Systems engineering principles and practice pdf

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES AND

PRACTICE SECOND EDITION

Alexander Kossiakoff William N. Sweet

Samuel J. Seymour Steven M. Biemer

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. PUBLICATION

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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

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WILEY SERIES IN SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Andrew P. Sage, Editor

A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume.

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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES AND

PRACTICE SECOND EDITION

Alexander Kossiakoff William N. Sweet

Samuel J. Seymour Steven M. Biemer

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. PUBLICATION

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Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Systems engineering : principles and practice/Alexander Kossiakoff ... [et al.].—2nd ed. p. cm.—(Wiley series in systems engineering and management; 67) Rev. ed. of: Systems engineering: principles and practices/Alexander Kossiakoff, William N. Sweet. 2003. ISBN 978-0-470-40548-2 (hardback) 1. Systems engineering. I. Kossiakoff, Alexander, 1945– II. Title. TA168.K68 2010 620.001′171–dc22 2010036856

Printed in the United States of America

oBook ISBN: 9781118001028 ePDF ISBN: 9781118001011 ePub ISBN: 9781118009031

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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To Alexander Kossiakoff,

who never took “ no ” for an answer and refused to believe that anything was impossible. He was an extraordinary problem solver, instructor, mentor, and

friend.

Samuel J. Seymour

Steven M. Biemer

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

LIST OF TABLES xvii

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION xix

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION xxiii

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 1

1 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND THE WORLD OF MODERN SYSTEMS 3

1.1 What Is Systems Engineering? 3

1.2 Origins of Systems Engineering 5

1.3 Examples of Systems Requiring Systems Engineering 10

1.4 Systems Engineering as a Profession 12

1.5 Systems Engineer Career Development Model 18

1.6 The Power of Systems Engineering 21

1.7 Summary 23

Problems 25

Further Reading 26

2 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING LANDSCAPE 27 2.1 Systems Engineering Viewpoint 27

2.2 Perspectives of Systems Engineering 32

2.3 Systems Domains 34

2.4 Systems Engineering Fields 35

2.5 Systems Engineerng Approaches 36

2.6 Systems Engineering Activities and Products 37

2.7 Summary 38

Problems 39

Further Reading 40

CONTENTS

vii

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viii CONTENTS

3 STRUCTURE OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS 41 3.1 System Building Blocks and Interfaces 41

3.2 Hierarchy of Complex Systems 42

3.3 System Building Blocks 45

3.4 The System Environment 51

3.5 Interfaces and Interactions 58

3.6 Complexity in Modern Systems 60

3.7 Summary 64

Problems 66

Further Reading 67

4 THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 69 4.1 Systems Engineering through the System Life Cycle 69

4.2 System Life Cycle 70

4.3 Evolutionary Characteristics of the Development Process 82

4.4 The Systems Engineering Method 87

4.5 Testing throughout System Development 103

4.6 Summary 106

Problems 108

Further Reading 109

5 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT 111 5.1 Managing System Development and Risks 111

5.2 WBS 113

5.3 SEMP 117

5.4 Risk Management 120

5.5 Organization of Systems Engineering 128

5.6 Summary 132

Problems 133

Further Reading 134

PART II CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT STAGE 137

6 NEEDS ANALYSIS 139 6.1 Originating a New System 139

6.2 Operations Analysis 146

6.3 Functional Analysis 151

6.4 Feasibility Defi nition 153

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CONTENTS ix

6.5 Needs Validation 155

6.6 System Operational Requirements 158

6.7 Summary 162

Problems 163

Further Reading 164

7 CONCEPT EXPLORATION 165 7.1 Developing the System Requirements 165

7.2 Operational Requirements Analysis 170

7.3 Performance Requirements Formulation 178

7.4 Implementation of Concept Exploration 185

7.5 Performance Requirements Validation 189

7.6 Summary 191

Problems 193

Further Reading 194

8 CONCEPT DEFINITION 197 8.1 Selecting the System Concept 197

8.2 Performance Requirements Analysis 201

8.3 Functional Analysis and Formulation 206

8.4 Functional Allocation 212

8.5 Concept Selection 214

8.6 Concept Validation 217

8.7 System Development Planning 219

8.8 Systems Architecting 222

8.9 System Modeling Languages: Unifi ed Modeling Language (UML) and Systems Modeling Language (SysML) 228

8.10 Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) 243

8.11 System Functional Specifi cations 246

8.12 Summary 247

Problems 250

Further Reading 252

9 DECISION ANALYSIS AND SUPPORT 255 9.1 Decision Making 256

9.2 Modeling throughout System Development 262

9.3 Modeling for Decisions 263

9.4 Simulation 272

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x CONTENTS

9.5 Trade-Off Analysis 282

9.6 Review of Probability 295

9.7 Evaluation Methods 299

9.8 Summary 308

Problems 311

Further Reading 312

PART III ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT STAGE 315

10 ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT 317 10.1 Reducing Program Risks 317

10.2 Requirements Analysis 322

10.3 Functional Analysis and Design 327

10.4 Prototype Development as a Risk Mitigation Technique 333

10.5 Development Testing 340

10.6 Risk Reduction 349

10.7 Summary 350

Problems 352

Further Reading 354

11 SOFTWARE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 355 11.1 Coping with Complexity and Abstraction 356

11.2 Nature of Software Development 360

11.3 Software Development Life Cycle Models 365

11.4 Software Concept Development: Analysis and Design 373

11.5 Software Engineering Development: Coding and Unit Test 385

11.6 Software Integration and Test 393

11.7 Software Engineering Management 396

11.8 Summary 402

Problems 405

Further Reading 406

12 ENGINEERING DESIGN 409 12.1 Implementing the System Building Blocks 409

12.2 Requirements Analysis 414

12.3 Functional Analysis and Design 416

12.4 Component Design 419

12.5 Design Validation 432

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CONTENTS xi

12.6 CM 436

12.7 Summary 439

Problems 441

Further Reading 442

13 INTEGRATION AND EVALUATION 443 13.1 Integrating, Testing, and Evaluating the Total System 443

13.2 Test Planning and Preparation 450

13.3 System Integration 455

13.4 Developmental System Testing 462

13.5 Operational Test and Evaluation 467

13.6 Summary 475

Problems 478

Further Reading 478

PART IV POSTDEVELOPMENT STAGE 481

14 PRODUCTION 483 14.1 Systems Engineering in the Factory 483

14.2 Engineering for Production 485

14.3 Transition from Development to Production 489

14.4 Production Operations 492

14.5 Acquiring a Production Knowledge Base 497

14.6 Summary 500

Problems 502

Further Reading 503

15 OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT 505 15.1 Installing, Maintaining, and Upgrading the System 505

15.2 Installation and Test 507

15.3 In-Service Support 512

15.4 Major System Upgrades: Modernization 516

15.5 Operational Factors in System Development 520

15.6 Summary 522

Problems 523

Further Reading 524

INDEX 525

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xiii

1.1 Career opportunities and growth 14 1.2a Technical orientation phase diagram 16 1.2b Technical orientation population density distribution 16 1.3a Systems engineering (SE) career elements derived from quality work

experiences 19 1.3b Components of employer development of systems engineers 19 1.4 “ T ” model for systems engineer career development 20 2.1a Performance versus cost 29 2.1b Performance/cost versus cost 29 2.2 The ideal missile design from the viewpoint of various specialists 31 2.3 The dimensions of design, systems engineering, and project planning

and control 32 2.4 Systems engineering domains 34 2.5 Examples of systems engineering fi elds 35 2.6 Examples of systems engineering approaches 36 2.7 Life cycle systems engineering view 37 3.1 Knowledge domains of systems engineer and design specialist 45 3.2 Context diagram 53 3.3 Context diagram for an automobile 54 3.4 Environments of a passenger airliner 56 3.5 Functional interactions and physical interfaces 59 3.6 Pyramid of system hierarchy 63 4.1 DoD system life cycle model 71 4.2 System life cycle model 72 4.3 Principal stages in system life cycle 75 4.4 Concept development phases of system life cycle 76 4.5 Engineering development phases in system life cycle 78 4.6 Principal participants in a typical aerospace system development 86 4.7 DoD MIL - STD499B 90 4.8 IEEE - 1220 systems engineering process 90 4.9 EIA - 632 systems engineering process 91

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

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xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

4.10 ISO - 15288 Systems engineering process 92 4.11 Systems engineering method top - level fl ow diagram 92 4.12 Systems engineering method fl ow diagram 94 4.13 Spiral model of the defense system life cycle 104 5.1 Systems engineering as a part of project management 112 5.2 Place of SEMP in program management plans 118 5.3 Variation of program risk and effort throughout system development 121 5.4 Example of a risk mitigation waterfall chart 122 5.5 An example of a risk cube display 124 6.1 Needs analysis phase in the system life cycle 140 6.2 Needs analysis phase fl ow diagram 147 6.3 Objectives tree structure 150 6.4 Example objectives tree for an automobile 151 6.5 Analysis pyramid 156 7.1 Concept exploration phase in system life cycle 166 7.2 Concept exploration phase fl ow diagram 170 7.3 Simple requirements development process 171 7.4 Triumvirate of conceptual design 175 7.5 Hierarchy of scenarios 177 7.6 Function category versus functional media 181 8.1 Concept defi nition phase in system life cycle 198 8.2 Concept defi nition phase fl ow diagram 202 8.3 IDEF0 functional model structure 208 8.4 Functional block diagram of a standard coffeemaker 210 8.5 Traditional view of architecture 223 8.6 DODAF version 2.0 viewpoints 227 8.7 UML models 229 8.8 Use case diagram 231 8.9 UML activity diagram 233 8.10 UML sequence diagram 234 8.11 Example of a class association 235 8.12 Example of a class generalization association 236 8.13 Class diagram of the library check - out system 237 8.14 SysML models 237 8.15 SysML requirements diagram 238 8.16 SysML block defi nition 240 8.17 SysML block associations 241 8.18a SysML functional hierarchy tree 242 8.18b SysML activity diagram 242 8.19 Baker ’ s MDSD subprocesses 244 8.20 Baker ’ s information model for MDSD 244 9.1 Basic decision - making process 256 9.2 Traditional hierarchical block diagram 265 9.3 Context diagram of a passenger aircraft 266 9.4 Air defense functional fl ow block diagram 267

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv

9.5 System effectiveness simulation 275 9.6 Hardware - in - the - loop simulation 277 9.7 Virtual reality simulation 280 9.8 Candidate utility functions 289 9.9 Criteria profi le 290 9.10 Union of two events 297 9.11 Conditional events 297 9.12 AHP example 300 9.13 AHP results 301 9.14 Decision tree example 302 9.15 Decision path 302 9.16 Decision tree solved 303 9.17 Utility function 304 9.18 Decision tree solved with a utility function 304 9.19 Example of cost - effectiveness integration 305 9.20 QFD house of quality 307 10.1 Advanced development phase in system life cycle 318 10.2 Advanced development phase fl ow diagram 321 10.3 Test and evaluation process of a system element 345 11.1 IEEE software systems engineering process 357 11.2 Software hierarchy 359 11.3 Notional 3 - tier architecture 359 11.4 Classical waterfall software development cycle 367 11.5 Software incremental model 369 11.6 Spiral model 370 11.7 State transition diagram in concurrent development model 371 11.8 User needs, software requirements and specifi cations 376 11.9 Software generation process 376 11.10 Principles of modular partitioning 379 11.11 Functional fl ow block diagram example 381 11.12 Data fl ow diagram: library checkout 381 11.13 Robustness diagram: library checkout 384 12.1 Engineering design phase in system life cycle 410 12.2 Engineering design phase in relation to integration and evaluation 411 12.3 Engineering design phase fl ow diagram 413 13.1 Integration and evaluation phase in system life cycle 445 13.2 Integration and evaluation phase in relation to engineering design 445 13.3 System test and evaluation team 446 13.4 System element test confi guration 456 13.5 Subsystems test confi guration 459 13.6a Operation of a passenger airliner 469 13.6b Operational testing of an airliner 469 13.7 Test realism versus cost 471 14.1 Production phase in system life cycle 484 14.2 Production phase overlap with adjacent phases 485

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xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

14.3 Production operation system 494 15.1 Operations and support phase in system life cycle 506 15.2 System operations history 507 15.3 Non - disruptive installation via simulation 510 15.4 Non - disruptive installation via a duplicate system 511

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xvii

1.1 Examples of Engineered Complex Systems: Signal and Data Systems 11 1.2 Examples of Engineered Complex Systems: Material and Energy

Systems 11 2.1 Comparison of Systems Perspectives 33 2.2 Systems Engineering Activities and Documents 38 3.1 System Design Hierarchy 43 3.2 System Functional Elements 47 3.3 Component Design Elements 49 3.4 Examples of Interface Elements 60 4.1 Evolution of System Materialization through the System Life Cycle 84 4.2 Evolution of System Representation 88 4.3 Systems Engineering Method over Life Cycle 102 5.1 System Product WBS Partial Breakdown Structure 114 5.2 Risk Likelihood 125 5.3 Risk Criticality 125 5.4 Sample Risk Plan Worksheet 128 6.1 Status of System Materialization at the Needs Analysis Phase 143 7.1 Status of System Materialization of the Concept Exploration Phase 168 8.1 Status of System Materialization of Concept Defi nition Phase 200 8.2 Use Case Example — “ Check - out Book ” 232 9.1 Decision Framework 259 9.2 Simon’s Decision Process 261 9.3 Weighted Sum Integration of Selection Criteria 288 9.4 Weighted Sum of Actual Measurement 289 9.5 Weighted Sum of Utility Scores 290 9.6 Trade-Off Matrix Example 293 10.1 Status of System Materialization at the Advanced Development Phase 320 10.2 Development of New Components 326 10.3 Selected Critical Characteristics of System Functional Elements 329 10.4 Some Examples of Special Materials 335 11.1 Software Types 361

LIST OF TABLES

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xviii LIST OF TABLES

11.2 Categories of Software - Dominated Systems 362 11.3 Differences between Hardware and Software 364 11.4 Systems Engineering Life Cycle and the Waterfall Model 368 11.5 Commonly Used Computer Languages 387 11.6 Some Special - Purpose Computer Languages 388 11.7 Characteristics of Prototypes 390 11.8 Comparison of Computer Interface Modes 391 11.9 Capability Levels 398 11.10 Maturity Levels 399 12.1 Status of System Materialization at the Engineering Design Phase 412 12.2 Confi guration Baselines 437 13.1 Status of System Materialization at the Integration and Evaluation Phase 448 13.2 System Integration and Evaluation Process 449 13.3 Parallels between System Development and Test and Evaluation

(T & E) Planning 451

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xix

It is an incredible honor and privilege to follow in the footsteps of an individual who had a profound infl uence on the course of history and the fi eld of systems engineering. Since publication of the fi rst edition of this book, the fi eld of systems engineering has seen signifi cant advances, including a signifi cant increase in recognition of the disci- pline, as measured by the number of conferences, symposia, journals, articles, and books available on this crucial subject. Clearly, the fi eld has reached a high level of maturity and is destined for continued growth. Unfortunately, the fi eld has also seen some sorrowful losses, including one of the original authors, Alexander Kossiakoff, who passed away just 2 years after the publication of the book. His vision, innovation, excitement, and perseverance were contagious to all who worked with him and he is missed by the community. Fortunately, his vision remains and continues to be the driving force behind this book. It is with great pride that we dedicate this second edition to the enduring legacy of Alexander Ivanovitch Kossiakoff.

ALEXANDER KOSSIAKOFF, 1914 – 2005

Alexander Kossiakoff, known to so many as “ Kossy, ” gave shape and direction to the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory as its director from 1969 to 1980. His work helped defend our nation, enhance the capabilities of our military, pushed technology in new and exciting directions, and bring successive new genera- tions to an understanding of the unique challenges and opportunities of systems engi- neering. In 1980, recognizing the need to improve the training and education of technical professionals, he started the master of science degree program at Johns Hopkins University in Technical Management and later expanded it to Systems Engineering, one of the fi rst programs of its kind.

Today, the systems engineering program he founded is the largest part - time gradu- ate program in the United States, with students enrolled from around the world in classroom, distance, and organizational partnership venues; it continues to evolve as the fi eld expands and teaching venues embrace new technologies, setting the standard for graduate programs in systems engineering. The fi rst edition of the book is the foun- dational systems engineering textbook for colleges and universities worldwide.