 547

Battle of Sedan in 1870 551

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles by Anton von Werner 553

The Arrival of the Bride by Miklos Barabas 555

Russian Peasants in the Late Nineteenth Century 561

Emancipated Ex-Slaves in the American South during the Civil War 564

Train in the Snow by Claude Monet 572

The Gleaners by Jean-François Millet 577

Victorian-Era English Family 578

Immigrant Family Arriving in New York 582

Steel Factory in Late Nineteenth-Century Britain 585

Classic Landscape by Charles Sheeler 587

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List of Chapter Illustrationsxviii

Workers Transporting Tea in India 592

The Bon Marché Department Store in Paris 595

Supporters of the Paris Commune in 1871 597

Captain Alfred Dreyfus in the 1890s 598

Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by Georges Seurat 603

British Coal Miners in the Early Twentieth Century 604

Cartoon Portrayal of Kaiser William II’s Removal of Bismarck by John Tenniel 608

Illustration of British Miners Voting to Strike 614

Emmeline Pankhurst 619

Women Demanding Equal Voting Rights in Britain 619

Charles Darwin 621

Sigmund Freud 625

Albert Einstein 626

Ia Orana Maria by Paul Gauguin 628

Cathedral at Rouen by Claude Monet 629

Young Girl Boating by Berthe Morisot 630

The Boating Party by Mary Cassatt 631

Self-Portrait with Beret by Paul Cezanne 632

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon by Pablo Picasso 633

Theodor Herzl 636

John Stuart Mill 637

Coal Miners in France 641

Railroad Locomotive Arriving in Central India 647

British Missionary and Africans Making Bread 649

British Offi cials with Indian Servants in India 652

Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II 657

British Ship in the Suez Canal 660

Workers in the Congo Harvesting Rubber for Export 665

Workers Building a Gold Mine in Southern Africa 668

British Soldiers in South Africa during the Boer War 671

The Sepoy Rebellion in India 674

Jawaharlal Nehru 675

The Boxer Uprising in China 684

Japanese Troops at Battle of Mukden in Russo-Japanese War of 1905 686

Kaiser William II in Morocco in 1905 694

Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria with Catholic Leaders in Sarajevo 697

German Soldiers at the Berlin Railway Station in 1914 701

French Departure Trench on the Western Front 702

Soldiers on the Battlefi eld at Passchendaele in 1917 703

British Front in Flanders in 1917 704

T. E. Lawrence with Prince Faisal at Versailles 707

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List of Chapter Illustrations xix

American Soldiers in France in 1917 714

German Women Working in an Armaments Factory during the First World War 718

Austrian and French Wartime Propaganda Posters 720

Wilfred Owen 721

Leaders of the Allied Powers at the Versailles Peace Conference 729

Russian Peasants Harvesting Hay 740

Lenin Addressing a Crowd 743

Protest March in St. Petersburg in 1905 746

Tsar Nicholas II and His Family 750

Rasputin 750

Demonstration in St. Petersburg in 1917 752

Leon Trotsky 756

Red Army Artillery Battalion 757

Soviet Political Poster 759

Farmers in the Soviet Union Using New Tractors 768

Soviet Automobile Factory with Portrait of Stalin 772

Soviet Propaganda Poster of Stalin by Konstantin Ivanov 773

Lenin at Meeting of Third International in 1920 776

Poster Urging American Women to Use Their New Right to Vote 781

Outdoor Cafe and Park in Vienna 783

Crowd Burning Spartacist Publications in Berlin 786

German Merchants Calculating Daily Sales 789

Greek Muslim Refugees in Turkey in 1923 794

Mustapha Kemal Atatürk Dancing at His Daughter’s Wedding 796

Mohandas Gandhi and Other Indian Nationalists at a Protest March 799

Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai on the “Long March” 802

Crowd at a London Cinema 804

British “Hunger March” in 1935 807

Autour d’Elle by Marc Chagall 809

British Marchers in General Strike of 1926 in London 813

British Army Troops in Dublin 817

French Workers at a Subway Construction Site 818

French Premier Léon Blum Addressing Supporters of the Popular Front 819

Fascists in “March on Rome” in October 1922 823

Benito Mussolini Speaking at an Italian Fascist Rally 824

Italian Woman at a Fascist Rally 826

Hitler with Supporters at the Time of the “Beer Hall Putsch ” 828

Nazi Military Parade in Nuremburg 830

Damage to Jewish Shops after Kristallnacht in Berlin 832

Nazi Image of the “New People” 838

Saluting Adolf Hitler at a Nazi Rally in Nuremberg 839

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List of Chapter Illustrationsxx

Hitler Entering Vienna in 1938 after the Anschluss 846

Anti-Fascist Rally in Spain 848

Guernica by Pablo Picasso 849

Sudetens Welcoming Arrival of German Troops in 1938 851

German Troops Entering a Polish Village in 1939 854

German Soldiers Marching through the Arc de Triomphe in Paris 857

Russian Casualties on Eastern Front in Early 1942 860

British Women in the Auxiliary Territorial Service 863

Urban Desolation during the Battle of Stalingrad 865

Survivors Liberated from the Concentration Camp at Buchenwald 871

A Nazi Concentration Camp in 1945 874

Hiroshima, Devastation after the Atomic Bomb 875

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta 879

The Survivor by George Grosz 880

Filipino Representative Pedro Lopez Addressing the United Nations 886

Churchill Giving a Speech Describing the New Iron Curtain across Eastern Europe 888

The Berlin Airlift 891

Children Near a Tank during the Korean War 896

Women at Work in a British Television Factory 900

French Kindergarten in 1950 904

Students and Police Clash in Paris in May 1968 907

Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer 910

High-Speed Train in Japan 913

The London Stock Exchange 917

Nikita Khrushchev with President Eisenhower and Vice President Nixon 920

Protesters in Budapest Burn Pictures of Joseph Stalin in 1956 924

Presentation of Flag on India Independence Day 927

Refugees Fleeing from West Pakistan in 1947 930

British High Commissioner MacGillivray leaving Kuala Lumpur in 1957 932

Independence Day Parade in Kuala Lumpur 932

Indonesian President Sukarno at Bandung in 1955 934

French Soldiers after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 935

French Soldiers in the Streets of Oran, Algeria 940

Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana 941

Refugees from Uganda Arriving in London in 1972 943

David Ben-Gurion, the First Prime Minister of Israel 949

Palestinians in a Refugee Camp in 1956 950

British Soldiers in Suez in 1956 952

Iranian Women Wielding Guns after the Iranian Revolution 956

Construction of the Berlin Wall 964

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List of Chapter Illustrations xxi

Protest against the Vietnam War in Britain 966

Citizens of Prague Destroy a Soviet Tank 968

Protest by French Newspaper Workers 971

Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher 973

French Workers Protesting Conditions at an Auto Factory 976

Helmut Kohl in Strasbourg 978

French Voter at the Time of the Referendum on Maastricht Treaty 980

German Protest against New Missile Deployments 985

Mikhail Gorbachev Meets with Potato Farmers Near Moscow 991

Supporters of the Solidarity Movement in Warsaw 995

Alexander Dubcek, Vaclav Havel, and Marta Kubisova 997

Destruction of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 998

Boris Yeltsin Waves to Supporters outside the Parliament Building in Moscow 1004

People Forced to Flee Violence in Chechen City of Grozny 1009

Muslims Mourning the Victims of “Ethnic Cleansing” in Sarajevo Cemetery 1014

People in Belgrade Demand the Resignation of President Slobodan Milosevic 1017

Multicultural School in Contemporary London 1022

Ségolène Royal and Angela Merkel 1026

Dutch Soccer Team at Euro Cup Competition in 2008 1032

President of European Commission Addressing European Parliament in Brussels 1033

Students at University Computer Center Working in “Virtual Library” 1035

French and Russian Astronauts 1041

Jean-Paul Sartre 1042

Fabulous Race-Track of Death by Matta 1045

Family Life by Jean Dubuffet 1046

Mother and Child by Henry Moore 1047

Pope John Paul II in Poland 1050

Mosque in Duisburg, Germany 1053

Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones in Los Angeles 1054

Simone de Beauvoir 1056

Supporters of Same-Sex Marriage in Spain 1057

Wheel Man by Ernest Trova 1061

Barack Obama in Prague 1063

World Trade Center Towers after Crash of Second Aircraft 1064

German Soldiers in Afghanistan 1068

British Troops in Iraq 1069

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xxii

Chronologies Notable Events, 500 B.C.E.–1300 C.E. 39

Notable Events, 1309–1555 84

Notable Events, 1492–1648 131

Notable Events, 1642–1713 172

Notable Events, 1640–1740 221

Notable Events, 1543–1697 258

Notable Events, 1619–1763 301

Notable Events, 1733–1795 350

Notable Events, 1789–1804 403

Notable Events, 1799–1815 436

Notable Events, 1780–1869 494

Notable Events, 1848–1857 521

Notable Events, 1854–1871 563

Notable Events, 1850–1914 605

Notable Events, 1859–1920 639

Notable Events, 1850–1906 682

Notable Events, 1879–1920 725

Notable Events, 1894–1937 770

Notable Events, 1911–1935 803

Notable Events, 1922–1938 837

Notable Events, 1935–1945 876

Notable Events, 1945–1962 919

Notable Events, 1946–1979 948

Notable Events, 1957–1995 979

Notable Events, 1980–2012 1011

Notable Events, 1949–2011 1060

Historical Interpretations and Debates Europe and the Americas 107

The Meaning of the English Revolution 169

Continuity and Discontinuity in the Scientifi c Revolution 246

Social Institutions and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment 322

The Political and Social Signifi cance of the French Revolution 399

Women and the Industrial Revolution 459

The Roots of Modern Nationalism 540

The Rationales and Paradoxes of Modern European Imperialism 654

L i s t o f C h r o n o l o g i e s , H i s t o r i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d D e b a t e s , M a p s , C h a r t s , a n d T a b l e s

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List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tables xxiii

Cultural Responses to the First World War 722

Women in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany 834

The Nature and Legacy of the Cold War 982

Maps, Charts, and Tables Europe: Physical 4–5

The Mediterranean World about 400, 800, and 1250 C.E. 25

Crusading Activity, 1100–1259 45

Estimated Population of Europe, 1200–1550 51

Europe, 1526 79

State Religions in Europe about 1560 89

European Discoveries, 1450–1600 101

The Low Countries, 1648 129

Europe, 1648 144–145

The Expansion of France, 1661–1713 149

England in the Seventeenth Century 170

France from the Last Years of Louis XIV to the Revolution of 1789 184

The Atlantic World after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 192

Central and Eastern Europe, 1660–1795 199

Aging Empires and New Powers 200

The Growth of the Austrian Monarchy, 1521–1772 209

The Growth of Prussia, 1415–1918 214–215

The Growth of Russia in the West 230–231

The Growth of Geographical Knowledge 255

The World in 1763 307

Europe, 1740 327

Poland since the Eighteenth Century 342

The French Republic and Its Satellites, 1798–1799 404

Napoleonic Europe, 1810 423

Napoleonic Germany 425

Europe, 1815 446

Britain before and after the Industrial Revolution 457

The Industrial Revolution in Britain (as Shown by Sources of Income) 462

Languages of Europe 473

European Revolutions, 1848 512

Nation-Building, 1859–1867 543

The German Question, 1815–1871 549

Europe, 1871 558–559

Estimated Population of the World by Continental Areas 574

Emigration from Europe, 1850–1940 579

Immigration into Various Countries, 1850–1940 580

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List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tablesxxiv

Migration from Europe, 1850–1940 581

Export of European Capital to 1914 590

The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1699–1914 661

Precolonial Africa: Sites and Peoples 667

Africa, 1914 670

Imperialism in Asia, 1840–1914 676–677

“The British Lake,” 1918 679

Northeast China and Adjoining Regions in the Era of Imperialism 683

Anglo-German Industrial Competition, 1898 and 1913 693

The Balkans, 1878 and 1914 698

The First World War 700

Europe, 1923 730–731

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1922–1991 762–763

Europe, 1942 864

The Second World War 868–869

The Holocaust 870

Deportation and Settlement, 1939–1950 892–893

Germany and Its Borders, 1919–1990 909

The Indian Subcontinent, 2000 931

Contemporary Africa 938

The Modern Arab World 946

Israel and Adjoining Regions after the Era of the British Mandate 954–955

The World about 1970 962–963

Vietnam and Its Neighbors after the Era of French Colonialism, Showing Boundaries in 1970 967

Russian Federation in 2000 1008

Nationalities in Central and Eastern Europe at the End of the Twentieth Century 1013

The Global Population Explosion 1070

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xxv

Dramatic events in the contemporary world—wars, revolutions, political upheavals, ter- rorist attacks, catastrophic natural disasters, economic crises, and the endless stream of daily news—often obscure the long-developing historical processes that have created the societies in which we live and the current problems with which we have to cope. The mass media pay little attention to the broader historical patterns and contexts that shape the deeper meaning of swiftly moving public events and private lives. This new edition of this book, which has been retitled A History of Europe in the Modern World, may therefore be seen as the newest version of an ongoing search for historical perspectives on the complex, often bewildering, events of our own era. The book’s new title, which adds the words “Europe in” to the concise phrase that has entitled every previous edition, acknowledges the fact that even a long book cannot adequately describe historical events in the entire “modern world.” At the same time, however, this slight change in a familiar title refl ects other revisions in a new edition that focuses more specifi cally on the history of Europe, while also emphasizing that modern European history has always evolved through interac- tions and exchanges with the wider world.

It is impossible to understand European history without placing it “in the modern world, ” just as it is impossible to understand the modern world without knowing the his- tory of Europe. This book thus carries the guiding assumption that events and ideas in modern European societies have often infl uenced people in every part of the world, but that Europeans have also been constantly infl uenced by their encounters with other peoples and cultures. More generally, the themes of this book build on the presupposition that con- temporary events and confl icts are deeply connected to the diverse cultures, institutions, social systems, economic exchanges, power struggles, empires, and ideas of earlier eras in human history. Nobody can truly understand present times, in short, without studying the past; and in modern times the history of Europe has often entered (for better or for worse) into the history of almost the whole world.

The multiple levels of human history and cross-cultural exchanges have created modern societies that both resemble and differ from the “modernity” that has evolved in Europe since about the fi fteenth century. This book thus describes the main features of this dynamic modern history by examining specifi c nations and landmark events, such as great revolutions, economic transitions, and changing cultural beliefs; but it also emphasizes broad historical and social trends that have developed beneath the most prominent events, gradually creating what we now call “the modern world.” Although the following narra- tive explores the rise of nation-states and the confl icts that have reshaped modern societies over the last several centuries, it links such public events to the wider historical infl uence of the global economy, the development of science, technology, and new forms of knowl- edge, the rise of industry, the signifi cance of religious and philosophical beliefs, the origin and diffusion of new political ideas, the changing mores of family and social life, the evolving views of human rights, and the complex relations between European cultures and other cultures around the world.

The term modern, as it is used in this book, refers to a phase of human history that began about fi ve or six centuries ago and steadily transformed both the material conditions

P r e f a c e

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Prefacexxvi

of human societies and the meaning of individual identities or selfhood. “Modern” ways of life have developed in diverse historical contexts, and they are now evolving more rapidly and in more places than ever before. This book affi rms that every culture and historical era have made important contributions to the collective history of human beings, but it focuses primarily on developments in Europe, even as it traces the growing European involve- ments with other peoples, economies, and political systems far beyond the relatively small continent of Europe itself. The narrative stresses the infl uence of European societies on the emergence of “modern” institutions and social practices, yet it also notes the worldwide exchanges that have contributed to the increasingly global culture of the contemporary era. Europeans were never the only infl uential “actors” in the global creation of moder- nity, but they were often present wherever the transitions to modernity were taking place. These historical transitions generated violence and oppression and political confl icts as well as social, cultural, and economic progress; and it is the combined effects of these modern developments on all human lives (and the natural environment) that provide the essential rationale for historical studies and for this new edition of A History of Europe in the Modern World.

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK: CHANGES AND CONTINUITIES As in the past, the book is organized in chapters that carry the narrative across specifi c chronological eras, moving steadily toward the present. Yet the clearly defi ned and num- bered sections within each chapter often deal with themes, events, or issues that do not develop in simple chronological order. Each chapter focuses on a specifi c time frame but also on themes and problems of continuing historical importance. The chronological organization gives readers a broad historical framework and provides opportunities for further analysis and discussion of specifi c historical themes or problems— discussions that can draw, for example, on the Suggestions for Further Reading and other materials that can be found on the companion Online Learning Center Web site ( www.mhhe.com/ palmerhistory11e ), which includes an Interactive Glossary.

Although the history of political systems, state power, revolutions, and international confl icts remains important, some details of national political history have been reduced in this new edition, and whole sections on China, Japan, Africa, and the Americas have been removed. These changes provide a sharper analytical focus on Europe, shorten the text, and align the book more closely with contemporary survey courses. This book goes beyond a “textbook summary” of information by providing analytical themes to engage both nonacademic readers and students who seek broad perspectives on more specifi c kinds of historical scholarship. The narrative therefore explains major events and also draws on the work of recent social, cultural, and intellectual historians who have con- tributed important new insights to modern historical studies. There are discussions of the evolving roles of women in various historical contexts; descriptions of cultural movements and intellectual debates from the early modern to the contemporary period; and new analy- sis of the political, economic, and cultural interactions that took place in European empires and in the anticolonial movements that ultimately brought about the dissolution of imperial systems. Chapters on the breakup of European empires, however, have been shortened and consolidated to emphasize the interactions between Europeans and other peoples around the world.

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Preface xxvii

Another important new feature in this edition appears in a series of brief excerpts from the writings of historians who have helped to shape the modern interpretations of notable historical events. Historical knowledge is never simply fi xed or fi nal, because historians constantly fi nd new sources to analyze; or they develop new perspectives to explain long- known persons and confl icts; or they draw new comparisons between events and problems in different cultures and historical eras. This new edition thus includes an introduction to exemplary “Historical Interpretations and Debates,” thereby giving readers concise sum- maries and comparisons of diverse perspectives on past cultures and events. The excerpts that express key themes in these debates come from a wide range of works, including both “classic” historical studies and recent reinterpretations. The purpose of the excerpts is to introduce readers to infl uential debates about key issues and to show how historians develop or revise their analytical themes. Well-informed historical thinking requires both knowledge about past events and the critical evaluation of divergent historical interpreta- tions. The themes of the various debates therefore provide an additional “entry” into the multiple spheres of historical thought and into the constant expansion and revision of his- torical knowledge.

This book describes major events such as the religious wars of earlier centuries, the Scientifi c Revolution, the French and Russian Revolutions, the Industrial Revolution, the development of European imperialism, the twentieth-century world wars and globaliz- ing economy, the spread of democracy and the challenges it has faced, the collapse of European-dominated empires, the continuing search for an international order, and the emergence of the European Union. All of these broad developments are analyzed with references to specifi c examples or people, and there are transnational comparisons in the discussion of every historical era.

The visual components have been revised to include new images and illustrations, especially in the later chapters on contemporary European history. Like other kinds of sources, the images and artwork from past cultures provide important historical informa- tion. Knowing how to “read” and critically evaluate illustrations, paintings, and photo- graphs is essential for analytical thought and for cross-cultural comparisons. The brief captions that accompany the illustrations thus connect the visual themes to the book’s historical narrative and interpretations. Other key features of the new edition include new, easier-to-read maps, which are presented in new colors. The maps and charts show the changing boundaries, populations, and economies of different regions or nations as they have changed across the centuries; and each chapter includes a chronological timeline that summarizes the most notable events. The revised entries in the comprehensive Sugges- tions for Further Reading, long a valued feature of this book, provide up-to-date listings of useful Web sites as well as the titles of signifi cant new scholarly publications on specifi c national histories and the themes of transnational historical research. For this edition, the Suggestions for Further Reading can be found on the Online Learning Center at www. mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e.

The changes in A History of Europe in the Modern World have been introduced to make this new edition more accessible and to tighten its analytical focus, but not to weaken the prose style, content, or analytical qualities that have long appealed to both teachers and students of European history. Readers will therefore fi nd that the book reaffi rms a strong belief in the value of historical knowledge and historical perspectives for anyone who wishes to live a well-informed and engaged life in the changing modern world. It achieves its purpose whenever it gives readers new insights into the meanings of European

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Prefacexxviii

or modern history and whenever it helps readers gain new perspectives on their own lives, cultures, and social experiences.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR THE INSTRUCTOR Instructor’s Manual/Test Bank The fi rst half of this unique manual offers a chapter- by-chapter guide to some of the best documentaries, educational and feature fi lms, videos, and audio recordings to enhance classroom discussion. Brief overviews help instructors select the fi lms best suited to each course topic. The manual also provides instructors with chapter objectives and points for discussion for each chapter, followed by a test bank con- taining multiple-choice, essay, and identifi cation test questions.

Instructor Online Learning Center Web Site ( www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e ) At the home page for this text-specifi c Web site, instructors will fi nd a downloadable ver- sion of the Instructor’s Manual. Instructors can also create an interactive course syllabus using McGraw-Hill’s PageOut site. Suggestions for Further Reading are also included in the Online Learning Center for this edition.

PageOut ( www.mhhe.com/pageout ) On the PageOut Web site instructors can cre- ate their own course Web sites. PageOut requires no prior knowledge of HTML, no long hours of coding, and no design skills on the instructor’s part. Instructors need simply to plug the course information into a template and click on one of the 16 designs. The process takes little time and creates a professionally designed Web site. Powerful features include an interactive course syllabus that lets instructors post content and links, an online grade- book, lecture notes, bookmarks, and a discussion board where instructors and students can discuss course-related topics.

Videos A wide range of videos on classic and contemporary topics in history is available through the Films for the Humanities and Sciences collection. Instructors can illustrate and enhance lectures by selecting from a series of videos correlated to the course. Contact your local McGraw-Hill sales representative for further information.

SUPPLEMENTS FOR THE STUDENT Student Online Learning Center Web Site ( www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e ) At this text-specifi c Web site, students can link to an Interactive Glossary, an important learning tool for students that complements the terms and topics highlighted in the margins of the textbook. A number of other resources are also available, including Suggestions for Fur- ther Reading and useful Web sites.

PowerWeb PowerWeb for World History gives students password-protected, course- specifi c articles with assessments from current research journals and popular press articles, refereed and selected by World History instructors, and especially useful for materials that go beyond the scope of this book.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is a pleasure to acknowledge the contributions and assistance of the many people who have worked on the production of this book. Special appreciation goes to the editors and staff of McGraw-Hill, Inc., which has published this book since its seventh edi- tion. Publishing expertise and essential support at McGraw-Hill have been provided by numerous talented people, including Penina Braffman, Erin Melloy, Lisa Brufl odt, Lisa

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Preface xxix

Pinto, Alexandra Schultz, Adina Lonn, and Matthew Busbridge. Erin Guendelsberger and Kala Ramachandran managed editorial details with effi ciency and wide-ranging skills; and Mickey Cox brought valuable insights to each phase of the planning for this revised edition. David Tietz helped to collect new illustrations, and Rachel Olsen and Diana Chase assisted in organizing manuscript materials. Equally important, Maximil- ian Owre, an historian of modern Europe and the associate director of the Program in the Humanities and Human Values at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, contributed his knowledge and careful research to the updated Suggestions for Further Reading and the summaries of useful Web sites, which appear for this edition in the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e.

This new edition has also benefi ted from the expert advice of reviewers who offered ideas for revisions and for new features to improve the book. Insightful comments came from Marc Baer, Hope College; Catherine Graney, Bergen Community College; Mary R. O’Neil, University of Washington; David J. Proctor, Tufts University; Leonard N. Rosenband, Utah State University; Barbara Syrrakos, The City College, City University of New York; and Brian Weiser, Metropolitan State University of Denver. None of these individuals are responsible for any of the book’s shortcomings, but all have added to its strengths. Other colleagues, teachers, and family members provided valuable assistance and advice in numerous discussions about the book; and a particular “thank you” goes to Gwynne Pomeroy for her exceptional role in facilitating the work on every aspect of this new edition.

Finally, I deeply regret that the revisions for the latest edition of this book have been developed without the insights of my two deceased colleagues and co-authors, R. R. Palmer and Joel Colton. The distinguished historical works of both Professor Palmer (who died in 2002) and Professor Colton (who died in 2011) have long attracted wide attention on both sides of the Atlantic, partly because of their remarkable knowledge of modern events and partly because of their exceptional ability to write clear, analytical prose about the diverse historical issues that they examined. Their long collaboration on this narrative, which until this edition was always entitled A History of the Modern World, became an outstanding example of how intellectual partnerships can enhance historical knowledge, expand historical perspectives, and connect the history of specifi c confl icts or people with the broadest historical developments of modern times. In revising this new edi- tion of a book that has often been known as simply Palmer-Colton, I have sought always to build on the high quality of their previous work, even as I changed the structure or content of various chapters and also introduced new perspectives, sources, and images. I learned from each of these historians about the nature of intellectual work, academic friendships, and human communities; and my many conversations with Joel Colton in recent years deeply enriched my personal life as well as my understanding of the past. This book thus continues to convey the far-reaching intellect and insights of Professors Palmer and Colton in a narrative that has been updated to include changing themes in modern historical schol- arship and changing perspectives on modern European history.

Lloyd Kramer

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1

History is the experience of human beings in time, but that experience takes place also in geographic space. Geography describes and maps the earth, but geographers also study the cultural practices that shape human interactions with the environments in which they live.

The universe, of which our planet earth and our solar system form but a small part, is now thought to be at least 12 billion years old. Most scientists believe the earth is about 4.6 billion years old. Yet the entire history (and prehistory) of humankind goes back only 3.5 to 5 million years, or perhaps only 2 million years, depending on how humans are defi ned. What we call history—the recorded cultures and actions of human beings—began with the invention of early forms of writing only about 5,500 years ago.

Oceans and continents have moved about over time, changing in size, shape, and loca- tion. The continents as we know them took on their distinctive forms less than 100 million years ago. Dinosaurs, which became extinct some 60 million years before the fi rst humans even emerged, could walk from North America to Europe (as we now call these continents) on solid land in a warm climate. It is only a few thousand years since the end of the most recent glacial age. That Ice Age, which began about 2 million years ago and reached its coldest point only 20,000 years ago, was caused by a slight shift in the earth’s orbit around the sun. Water froze into ice 1–2 inches thick and covered the northern parts of the planet (in North America as far south as present-day Chicago and in Europe across large parts of the British Isles and the nearby mainland). The melting of this ice produced the coastlines, offshore islands, inland seas, straits, bays, and harbors that we know today, as well as some of the large river sys- tems and lakes. The process of change in the earth’s surface continues. Niagara Falls, on the border between the United States and Canada, has been receding because the ongoing cascade of water erodes the underlying rock. The ocean’s tides and human construction erode our shorelines as well, and most scientists believe current patterns of global warm- ing will gradually change the oceans and coasts in much of the world.

Oceans presently cover more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface, and many large land areas in the remaining third are poorly suited for habitation by human beings or most other animal and plant organisms. One-tenth of the land remains under ice, as in Antarctica and Greenland; much is tundra; much is desert, as in the Sahara; and much land lies along the windswept ridges of high mountains. Like the oceans, these regions have been important in human history, often acting as barriers to movement and settlement. Human history has therefore evolved in relatively small, scattered sections of the earth’s total surface.

Researchers have found persuasive material evidence to show that human beings originated in Africa. Humans belonging to the species Homo erectus, the Latin term used by anthropologists and others to denote the upright, walking predecessors of modern humans, seem to have migrated from Africa about 1.8 million years ago, perhaps because of environmental pressures or perhaps because of simple curiosity. Our own species Homo sapiens, the Latin term con- noting increased cognitive and judgmental abilities, emerged about 150,000 years ago. When humans went beyond merely utilitarian accomplishments and demonstrated aesthetic and artistic interests as well as advanced toolmaking (about 35,000 years ago), we refer to

Ice Age

Origins of human beings

G e o g r a p h y a n d H i s t o r y

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Geography and History2

them as the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens. They were the remaining survivors of a very complex human family tree.

The great Ice Age lowered the seas by hundreds of feet and froze huge quantities of water. The English Channel became dry. Land bridges opened up between Siberia and North America over what we now call the Bering Strait. Hunters seeking game walked from one continent to the other. When the glaciers melted, forests sprang up, and many of the open areas in which humans had hunted disappeared, providing added motivation for movement.

Our human ancestors spread eventually to every continent except Antarctica. In doing so, human groups became isolated from each other for millennia, separated by oceans, deserts, or mountains. Wherever they wandered, they evolved slightly over time, develop-

ing superfi cial physical differences that modern cultures have defi ned as the characteristics of various racial groups. But “race” is a cultural idea rather than a mark of biologically signifi cant differences. All human beings belong to the Homo sapiens species, all derive from the same biological ancestry, and all are mutually fertile. Only a very few human genes are

responsible for physical differences such as skin pigmentation, in comparison to the vast number of genes that are shared by all members of the human species.

The basic anatomy and genetic makeup of modern humans has not changed over the last 100,000 years. Geographic separation accounts for the emergence over shorter time periods of distinctive cultures, which can be seen, for example, in the different historical and cultural development of the pre-Columbian Americas, Africa, China, India, the Middle East, and

Europe. On a still smaller time scale, geographic separation also explains differences in languages and dialects.

Geographic distances and diversity of climate have also produced differences in fl ora and fauna, and hence in the plants and animals upon which humans depend. Wheat became the most common cereal in the Middle East and Europe, millet and rice in East Asia, sor- ghum in tropical Africa, maize in pre-Columbian America. The horse, fi rst domesticated in north-central Asia about 4,500 years ago, was for centuries a mainstay of Europe and Asia for muscle power, transportation, and fi ghting. The somewhat less versatile camel was adopted later and more slowly in the Middle East, and the Americans long had no beasts of burden except the llama. Such differences did not begin to diminish until early modern travelers crossed the oceans, taking plants and animals with them and bringing others back to environments where they had never lived before.

Although much remains obscure about the origins of life, and new discoveries and calculations are always displacing older hypotheses, paleontologists studying plant and animal fossils (including human ones) have used techniques such as radiocarbon dating to transform our knowledge of the earth and of the earliest human beings. In geography, aerial and satellite photography and computer technology have enabled us to refi ne older conceptions of continents and oceans. And astrophysicists are now studying vast amounts of new data about the universe, which have been sent to them from powerful telescopes mounted on unmanned spaceships.

Cartography, the art and science of mapmaking, has evolved rapidly, but we tend to forget how our maps often remain conventional and even parochial. It was Europeans and descendants of Europeans who designed our most commonly used maps, which are oriented North-South and West-East from fi xed points in their horizons, and which therefore refl ect their own European cultural assumptions. Similar biases can be found in the maps of other

Race: a cultural concept

Geography and culture

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Geography and History 3

cultures too. The Chinese for centuries defi ned and visualized their country as the “Middle Kingdom.” In the early modern centuries maps drawn in India typically represented South Asia as forming the major part of the world. One such map depicted the European continent as a few marginal areas labeled England, France, and “other hat-wearing islands.”

Changing conceptualizations of the globe continue in our day. A map drawn and published in contemporary Australia, demonstrating the Australian perspective from “down under,” shows South Africa at the top of the map and Capetown at the very tip, the large expanse of contemporary African nations in the middle, and the various European countries crowded at the bottom, the latter appearing quite insignifi cant. The European- invented term “Middle East” has been called into question, and this region of the world is perhaps better designated as Western Asia. Even the traditional concept of Europe as one of the seven continents (Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia, and Antarctica) is now questioned. Why, for example, should the Indian peninsula be a “subcontinent” when it roughly matches the size and exceeds the population and diversity of the European “continent” (at least that part of the “continent” that lies west of the for- mer Soviet Union)? Europe itself is, of course, actually a peninsula, in a way that the other continents are not. Some geographers ask us to consider it more properly as part of Asia, the western part of a great “Eurasian landmass.” Defi ned in these terms, Europe becomes more of a cultural conception, arising out of perceived differences from Asia and Africa, than a continent in a strictly geographical sense.

Europe’s Infl uence on Modern History

However we defi ne its place on the globe, Europe has undoubtedly shaped much of mod- ern world history—partly because of its overseas expansion, partly because of what it borrowed from other parts of the world, and partly because of its deci- sive economic and cultural infl uence on the emergence of an increasingly global civilization. Europe is of course only one of many important cultural spheres in human history. Its economy, political systems, religious tradi- tions, and social institutions are not the sole historical path to modernity; indeed, people in other regions of the world have often challenged or rejected European forms of “modern- ization” as they have built their own modern societies. Yet even the critique or rejection of European institutions has usually required historical analysis of Europe’s development and role in the world. Much of the modern global economy, for example, emerged in the international trade that Europe’s imperial powers controlled and expanded after the sixteenth century. European political ideas, science, philosophy, cultural mores, and people also spread widely across the world, contributing to both the constructive and destructive patterns of modern political, social, and cultural life. Ideas and people have meanwhile fl owed constantly into Europe from other parts of the world, so that European societies remain a vital center for cross-cultural exchanges and confl icts.

It is possible to narrate a “history of the modern world” from widely diverging per- spectives and with an emphasis on quite different historical themes. This book, however, begins with the recognition that Europe developed and promoted many of the distinc- tive “modern” ideas and institutions that have now evolved in various forms throughout the contemporary world. Historical understanding of modernity must therefore include a comprehensive analysis of Europe—though an accurate history of the modern world must also insist that Europe represents only one of the diverse, complex cultures that continue to shape modern global history. The title of this book’s new edition has thus been changed

Europe and history

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Geography and History4

PYRENEES

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Geography and History 5

0 100 200 300 miles

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Geography and History6

to convey the historical themes and limits of Europe’s role in the modern world. Europe has long developed distinctive cultural traditions and institutions, but its modern identity as a specifi c civilization has always evolved through interactions with people and cultures in other places around the globe.

Europe exemplifi es the perennial interactions between human activity and the natural environment, and the study of its historical evolution should begin with some attention to its geography. The accompanying topographical map shows the main physical features of Europe and its surrounding geographical space. This topography has remained virtually unchanged over historic time, despite the constant political and cultural transformations in European societies. Europe is not large. Even with European Russia, it contains hardly more than 6 percent of the earth’s land surface, occupying about the same area as the United States mainland plus Alaska. It is only a little larger than Australia. It is physically separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea, although the Mediterranean historically has been as much a passageway as a barrier. A truer barrier emerged when the Sahara Desert dried up only a few thousand years ago, which suggests why northern Africa has often been as con- nected to southern Europe, or culturally to the Middle East, as to sub-Saharan Africa. The physical separation of Europe from Asia is even less clear. The conventional boundary has been the Ural Mountains in Russia, but they are a low and wide chain that does not stretch far enough to make an adequate boundary. The Russians themselves do not recognize any offi cial distinction between European and Asian Russia.

Europe is indeed one of several peninsulas jutting off from Asia, like the Arabian and Indian peninsulas. But there are differences. For one thing, the Mediterranean Sea is unique among the world’s bodies of water. Closed in by the Strait of Gibraltar, which is only 8 miles wide, it is more shielded than other seas from the open ocean and is protected from the most violent

ocean storms. Though over 2,000 miles long, it is subdivided by islands and peninsulas into lesser seas with identities of their own, such as the Aegean and the Adriatic, and it provides access also to the Black Sea. Because it is possible to travel great distances with- out being far from land, navigation developed on the Mediterranean from early times, and one of the fi rst civilizations appeared on the island of Crete. It is possible also to cross between Europe and Asia at the Bosporus and between Europe and Africa at Gibraltar. Populations and cultures became mixed by migration, and various historic empires—the Carthaginian, Roman, Byzantine, Arabic, Spanish, Venetian, and Ottoman—have effec- tively used the Mediterranean to govern their component parts. After the Suez Canal was built in the nineteenth century, the Mediterranean became an important segment in the “lifeline of empire” for the British Empire in its heyday.

In southern Europe, north of the Mediterranean and running for its whole length, is a series of mountains, produced over the geological ages by the pushing of the gigantic mass of Africa against the small Eurasian peninsula. The Pyrenees close off Spain from the north, as the Alps do

Italy; the Balkan Mountains are diffi cult to penetrate. The only place where one can travel at water level from the Mediterranean to the north is by the valley of the Rhone River, so that France is the only country that belongs both to the Mediterranean and northern Europe. North of the mountains is a great plain extending from western France all the way into Russia and on into Asia, passing south of the Urals. If one were to draw a straight line from Amsterdam east through what is called the Caspian Gate, north of the Caspian Sea, as far as western China, one would never in traveling these 3,500 miles be higher than 2,000 feet above sea level. This plain has at various times opened Europe to Mongol and other

The Mediterranean Sea

Mountains

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Geography and History 7

invasions, enabled the Russians to move east and create a huge empire, and made Poland a troubled battleground.

The European rivers are worth particular attention. Most are navigable, and they also give access to the sea. With their valleys, they provided areas where intensive local development could take place. Thus the most impor- tant older cities of Europe are on rivers—London on the Thames, Paris on the Seine, Vienna and Budapest on the Danube, Warsaw on the Vistula. In northern Europe it was often possible to move goods from one river to another, and then in the eighteenth century to connect them by canals. The importance of water is shown again by the location of Copenhagen, Stockholm, and St. Petersburg on the Baltic and of Amsterdam and Lisbon, which grew rapidly after Europeans began traversing the Atlantic Ocean.

There are important geographical conditions such as climate that a topographical map cannot show. Climate depends on latitude, ocean cur- rents, and winds that bring or withhold rainfall. Europe lies as far north as the northern United States and southern Canada, but the parts of Europe near the sea have less extreme temperatures than the corresponding northerly regions of North America. The Mediterranean countries have more sunshine and less severe winters than either northern Europe or the northern United States. Everywhere the winters are cold enough to suppress infectious pathogens and pests and keep out certain diseases that affl ict warmer countries. The warm summers with their growing seasons have produced an annual cycle of agricul- ture, and rainfall has been adequate but not excessive. Europe is the only continent that has no actual desert. It is also for the most part a region of fertile soil. In short, since the end of the Ice Age, or since humans learned to survive winters, Europe has been one of the most favored places on the globe for human habitation.

If we say that climate and the environment not only set limits but also provide opportunities for what human beings can do, then there is no such thing as geographical determinism. Geography is not destiny. What hap- pens depends on the application of knowledge and abilities in any particular time and place and in any particular culture. What constitutes a natural resource varies with the state of technology and the possibilities of economic exchange. Even the disad- vantages of distance can be overcome by developing new means of transportation. The oceans that long divided human beings became a highway for the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and English, and later for others. Chinese and Arab sailors also used the oceans for trade across Asia and East Africa. For most of human history, however, neither persons, information, nor commands could travel much more than 30 miles a day. Local- ism prevailed, and large-scale commercial or governmental organizations were hard to create and maintain. Like most other regions of the world, therefore, Europe was long made up of small local units, pockets of territory each with its own customs, way of life, and manner of speech, largely unknown to or ignorant of others, and looking inward upon itself. A “foreigner” might come from a thousand miles away, or from only ten.

Agriculture, like commerce and industry, depends on human inven- tion and decision making. The state of agriculture obviously depends on natural conditions, but it has also depended historically on the invention of the plow, the planting of appropriate crops, the rotation of fi elds to prevent soil exhaus- tion, and the availability of livestock from which manure could be obtained as fertilizer. It benefi ts from stability and is affected by demographic changes. If population grows, new and less fertile or more distant areas must be brought under cultivation. Nor can agricul- ture be improved without the building of roads and a division of labor between town and

Rivers

Climate

Geographical determinism

Agriculture

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Geography and History8

country, in which agrarian workers produce surpluses for those not engaged in agriculture. And for agriculture, as for other productive enterprises, elementary security is essential. Farming cannot proceed, nor food be stored over the winter, unless the men and women who work the fi elds can be protected from attack.

The maps in the present volume cannot show in detail all of the waterways, moun- tains, and geographical barriers that have helped to shape the course of human history, but they do point to the role of geography in the evolution of political and economic power, or what has become known as geopolitics. Human beings have always developed their insti- tutions and cultures through a complex relation with the natural world, and maps remind us that all human activities take place in geographical space. Readers can also use their imaginations and the scale of maps to convert space into time, remembering that until the invention of the railroad both people and news traveled far more slowly than today. At a rate of 30 miles a day it would take three weeks to travel from London to Venice, and at least six weeks for an exchange of letters. Communication to places outside Europe took even longer. In our own day, when we travel at supersonic speeds and measure electronic communication in nanoseconds, or one-billionth of a second, the barriers of geographic space have virtually disappeared. Yet human beings remain profoundly dependent on their natural environments, and human history remains fi rmly embedded in the geography of the planet earth.