The basic patterns of the universe are spoken of in the confucian book of

Daoism and Confucianism

© Thomas Hilgers

First Encounter

You are in Asia, visiting someone you met two years ago at a college dance performance. Lin

was an exchange student then, eager to learn about other cultures, and she invited you to visit her

when you could. That time is now. You are staying with her family.

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“I’ll show you one of my favorite places,” Lin says, as you climb into a taxi. She gives the

address to the driver, who knows the place well. You pass along a street bustling with

motorcycles, bicycles, vendors’ wagons, and people jaywalking between cars. After fifteen

perilous minutes, you pull up in front of a building with three wide stairs and high pillars

supporting the roof. The stone columns are carved with writhing dragons. A large metal brazier

is in front of the temple, and from it rises a cloud of incense.

Your friend buys long sticks of incense from a nearby booth and gives some to you.

“Do the same thing I do,” she says.

Lin goes to the brazier, lights the incense, lifts the sticks several times, bows, and places the

sticks into the brazier. Then she helps you do the same. The people around you watch with great

interest. When you are finished, you walk with Lin into the temple.

Just inside the door are two tall, furious-looking golden statues.

“They are guardian gods,” Lin says. “They are keeping out bad people.”

The interior is amazing. It looks like a golden opera theater. At the back of the sanctuary are

several stories of windows with lighted statues inside. More altars are situated against each of the

interior walls. In the center of the room are about a dozen large tables, all loaded with offerings:

oranges, bananas, watermelons, water lilies, chrysanthemums, and much more. “The main god of

this temple is Mazu,” Lin explains. “She was the daughter of a fisherman’s family, and she

helped her father and brothers when they were in danger of drowning. Mazu has been worshiped

for a thousand years. She’s popular in China, Taiwan, Vietnam, and other places. The Daoists

claim her, but so do others, too.”

Lin points out the statues of many other gods, explaining who they are. You stop in front of a

circle, which appears to have two large commas inside.

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“That is the symbol of the Dao, with yin and yang mixing together,” Lin says.

As you walk around, you see a woman throwing what look like two crescents onto the floor.

“She is asking questions,” Lin says, “and the wooden pieces that she is throwing tell her ‘yes’ or

‘no’ or ‘maybe.’”

At last you emerge from the temple and sit together on the stairs in the sunlight. An old lady

comes by, guiding her little grandson who is on a red tricycle. A man close to you is selling

“spirit money”—paper with gold and silver printing—and three women next to him are selling

water lilies from pots, for offering in the temple. Across the street are restaurants, an electronics

store, and a motorcycle-repair shop. The street is noisy. Out here it is just another day.

You wonder, who is Mazu? Who are Daoists? What is the Dao? What are yin and yang? And

why do the Chinese have so many gods?

Basic Elements of Traditional Chinese Beliefs

Confucianism, Daoism (Taoism*), and Buddhism have been collectively called the Three

Doctrines, and together they have had a profound influence on Chinese culture and history.

Buddhism, as we saw in Chapter 4, was an import to China, with roots in Indian belief.

Confucianism and Daoism, on the other hand, sprouted and grew up side by side in the soil of

indigenous Chinese belief (see Figure 6.1). We thus begin our study of these two Chinese

religious systems by considering some of the features of traditional Chinese belief and practice.

Figure 6.1 Daoist and Confucian religious sites.

Early Chinese belief was a blend of several elements. Some of them, such as a belief in spirits,

can be traced back more than three thousand years. The following elements provided a basis for

later developments in Chinese religion and were especially important to the development of

Confucianism and Daoism.

 Spirits Early Chinese belief thought of spirits as active in every aspect of nature and the

human world. Good spirits brought health, wealth, long life, and fertility. Bad spirits

caused accidents and disease. Disturbances of nature, such as droughts and earthquakes,

were punishments from spirits for human failings, but harmony could be restored through

rituals and sacrifice.

* Note: As mentioned earlier, the pinyin system of romanizing Chinese words will be

used in this book, with the older Wade-Giles spellings of important names following their

pinyin versions in parentheses. (Pinyin pronunciation is generally similar to English

usage, except that the pronunciation of c is ts, q is ch, and x is sh.) The pinyin spelling of

all Chinese words is used by the United Nations and is becoming standard in the world of

scholarship and art. The older Wade-Giles spelling of Taoism, Tao, and Tao Te Ching are

still common, but they are now being supplanted by Daoism, Dao, and Daodejing (also

spelled Daode jing, Daode Jing, and Dao De Jing).

 Tian During the Shang dynasty (c. 1500–c. 1100 BCE) the omnipotent power that was

believed to rule the world was called Shang Di (Shang Ti) and was thought of as a

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personal god, capable of being contacted by diviners. Perhaps Shang Di was the memory

of an ancestor, and the veneration of Shang Di was part of the ancient practice of

honoring ancestors. In the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (c. 1100–256 BCE), a new political

regime—the Zhou kings—ignored the Shang belief and began explaining life in terms of

a different conception, Tian (T’ien), which is usually translated as “Heaven.” It appears

that Tian was envisioned both as an impersonal divine force that controls events on earth

and as a cosmic moral principle that determines right and wrong.

 Veneration of ancestors The same cautious reverence that was shown to spirits was also

naturally felt for ancestors. Ancestors at death became spirits who needed to be placated

to ensure their positive influence on living family members. Veneration of ancestors

provided the soil for the growth of Confucianism.

 Seeing patterns in nature China’s long and mighty rivers, high mountain chains, distinct

seasons, and frequent floods, droughts, and earthquakes all influenced the Chinese view

of the natural world. To survive, the Chinese people had to learn that while they could not

often control nature, they could learn to work with it when they understood its underlying

patterns. Some of the patterns were quite easy to discern, such as the progression of the

seasons, the paths of the sun and moon, and the cycle of birth and death. Others were

more subtle, like the motion of waves and the ripple of mountain ranges, as well as the

rhythm of the Dao (which we will discuss shortly) and the alternations of yang and yin.

Daoism may be traced back to this concern for finding—and working within—natural

patterns.

 Yang and yin After about 1000 BCE the Chinese commonly thought that the universe

expressed itself in opposite but complementary principles: light and dark, day and night,

hot and cold, sky and earth, summer and winter. The list was virtually infinite: male and

female, right and left, front and back, up and down, out and in, sound and silence, birth

and death. It even came to include “strong foods,” such as meat and ginger, and “weak

foods,” such as fish and rice. The names for the two complementary principles are yang

and yin.

Yang and yin, symbolized by a circle of light and dark, represent the complementary but

opposing forces of the universe that generate all forms of reality.

 These principles are not the same as good and evil. Yang is not expected to win over the

force of yin, or vice versa; rather, the ideal is a dynamic balance between the forces. In

fact, the emblem of balance is the yin-yang circle, divided into what look like two

intertwined commas. One half is light, representing yang; the other is dark, representing

yin. Inside each division is a small dot of the contrasting color that represents the seed of

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the opposite. The dot suggests that everything contains its opposite and will eventually

become its opposite. Both forces are dynamic and in perfect balance as they change, just

as day and night are in balance as they progress. We can think of yang and yin as

pulsations or waves of energy, like a heartbeat or like breathing in and out.

At the Temple of Heaven, in Beijing, the emperor performed ceremonies to honor Tian

(“Heaven”).

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© Bilderbuch/Design Pics/Corbis

 Divination Divination is a system that is used for looking into the future. It was an

integral part of early Chinese tradition. The oldest technique involved the reading of lines

in bones and tortoise shells. Later, an elaborate practice was developed that involves the

Yijing (I Ching), the Book of Changes. It is an ancient book that interprets life through

an analysis of hexagrams. A hexagram is a figure of six horizontal lines. There are two

kinds of lines: divided (yin) and undivided (yang). A hexagram is made of two

trigrams—figures of three lines each.) A hexagram is “constructed” by tossing sticks or

coins and writing down the results, beginning with the bottom line. Thus sixty-four

different hexagrams are possible. The hexagrams are thought to represent patterns that

can develop in one’s life, and the Yijing gives an interpretation of each hexagram. With

the help of the Yijing, a person can interpret a hexagram as an aid in making decisions

about the future.

This hexagram for “contemplation” is made from two trigrams. The lower trigram means

“earth,” and the upper trigram means “wind.”

We now turn to two great systems of Chinese religious thought, Daoism and Confucianism,

which many consider to be complementary traditions. Daoism is often thought to emphasize the

yin aspects of reality and Confucianism the yang. Together they form a unity of opposites.

Although we’ll discuss these systems separately, one before the other, separate treatment is

something of a fiction. The two systems grew up together and actually, as they developed, helped

generate each other. We must keep this in mind as we study them.

Daoism

Because it incorporated some of the previously mentioned elements and many others from

traditional Chinese belief and practice, Daoism is really like a shopping cart filled with a variety

of items: observations about nature, philosophical insights, guidelines for living, exercises for

health, rituals of protection, and practices for attaining longevity and inner purity. We should

note, however, that Daoism and Chinese folk religion are not exactly the same thing, although

the terms are often used interchangeably, and in some cases the border between the two is not

clear.

Daoism includes ideas and practices from the earliest phases, represented in the Daodejing and

Zhuangzi (Daoist scriptures, which we’ll discuss shortly), as well as innumerable later

developments. It was once common to make a distinction between the earliest phase, which was

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praised for its philosophy, and later ritualistic and religious development, which was less

appreciated. But scholars in recent decades have given great attention to a host of Daoist topics:

liturgy, lineages of masters, religious communities, monasticism, deities, prayers, art, clothing,

and even dance. Scholars see these developments as a part of the organic growth of the early

insights. While continuing to value the ideas espoused in the early documents, scholars today

point out that the “real” Daoism is the entire spectrum of development, from the earliest ideas to

contemporary practices.

The Origins of Daoism

The origins of Daoism, quite appropriately, are mysterious. Its earliest documents contain many

threads—shamanism, appreciation for the hermit’s life, desire for unity with nature, and a

fascination with health, long life, breathing, meditation, and trance. These many threads point to

a multiplicity of possible sources, which seem to have coalesced to produce the movement.

Laozi (Lao Tzu)

Every movement needs a founder, and Daoists trace themselves back to a legendary figure

named Laozi (Lao Tzu), whose name means “old master” or “old child.” Whether Laozi ever

existed is unknown. He may have been a real person, the blending of historical information about

several figures, or a mythic creation.

In the traditional story, Laozi’s birth (c. 600 BCE; Timeline 6.1, p. 212) resulted from a virginal

conception. According to legend, the child was born old—hence the name “old child.” Laozi

became a state archivist, or librarian, in the royal city of Loyang for many years. (Legendary

stories also relate how Confucius came to discuss philosophy with the old man.) Eventually

tiring of his job, Laozi left his post and, carried by an ox, traveled to the far west of China. At the

western border, Laozi was recognized as an esteemed scholar and prohibited from crossing until

he had written down his teachings. The result was the Daodejing, a short book of about five

thousand Chinese characters. After Laozi was finished, he left China, traveling westward. Later

stories about Laozi continued to elaborate his myth. He was said to have taken his teachings to

India, later returned to China, and ascended into the sky. He was soon treated as a deity, the

human incarnation of the Dao. In this capacity he came to be called Lord Lao. Many stories were

told of his apparitions. He continues to be worshiped as divine by many Daoists.

The Daodejing

The Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) is generally seen as one of the world’s greatest books. It is also

the great classic of Daoism, accepted by most Daoists as a central scripture. Its title can be

translated as “the classical book about the Way and its power.” Sometimes the book is also

called the Laozi (Lao Tzu), after its legendary author. Possibly because of its brevity and

succinctness, it has had an enormous influence on Chinese culture.

The book has been linguistically dated to about 350 BCE, but it seems to have circulated in

several earlier forms. In 1972, at the tombs of Mawangdui, archeologists discovered two ancient

copies of the text that differ from the arrangement commonly used. Another shorter ancient

version was found in a tomb at Guodian in 1993. It contains about one-third of the standard text. 1

The version that is commonly known and used is from the third century CE.

In the eighty-one chapters of the Daodejing, we recognize passages that seem to involve early

shamanistic elements, such as reaching trance states and attaining invulnerability (see chapters 1,

16, 50, and 55). The book shows some repetition, has no clear order, and exhibits a deliberate

lack of clarity. In form, each chapter is more poetry than prose. This combination of elements

suggests that the book is not the work of a single author but is rather the assembled work of

many people, gathered over time. It may be a collection of what were once oral proverbs and

sayings.

TimeLine 6.1

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Timeline of significant events in the history of Daoism and Confucianism.

What was the original purpose of the book? One theory holds that its overall purpose was

political, that it was meant as a handbook for rulers; another sees it primarily as a religious

guidebook, meant to lead adherents to spiritual insight; and still another views it as a practical

guide for living in harmony with the universe. It is possible that the Daodejing fulfilled all these

purposes and that its passages can have several meanings at the same time. Part of the genius of

the book is its brevity and use of paradox: its meaning depends on who is interpreting it.

Throughout the Daodejing are references to the Dao. The book speaks of its nature and

operation; it describes the manner in which people will live if they are in harmony with the Dao;

and it gives suggestions for experiencing the Dao. The book also provides images to help

describe all of these things. What, though, is “the Dao”?

The Daodejing begins famously by saying that the Dao is beyond any description. It states that

the Dao that can be spoken of is not the eternal Dao. In other words, we cannot really put into

words exactly what the Dao is—a fact that is ironic because the book itself uses words. Yet the

book goes on to tell us that the Dao is “nameless”; that is, it is not any individual thing that has a

name, such as a door, a tree, a bird, a person. The Dao cannot be named because it has no form.

But the Dao can be experienced and followed by every individual thing that has a name. The

Daodejing says the Dao is the origin of everything and that all individual things are

“manifestations” of the Dao.

Although the Dao is the origin of nature, it is not “God,” because it does not have personality. It

neither cares about human beings nor dislikes them—it only produces them, along with the rest

of nature. Because the Dao makes nature move the way it does, it can be called the way or the

rhythm of nature.

To experience the Dao, we must leave behind our desires for individual things, a concept that

runs counter to everyday concerns—how much something costs, what time it is now, whether

something is big or small. In fact, the Daoist way of seeing things is so odd to some people that

at first it seems like trying to see in the dark, as the end of the first chapter of the Daodejing

describes:

Darkness within darkness.

The gate to all mystery.

The Daoist sees things differently. To illustrate, there is an intriguing example in the twentieth

chapter of the Daodejing: A Daoist is observing a group of people who are in a park, celebrating

a holiday. They all seem happy as they climb up to the top of a terrace where a ceremony will

occur. They appear to know what they are doing and where they are going. Not the Daoist,

though, who feels “formless” and “like the ocean”—adrift. 2 The Daoist is troubled by the

contrast. The others seem happy and sure of themselves, but the Daoist can only watch, and feels

strangely like an outsider. Then the chapter ends with a sudden, extraordinary affirmation. The

Daoist recognizes something intensely personal and difficult but willingly accepts the sense of

separateness from the others and from their conventional way of seeing things. The Daoist

accepts, and concludes,

Laozi, the “father of Daoism,” is here portrayed riding on an ox.

© Burstein Collection/Corbis

I am different.

I am nourished by the great mother.

Thus, the Dao cannot be “known” in the same way that we see a car or hear a sound, for

example. It cannot be perceived directly but rather by intuition. Perhaps it is like the difference

between only hearing musical sounds and recognizing a song.

The Daodejing presents several powerful images wherein the Dao seems most active and visible.

Contemplating them can help us experience the Dao, and by taking on some of the qualities of

these images, we begin to live in harmony with the Dao that inhabits them. Several common

images follow:

 Water Water is gentle, ordinary, and lowly, but strong and necessary. It flows around

every obstacle. Chapter eight of the Daodejing praises it: “The highest good is like

water.” 3 It assists all things “and does not compete with them.”

4

 Woman The female is sensitive, receptive, yet effective and powerful.

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 Child The child is full of energy, wonder, and naturalness.

 Valley The valley is yin, and it is mystery.

 Darkness Darkness can be safe, full of silence and possibility.

Deeper Insights: The Seasons of Life

A famous story illustrates what it means to live in harmony with nature: Upon hearing of the

death of Zhuangzi’s wife, a friend, Huizi (Hui Tzu), goes to offer sympathy. Although he expects

to find Zhuangzi crying and in ritual mourning, Huizi finds Zhuangzi instead singing and

drumming on a bowl. Huizi is shocked—and says so. Responding in a thoughtful way, Zhuangzi

says that at first his wife’s death saddened him terribly, but then he reflected on the whole cycle

of her existence. Before his wife was a human being, she was without shape or life, and her

original self was a part of the formless substance of the universe. Then she became a human

being. “Now there’s been another change, and she’s dead. It’s just like the progression of the

four seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter.” 5 When winter comes, we do not mourn. That would

be ungrateful. Similarly, a human being goes through seasons. Zhuangzi describes his wife as

now being like someone asleep in a vast room. “If I were to follow after her bawling and

sobbing, it would show that I don’t know anything about fate. So I stopped.” 6

In this story, note that Zhuangzi is singing and playing on a bowl. Rather than mourn passively,

he does something to counteract his sorrow. His singing is a profound human response, quite

believable. And Zhuangzi does not say that as a result of his insight he no longer feels sad.

Rather, he says that as far as mourning is concerned, “I stopped.” In other words, despite his

feelings, he deliberately behaves in a way that seems more grateful to the universe and therefore

more appropriate than mourning.

This tale suggests that to live in harmony with nature means to accept all its transformations. The

great Dao produces both yang and yin, which alternate perpetually. The story says that yin and

yang are our parents and we must obey them. If we cannot embrace the changes, we should at

least observe them with an accepting heart.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu)

Daoism was enriched by the work of Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), who was active about 300 BCE.

What we know of him comes from the writings he left behind. His personality seems playful,

independent, and in love with the fantastic. The book of his writings, called the Zhuangzi

(Chuang Tzu), is composed of seven “inner chapters,” which are thought to be by the author

himself, and twenty-six “outer chapters,” whose authorship is less certain.

The Zhuangzi, unlike the poetry of the Daodejing, contains many whimsical stories. It continues

the themes of early Daoist thought, such as the need for harmony with nature, the movement of

the Dao in all that happens, and the pleasure that we can gain from simplicity. It underscores the

inevitability of change and the relativity of all human judgments. It also adds to Daoism an

appreciation for humor—something that is quite rare in the scriptures of the world.

Perhaps the most famous of all the stories in the book tells of Zhuangzi’s dream of being a

butterfly. In his dream he was flying around and enjoying life, but he did not know that he was

Zhuangzi. When he woke up he was struck by a question: Am I a person dreaming that I am a

butterfly, or am I a butterfly dreaming that I am a person? This story hints that the boundary

between reality and the imaginary is not really as clear as we might think.

Another story makes fun of people’s judgments and the arbitrariness of their joy and anger. A

trainer gave his monkeys three acorns in the morning and four at night. When the monkeys

conveyed their dissatisfaction with receiving too few acorns in the morning, the trainer obliged,

giving them four acorns in the morning and three at night. As a result, “the monkeys were all

delighted.” 7

The Zhuangzi rejects every barrier, including that between the ordinary and the fantastic,

between the normal and the paranormal, as hinted by the story of the butterfly dream. But the

love of the marvelous really shows itself best in some stories that talk of the supernatural powers

that a wise person can attain. The Zhuangzi tells of an exceptional person who could tell

everything about one’s past and future, another who could ride on the wind, and another who

was invulnerable to heat or pain. The Zhuangzi thus elaborates the potential results of being one

with the Dao.

Basic Early TEACHINGS

The main teachings of the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi can be summarized as follows:

 Dao This is the name for whatever mysterious reality makes nature to be what it is and to

act the way it does. The Chinese character for Dao is commonly translated as “way,” but

it has also been translated as “existence,” “pattern,” and “process.” Primarily, the Dao is

the way that nature expresses itself—the natural way. Human beings can unite

themselves with the Dao in the way they live.

 Wu wei: the ideal of effortlessness To have stern commandments would go against the

nature of Daoism; but it does offer recommendations about how to live—

recommendations that do not come from a divine voice but from nature, the model of

balance and harmony. The recommendation most often mentioned in the Daodejing is wu

wei, which literally means “no action.” Perhaps a better translation is “no strain” or

“effortlessness.” The ideal implies the avoidance of unnecessary action or action that is

not spontaneous. If we look at nature, we notice that many things happen quietly,

effortlessly: plants grow, birds and animals are born, and nature repairs itself after a

storm. Nature works to accomplish only what is necessary, but no more. Consider the

plain strength of the ordinary bird nest. Birds build homes according to their needs, and

what they make is simple and beautiful; they don’t require circular driveways, pillars, or

marbled entryways. The ideal of “no strain” is the antithesis of all those sweat-loving

mottoes such as “No pain, no gain” and “Onward and upward.”

The boatman who goes with the river’s flow is an example of wu wei in practice.

© Steven Vidler/Eurasia Press/Corbis

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 Simplicity Daoism has often urged its followers to eliminate whatever is unnecessary and

artificial and to appreciate the simple and the apparently ordinary. In this regard, Daoists

have tended to distrust any highly formal education, owing to its inherent complexity and

artificiality. (This was one of their major complaints against the Confucians, who put so

much trust in education.) In a passage that has delighted students for centuries, the

Daodejing in the twentieth chapter states its opinion: “Give up learning, and put an end to

your troubles.”

 Gentleness Because Daoists pursue the gentle way, they hate weapons and war. The wise

person loves peace and restraint and avoids all unnecessary violence. The wise person

“does not regard weapons as lovely things. For to think them lovely means to delight in

them, and to delight in them means to delight in the slaughter of men.” 8

 Relativity People see things from a limited point of view that is based on their own

concerns. They see things in terms of divisions: I-you, good-bad, expensive-cheap,

valuable-worthless, beautiful-ugly, and so forth. Daoists believe that it is necessary to

attain a vision of things that goes beyond these apparent opposites.

Daoism and the Quest for Longevity

Daoism has absorbed many practices that are thought to bring a person into union with the Dao.

These practices help the person feel the flow of nature, attain spiritual purity, and live a long life.

To use the word yoga to describe Daoist exercises could be misleading, because yoga is a

Sanskrit word. But this word is useful for conveying to nonspecialists the physical aspect of

Daoism. The canon of Daoist literature includes recommendations for many types of arm and

body movements, breathing regulation, diet, and massage. Today, several popular physical

disciplines continue this interest. Most influential is taiji (t’ai chi), a series of slow arm and leg

motions thought to aid balance and circulation. An astounding sight in the early morning in

China is to see hundreds of people doing taiji exercises in the parks. The spectacle looks like

ballet in graceful slow motion.

One “yogic” practice is called internal alchemy. It aims at transforming and spiritualizing the life

force (qi, ch’i) of the practitioner. Some later forms of internal alchemy teach exercises that

move the life force from its origin at the base of the spine upward to the head. From there it

circles back, via the heart, to its origin. This movement is accomplished through certain postures,

muscular exercises, and practices of mental imagery. Some Daoists have held that these

techniques of internal alchemy can create an entity—the “immortal embryo”—that can survive

the death of the body.

In ancient China, some people experimented with physical alchemy, hoping to create an elixir

that could extend life and even make a person immortal. Because gold did not rust, individuals

attempted to make gold either into a drinkable liquid or into a vessel from which an elixir could

be drunk. Jade, pearl, mother-of-pearl, and compounds of mercury were also utilized. Some

people undoubtedly died as a result of these experiments. When there seemed to be little success

in this direction, the alchemical search became a metaphor for the development of the type of

internal alchemy just described. In Chinese culture there remains, however, a great interest in

pills, foods, and medicines that are believed to prolong life. Some of these (such as ginseng,

garlic, and ginger) seem to have genuine medical benefits.

The Development of Daoism

Early Daoism was not an “organized religion.” Many of its earliest practitioners lived alone, as

some still do today. The reclusive lifestyle of the hermit dates back to ancient China, and some

chapters of the Daodejing may have emerged from that way of life.

As time went on, however, the movement took on many organized forms. Elements of Daoism

appealed to individuals and groups interested in achieving a variety of goals. Among their aims

were longevity, supernatural abilities, control over disease, social reform, political control, and

spiritual insight. Because of the wide-ranging interests within Daoism and its capacity to easily

form new groups, there emerged over centuries a multitude of sects, branches, and religious

communities. Their power waxed and waned, depending on their ability to maintain themselves

and on the interest of current rulers. (For example, Daoism reached perhaps its lowest point of

influence in 1281, when the emperor commanded that Daoist books be burned.) Among the

many organizations that developed, two proved to be particularly long-lived and influential. Both

still exist today.

One is an ancient organization called the Way of the Heavenly Masters (or Celestial Masters;

Tianshi, T’ien-shih). The organization traces itself back to a second-century teacher, Zhang

Daoling (Chang Tao-ling), who was believed to have had visions of Laozi. Zhang Daoling is

thought to have developed an organization that helped Daoism survive into the present. Control

of the organization is based on a hereditary model, with power usually passing from father to son

to grandson. The heads of the organization have the title of Heavenly Masters. The organization

set up a system of parishes. It is strong in Taiwan and has come to life again, after severe

repression by the Communist government, on the mainland.

The second persistent form of organized Daoism involved monasteries and related groups of

celibate monks and nuns. Although this form of Daoism was also suppressed in the early days of

the Communist government, it has resumed in mainland China, though under careful

governmental control. This monastic order is known as the Way of Complete Perfection

(Quanshen, Ch’üan-chen). It deliberately has blended elements of Daoism, Buddhism, and

Confucianism. Its principal prayer book was reprinted in 2000. Morning and evening services

that make use of the prayer book may be attended at many of its monasteries—most notably at

the White Cloud Monastery (Baiyunguan) in Beijing.

At the end of a family’s annual ceremony to honor its ancestors, red-robed Daoist priests conduct

participants to the offering table. Venerating one’s ancestors is a key element of Chinese

religions.

© Thomas Hilgers

One of the stimuli that influenced Daoism to take an organizational path was Buddhism, which

entered China in the first century CE. Buddhism was brought by a monastic clergy who set up

monasteries and temples that had impressive rites. Daoism followed these models in its own

development. By the fifth century CE, Daoism had grown into an organization with significant

political influence.

Daoism also imitated Buddhism in its production of a vast number of sacred books with wide-

ranging topics: guidebooks on meditation, breathing exercises, and sexual yoga; stories of

wonderworkers and of ecstatic excursions made to the stars; recipes for longevity and magical

powers; manuals of alchemy; and descriptions of ritual. A small sample of titles conveys the

flavor of Daoism: Scripture of Wondrous Beginning, Scripture of Great Simplicity, Like unto a

Dragon, Wondrous Scripture of Inner Daily Practice, Pillowbook Scripture, Biographies of Spirit

Immortals, The Yellow Court Scripture, and Scripture on Going beyond the World. A collection

of more than a thousand authoritative books was gathered and makes up the Daoist canon

(Daozang, Tao Tsang). A major edition of the canon was published in 1445, but supplements

continued to be added later.

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In Chinese temples, it is not unusual to encounter entranced shamans and their followers. Some

temples try to keep shamans away with warning signs.

© Thomas Hilgers

Daoism developed a pantheon of hundreds of deities. Some are powers of the universe; others

are people who became immortal; others are ancestral spirits. The deities include Laozi, spirits of

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nature, protective household gods, deified historical figures, and many others. Most important

are the Three Purities (Sanjing, San Ching). These constitute a Daoist trinity (probably modeled

on the Buddhist notion of the three bodies of the Buddha). The first of the Three Purities is the

primordial Dao; the second, a deity responsible for transmission of Daoist insight, is called the

Heavenly Worthy of Numinous Treasure; and the third is the deified Laozi, whose image may be

recognized by its white hair. Several female deities are important. Among them are Mother Li,

the mother of Lord Lao; Mazu (mentioned earlier), a deified girl who has become the patroness

of fishermen; Doumu, a star deity called Mother of the Big Dipper; and the Queen Mother of the

West, who is a mother figure responsible for all the immortals. The Jade Emperor, an ancient

legendary figure, is thought of as an emperor who rules heaven and earth and who judges

people’s deeds at the end of each year.

Other commonly worshiped gods are household gods, such as the gods of the hearth and the

doorway, and gods of the sky, earth, water, and town. Worship is also given to regional deities

and to the spirits of ancestors. Daoist temples represent many of these gods with statues and

paintings, and offerings of food, water, and incense are regularly placed in front of the images.

Daoism is strong in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and in overseas Chinese communities, such as in

Malaysia and Singapore. After initially being repressed by the Communist Party, Daoism is

experiencing a resurgence on the mainland. A large statue of Laozi was erected in 1999 in

southeastern China, and pilgrims from Taiwan and elsewhere routinely travel to the mainland to

honor the goddess Mazu at her pilgrimage site, Meizhou Island in southeast China.

Deeper Insights: The Chinese Garden—Bridge to the Infinite

The philosopher Wing-Tsit Chan has written of the semireligious role that a Chinese garden can

play:

 Nature is never looked upon by the Chinese as chaotic or disorganized. Heaven and earth

co-exist in harmony, and the four seasons run their course regularly.... This harmony of

man and nature in the flow of the great stream of rhythm makes the Chinese garden more

than something merely secular. It is true that no one would look upon the Chinese garden

as a religious structure.... But in spite of all this, we cannot deny the fact that the garden

is regarded as an ideal place for meditation. Meditation may be purely moral, an effort at

self-introspection. Intense and sincere meditation, however, inevitably leads to the

absorption in the Infinite. 9

Because of government support on the mainland for Complete Perfection Daoism, many of its

temples and monasteries are being rebuilt, particularly in traditional mountain locations.

Heavenly Master Daoism is also growing on the mainland. It was never suppressed in Taiwan

and is the major form of ritualized village Daoism. Its clergy do ministerial work, attending to

the needs of the public. Exorcists, who are often identified by their red hats or scarves, work to

heal and restore harmony. Priests, identified by their black caps, primarily perform blessings,

funerals, and other rites.

Daoist practices and beliefs are kept alive not only by Daoists but also by the Chinese tendency

to blend beliefs of several systems. It is common, for example, to find Daoist images in Buddhist

temples. In the mind of most Chinese, there need be no argument. In ordinary practice, elements

from Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism are combined. The three religions are mutually

supportive—as their members have generally agreed.

Daoism and the Arts

It is possible to see Daoist influences in many Chinese art forms, although the extent of the

influence is impossible to determine with precision. Paintings of Laozi riding on an ox are clear

examples of Daoist influence, as are references to Zhuangzi in poetry, but beyond that it is

perhaps more accurate to say that poetry and the arts share many of the same concerns of Daoist

thought—just as they do of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian thought.

As we know, the immensity, flow, and mystery of nature are common themes in the Daodejing,

and some of the book’s most important images are flowing water, the valley, and the uncarved

block of stone. These themes and images are abundant in Chinese painting.

In Chinese nature painting, perspective is important. Images drawn from nature are often

presented either very close up or at a great distance. Paintings of a bird or a stalk of bamboo seen

close-up help the viewer see the mysterious energy at work in these nonhuman forms of life: a

bird perches in a certain way on a branch, and a stalk of bamboo emerges in its own special way

into the sunshine. These paintings make us look more closely at the humbler elements of

nature—cats, rabbits, birds, deer—and recognize that they, too, have their own interests and

patterns of living and that our human patterns are only a small part of the much wider repertory

of nature.

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This scroll, though painted in Hangzhou in 1953, includes many classic elements of Daoist

painting—mountains, bamboo groves, streams, and waterfalls. As its inscription suggests, the

scroll expresses the notion that mountains and clouds bring perfection.

© Thomas Hilgers

Chinese gardens unite natural and constructed elements to produce a sense of harmony between

human beings and nature.

© Thomas Hilgers

The garden is more than the supplement to the house. It fulfills a higher function of life, the

function that only art can fulfill.

Wing-Tsit Chan 10

The great genius of Chinese nature painting is particularly evident in the paintings of landscapes

seen at a distance. These paintings often depict hints of mountains far away and, beyond them,

infinite space. Some portray a person gazing far into the distance, even beyond the painting

itself. What we most notice in these works is the fascinating use of empty space. Some of the

paintings are almost half empty, but they do not feel unfinished, as if something were missing.

Ma Yuan (c. 1160–c. 1225) was a master of this effect. In his painting entitled A Scholar and His

Servant on a Terrace, a gentleman looks out past pine branches into the distance; the upper left

half of the painting, in the direction of the man’s gaze, is entirely empty. In his painting Walking

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on a Mountain Path in Spring, a man strolls into an emptiness—virtually the entire right side of

the painting—inhabited only by one small bird. The space of the paintings is the positive

emptiness to which the Daodejing draws our attention.

Chinese poetry frequently praises themes also found in the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi: the joy

of life in the countryside, away from the complications of the city; the change of seasons;

simplicity; and harmony with nature. The poet who is often praised for his fine expression of

Daoist ideals was Li Bai (also spelled Li Bo and Li Po). He lived during the Tang dynasty and

died about 762 CE. Little is known about his life, but his death is famous. According to tradition,

he died as the result of a poetic accident. Sitting drunk in a boat one night, Li Bai reached out to

embrace the moon’s reflection on the water, but he fell in and disappeared beneath the surface.

One of his poems is about Zhuangzi’s dream of being a butterfly. Another is about Li Bai’s being

so absorbed in nature that he did not notice dusk coming on; when he stood up at last, flower

petals fell off his clothes. His poems are so highly regarded that they have been memorized and

recited by the Chinese for centuries to express their own deepest feelings.

The serpentine form pictured here is a classical Chinese “poetry stream.” Wine-sipping

gentlemen challenged one another to compose a complete poem in the time it took a wine cup to

float from the beginning of the stream to its end.

© Thomas Hilgers

Chinese garden design is an art form that complements and completes Chinese architecture. The

house is yang, the realm of the square and the straight line; the garden is yin, the realm of the

circle and the curve. Inside is family harmony; outside is harmony with nature. One realm

supports the other. Chinese garden design differs from that of common Western design. Instead

of straight lines and symmetry, walkways meander, and bridges may zigzag. Gates, in imitation

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of the moon, may be round. And water moves in its natural manner—that is, not upward, as in a

fountain, but only gently down.

The rooflines of this temple in Southeast Asia reflect Chinese traditions.

© Thomas Hilgers

Daoism and the Modern World

Daoism may be expected to regain much of its earlier standing. Because it has never been

suppressed in Taiwan, Hong Kong, or overseas communities of Chinese, it will remain strong

there, and its only challenge will come from the secularizing forces of the contemporary world.

On the Chinese mainland, as we have seen, there are many indications of a revival. In mainland

China, Daoist temples are being rebuilt, often with financial aid from abroad, and Daoist temples

may now be found at many traditional mountain sites, in urban locations, and in villages. Daoist

pilgrimage seems to be reviving—particularly in southeastern China, probably because of its

geographical proximity to travelers from Taiwan.

As scholars increasingly bring attention to Daoism, the presence of female imagery and themes

is becoming more widely known. The Daodejing speaks of the value of nurturing and the role of

the mother, calling the Dao “the mother of all things.” Several major deities are female, as noted

above. Historians have also come to realize the role that historical women have played in

Daoism. Women have become Daoist nuns, teachers, and matriarchs. Women have also become

Daoist priests. And many of the important symbols of Daoism are suggestive of the female,

including the cave, the valley, flowing water, and the flaming pearl. These continue to influence

the world of architecture and art.

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In world culture, Daoist ideas such as those found in the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi continue to

spread their influence. (After the Bible, the Daodejing is the world’s most frequently translated

book.) Daoist art and ritual are gaining increased attention as a result of recent museum

exhibitions, particularly through the work of the Art Institute of Chicago and the Asian Art

Museum of San Francisco. And contemporary scholars of Daoism, by shedding light on actual

Daoist practice, are introducing Daoism to a wider public.

Deeper Insights: Daoism and Nature

Daoism seems to have begun as part of early Chinese attempts to understand the movements of

nature. Over the many centuries of its existence, Daoism has created a body of literature,

complex ritual, and a well-developed way of looking at the world. At the heart of all these lies

appreciation for the forces of yin and yang, which are constantly active in the workings of

seasonal change, planting and harvesting, and all forms of life.

Daoism encourages human understanding of nature’s movement, so that there can be harmony

between human beings and the rest of nature. Daoism encourages human beings to be simple and

egoless. It promotes health through meditation, exercise, contemplation of nature, and living in a

harmonious environment.

A Daoist statement of religious belief, made by the Chinese Daoist Association, summarizes

these ideals. It points out that the Daodejing states that Heaven follows the Dao and the Dao

follows what is natural (chapter 25). Therefore, human beings, who must follow the way of

nature, must value the earth.

We can see how Daoist ideals match well with those of the environmental movement, which also

recommends human restraint, harmony, and care for the natural world. But Daoists have begun

practical steps to express their ideals. At Taibaishan, for example, they have created the first

temple of ecology. There they hold workshops to promote their vision. A group called the

Temple Alliance on Ecology Education has helped create the Qinling Declaration. Members who

sign the statement promise to use their temples for ecological education, farm their lands

sustainably, protect water resources, protect species, and care for forests.

Confucianism

Daoism, as we just saw, seeks to bring human beings into union with the Dao, particularly

through imitating certain qualities in nature—its harmony, lack of strain, and flowing mystery.

The complex of ideals and beliefs that helped give shape to Laozi’s teachings also influenced

Confucius, the major teacher of the second great Chinese school of thought. Thus, it is not

surprising to find Confucianism as concerned with the Dao as Daoism is; as one Confucian

classic says, “He is the sage who naturally and easily embodies the right way.” 11

This “way” is

the cosmic Dao that permeates the entire universe—the Dao that we see in the everyday life of

the noble person also “in its utmost reaches... shines brightly through heaven and earth.” 12

The Dao in Confucianism

There is a difference, however, between Daoist and Confucian notions of the Dao. For

Confucians, the Dao of primary interest is the Dao within the human world, manifested in “right”

relationships and in a harmonious society. It was social harmony that Confucius described when

he listed his particular wishes: “[In] regard to the aged, to give them rest; in regard to friends, to

show them sincerity; in regard to the young, to treat them tenderly.” 13

The Master said, “At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I

had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ

for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing

what was right.”

from the Confucian Analects 14

In Daoism, everything is a part of the rhythm of nature—the Dao. In Confucianism, however,

although birds and clouds and trees are what they should be, human beings do not automatically

become what they should be. The sweet, spontaneous infant can quickly turn into the selfish

child. The Confucian would say that training in virtue is necessary in order to enable the Dao to

manifest itself clearly in the human being.

The Doctrine of the Mean, an important Confucian text (discussed later in this chapter),

recommends several types of training, including training in the cultivation of personal

equilibrium and harmony. We should recall that the Daoist ideal of the Daodejing warns against

such “training,” feeling that formal education has a potential for distorting one’s originally pure

state. Confucians, however, hold that the best training does not contaminate character but, by

cultivating virtues, gives it definition and clarity.

The Life of Confucius

Confucius was born about 551 BCE, at a time when China was not a single empire but a group of

small kingdoms. His name was Kong Qiu (K’ung Ch’iu). He later became known by the title of

Kong Fuzi (K’ung Fu Tzu), meaning “Master Kong,” but he is known in the West by the Latin

version of his name, which was created and spread by European Catholic missionaries.

Tradition relates that Confucius was from a once-noble family that had fled at a time of political

danger to the state of Lu (south of present-day Beijing). His father died when Confucius was a

child, and despite their poverty, his mother raised him as an educated gentleman. He enjoyed

chariot riding, archery, and playing the lute. In his teens, he became seriously interested in

pursuing scholarship. He is said to have held a minor government post as tax collector, probably

to support his mother and his studies. His mother died when he was in his late teens, and he

entered into a state of mourning. When the period of mourning was over, he began his public life

as a teacher.

Images of Confucius are found in many Chinese temples throughout Southeast Asia.

© Thomas Hilgers

Despite his eventual success as a teacher, Confucius had always wanted to play an influential

part in government, and it is possible that for a time (c. 500–496 BCE) he became a government

minister. Confucius married and is believed to have had a son and a daughter. He lived for about

fifteen years outside of his home state but eventually returned to Lu to take a somewhat

ceremonial post as senior advisor. He died about 479 BCE.

Living According to Confucian Values

The period in which Confucius was born was a time of social turmoil because of the

disintegration of the feudal system. Seeing families and individuals suffering from the social

disorder, Confucius concluded that society would function properly only if virtues were taught

and lived.

The ideals of Confucius were two: he wanted to produce “excellent” individuals who could be

social leaders, and he wanted to create a harmonious society. He believed that these ideals were

complementary: excellent individuals would keep society harmonious, and a harmonious society

would nurture excellent individuals.

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Confucius believed that each human being is capable of being good, refined, and even great; but

he differed from the Daoists because he was convinced that a human being cannot achieve those

qualities in isolation. In his view, a human being becomes a full person only through the

contributions of other people and through fulfilling one’s obligations to them. These other people

include parents, teachers, friends, aunts and uncles, grandparents, ancestors, and even

government ministers.

Twice yearly during the spring and autumn equinoxes, South Korea hosts a solemn ceremony to

honor the Chinese philosopher Confucius and other eminent Confucian scholars of China and

Korea.

© Nayan Sthankiya/Corbis

Confucius also believed that more than social interaction (which even animals have) is needed to

achieve personal excellence. For Confucius, that “more” is what makes ordinary human beings

into excellent human beings, “superior persons.” What constitutes that “more”? What are the

sources of human excellence?

Deeper Insights: The Ideal Human Being

Confucianism is often thought of as a system for the regulation of social groups. Yet

Confucianism is also a system for the transformation of the individual. Under-girding

Confucianism is not just the ideal of an orderly society but also the ideal of a perfect human

being.

This perfect person is the junzi (chün tzu)—a term usually translated as “superior person,”

although a better translation may be “noble person.” The following quotations give a sense of the

virtue that guides the junzi—the person who shows humanity at its best. In such a noble human

being the Confucian ideals have been inculcated since childhood, and the virtues have been

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practiced for so long that the whole Confucian manner of relating to the world has become

completely natural. The “noble person,” as Alfred Bloom nicely describes, is

 distinguished by his faithfulness, diligence, and modesty. He neither overpowers with his

knowledge, nor is afraid to admit error. He looks at all sides of any issue, is cautious and

not concerned for personal recognition. Carrying himself with dignity, he appears

imperturbable, resolute, and simple. He is exemplary in filial piety and generous with his

kin. In his relations with others he looks for good points, though he is not uncritical. As a

leader, he knows how to delegate responsibility and when to pardon or promote. He is

sensitive to the feelings and expressions of others. 15

A subtle portrait of such a person is given by George Kates, who describes the man who became

his personal tutor in China. Kates writes about the civilized manner that manifested itself in all

his tutor’s actions, even in the cultivated way the tutor entered a room and sat in a chair. The

tutor, Mr. Wang,

 had contrived to make his humdrum life, composed of a daily routine of monotonous

teaching and domestic privation, symmetrical and reasonable indeed.... His eyes were

kind; and his glance could at times glow when some new thought would catch and hold

him. His side-face made you like him.... He... remained closed and therefore secure, if

only because he knew so well by indirection how to turn aside effectively any indiscreet

remark or lolloping conduct on the part of some new and immature pupil.... When Mr.

Wang became assured that we thus had the same sense of decorum, barriers fell. Yet I

remained more unwilling than ever now to press in upon his carefully guarded privacies;

and upon this base we built a tranquil relation, partial it is true, but one that lasted us

peaceably through many years. He became my formal teacher. 16

According to Confucius, excellence comes partly from the cultivation of an individual’s virtues

and intellect. Thus, education is essential. We should recognize, though, that for Confucius

education meant more than knowledge; it also involved the development of skills in poetry,

music, artistic appreciation, manners, and religious ritual. Confucius valued education because it

transmitted the lessons of the past into the present. He believed that much of the wisdom

required to produce excellent human beings is already expressed in the teachings of the great

leaders of the past. Convinced that the past provides fine models for the present, Confucius

thought that education could show the way to wise and happy living.

Moreover, Confucius saw civilization as a complicated and fragile creation; because of this, he

believed that civilized human beings must be full of respect and care. Care must be given to the

young, who will continue human life on earth, and to the elders, who teach and pass on the

traditions. There should be reverence for everything valuable that has been brought from earlier

generations.

Confucius’s idea of a perfect society was one in which every member of society would be cared

for and protected, and no one would feel abandoned. (Contrast this with modern industrial

society; in a city full of people, an individual can feel utterly alone.) Confucius believed that a

perfect society could come about if people played their social roles properly. His sense of social

responsibility was codified in the five great relationships.

The Five Great Relationships

In Confucianism, relationships are just as real as any visible object. Human beings are not

merely individuals. They are also interwoven threads of relationships with many people. To a

great extent, in Confucian thinking human beings are their relationships.

All relationships, however, are not equal. The level of a relationship may be determined by

personal factors, such as friendship or family connection, or by more formal social factors, such

as age or social status. Confucianism recognizes this inequality and actually lists relationships

according to a hierarchy, beginning with the most important:

1. Father-son Family is the foundation of society for Confucians, with the relationship between father and son at its core. This relationship also represents all parent-child

relationships. Parents must be responsible for the education and moral formation of their

children. The children must be respectful and obedient to their parents, and they must

care for them in their old age. Confucianism has extended this parental role in ways that

some people in more individualistic societies today might not appreciate; for example,

the parents are expected to help in the selection of a career and a marriage partner for

each child. But the relationship of obligation is mutual: parents and children must show

care for each other. The obligation of mutual care does not end upon death; even after

their parents’ death, children are expected to honor their parents’ memory, especially by

venerating photos of them at a home altar and by maintaining their graves. The parent-

child relationship is considered so fundamental that it often functions as the model for all

similar relationships, such as those between boss and employee and between teacher and

student.

2. Elder brother–younger brother Languages such as English, French, and Spanish do not distinguish between an elder brother and a younger brother. But the Chinese, Korean,

Vietnamese, and Japanese languages—which all have been strongly influenced by

Confucian thought—have different words for the two kinds of brothers. In their cultures,

the distinction is important. An elder brother must assume responsibility for raising the

younger siblings, and the younger siblings must be compliant. The practicality of this

arrangement becomes clear when we appreciate the possibility of an elderly father dying

before all his children have been raised. The paternal responsibility then would shift to

the eldest son, who has a unique status in the family.

The hierarchy of relationships governs the responsibilities between and among

individuals. The responsibilities of family members, especially of children for their

elders, are significant, and sometimes the duties can be problematic.

© LWA/Larry Williams/Blend Images/Corbis

3. Husband-wife Each person in this relationship is responsible for the other’s care. In Confucian thought, the relationship is hierarchical. The husband is an authoritative

protector, and the wife is a protected homemaker and mother. The Confucian notion of

marriage also implies much less romantic expectation than does the modern Western

notion; in Confucian societies wives, over time, can even become quite motherly toward

their husbands.

4. Elder-younger All older people have responsibility for younger people, because younger people need care, support, and character formation. This means, as well, that younger

people must show respect to those older than they are and be open to their advice.

Important to this relationship is the role of the mentor, which is taken very seriously in

Confucian cultures. The elder-younger relationship exists between a teacher and a

student, between a boss and an employee, between older and younger workers, and

between an expert and an apprentice. (The traditional characters for teacher in Chinese

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and Japanese literally mean “earlier-born.” The term suggests the relationship of master-

disciple, and it has overtones of strong mutual obligation.)

In some versions of the Five Great Relationships, the friend-friend relationship is listed

fourth. The relationship between elder and younger and that between friend and friend are

actually quite close, however. In friendship there is often a certain hierarchy: the friends

may differ in rank, health, wealth, or knowledge. And if the difference is not evident at

first, time will bring it about. In this relationship, the more powerful friend has a

responsibility to assist the other friend, who is in need. In Confucian culture, a friendship

entails serious commitment, and a friendship made in youth is expected to last a lifetime.

5. Ruler-subject It might seem that this relationship should be listed first, and sometimes it is.

17 However, more often it appears last in the lists, reflecting the Confucian perspective

on the role of the ruler: above all, a ruler must act like a father, assuming responsibility

and care for the subjects who are like his children. Thus, the father-son relationship is

primary in that it is the model for most other relationships.