The breakfast club communication analysis

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A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

EIGHTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN

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A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

EIGHTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN Wheaton College

Special Consultants:

Glenn G. Sparks Purdue University

Andrew M. Ledbetter Texas Christian University

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Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003, 2000, 1997, 1994, 1991. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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ISBN: 978-0-07-353430-5 MHID: 0-07-353430-7

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Credits: The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Griffi n, Emory A. A fi rst look at communication theory / Em Griffi n.—8th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-353430-5 1. Communication—Philosophy. I. Title. P90.G725 2011 302.201—dc22 2011001159

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Em Griffin is Professor Emeritus of Communication at Wheaton College in Illinois, where he has taught for more than 35 years and has been chosen Teacher of the Year. He received his bachelor’s degree in political science from the Univer- sity of Michigan, and his M.A. and Ph.D. in communication from Northwestern University. His research interest centers on the development of close friendships.

Em is the author of three applied communication books: The Mind Changers analyzes practical techniques of persuasion; Getting Together offers research-based suggestions for effective group leadership; and Making Friends describes the way quality interpersonal communication can create and sustain close relationships.

In addition to teaching and writing, Em serves with Opportunity Interna- tional, a microfi nance development organization that provides opportunities for people in chronic poverty around the world to transform their lives. He is also an active mediator at the Center for Confl ict Resolution in Chicago and runs his own mediation service, Communication First.

Em’s wife, Jeanie, is an artist; they recently celebrated 50 years of marriage. They have two married, adult children, Jim and Sharon, and six grandchildren, Joshua, Amy, Sam, Kyle, Alison, and Dan.

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vii

CONTENTS

Preface for Instructors x

DIVISION ONE OVERVIEW

CHAPTER 1 Launching Your Study of Communication Theory 2

CHAPTER 2 Talk About Theory 13

CHAPTER 3 Weighing the Words 25

CHAPTER 4 Mapping the Territory (Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication Theory) 37

DIVISION TWO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal Messages 52

CHAPTER 5 Symbolic Interactionism of George Herbert Mead 54

CHAPTER 6 Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) of W. Barnett Pearce & Vernon Cronen 67

CHAPTER 7 Expectancy Violations Theory of Judee Burgoon 84

CHAPTER 8 Constructivism of Jesse Delia 98

Relationship Development 111

CHAPTER 9 Social Penetration Theory of Irwin Altman & Dalmas Taylor 113

CHAPTER 10 Uncertainty Reduction Theory of Charles Berger 125

CHAPTER 11 Social Information Processing Theory of Joseph Walther 138

Relationship Maintenance 151

CHAPTER 12 Relational Dialectics of Leslie Baxter & Barbara Montgomery 153

CHAPTER 13 Communication Privacy Management Theory of Sandra Petronio 168

CHAPTER 14 The Interactional View of Paul Watzlawick 181

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viii CONTENTS

Infl uence 192

CHAPTER 15 Social Judgment Theory of Muzafer Sherif 194

CHAPTER 16 Elaboration Likelihood Model of Richard Petty & John Cacioppo 205

CHAPTER 17 Cognitive Dissonance Theory of Leon Festinger 217

DIVISION THREE GROUP AND PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Group Communication 231

CHAPTER 18 Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making of Randy Hirokawa & Dennis Gouran 233

CHAPTER 19 Symbolic Convergence Theory of Ernest Bormann 247

Organizational Communication 259

CHAPTER 20 Cultural Approach to Organizations of Clifford Geertz & Michael Pacanowsky 261

CHAPTER 21 Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations of Stanley Deetz 272

Public Rhetoric 287

CHAPTER 22 The Rhetoric of Aristotle 289

CHAPTER 23 Dramatism of Kenneth Burke 299

CHAPTER 24 Narrative Paradigm of Walter Fisher 308

DIVISION FOUR MASS COMMUNICATION

Media and Culture 319

CHAPTER 25 Media Ecology of Marshall McLuhan 321

CHAPTER 26 Semiotics of Roland Barthes 332

CHAPTER 27 Cultural Studies of Stuart Hall 344

Media Effects 355

CHAPTER 28 Uses and Gratifi cations of Elihu Katz 357

CHAPTER 29 Cultivation Theory of George Gerbner 366

CHAPTER 30 Agenda-Setting Theory of Maxwell McCombs & Donald Shaw 378

DIVISION FIVE CULTURAL CONTEXT

Intercultural Communication 392

CHAPTER 31 Communication Accommodation Theory of Howard Giles 394

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CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 32 Face-Negotiation Theory of Stella Ting-Toomey 407

CHAPTER 33 Speech Codes Theory of Gerry Philipsen 421

Gender and Communication 433

CHAPTER 34 Genderlect Styles of Deborah Tannen 435

CHAPTER 35 Standpoint Theory of Sandra Harding & Julia Wood 447

CHAPTER 36 Muted Group Theory of Cheris Kramarae 460

DIVISION SIX INTEGRATION

CHAPTER 37 Common Threads in Comm Theories 473

Appendix A: Abstracts of Theories A-1

Appendix B: Feature Films that Illustrate Communication Theories A-6

Appendix C: NCA Credo for Ethical Communication A-8

Endnotes E-1

Credits and Acknowledgments C-1

Index I-1

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x

PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

If you’re already familiar with A First Look at Communication Theory and under- stand the approach, organization, and main features of the book, you may want to jump ahead to the “Major Changes in the Eighth Edition” section. For those who are new to the text, reading the entire preface will give you a good grasp of what you and your students can expect.

A Balanced Approach to Theory Selection. I’ve written A First Look for students who have no background in communication theory. It’s designed for undergraduates enrolled in an entry-level course, regardless of the students’ clas- sifi cation. The trend in the fi eld is to offer students a broad introduction to theory relatively early in their program. But if a department chooses to offer its fi rst theory course on the junior or senior level, the course will still be the students’ fi rst comprehensive look at theory, so the book will meet them where they are.

The aim of the text is to present 32 specifi c theories in a way that makes them interesting and understandable. By the time readers complete the book, they should have a working knowledge of theories that explain a broad range of com- munication phenomena. Of course, my ultimate goal is for students to understand the relationships among the leading ideas in our fi eld, but before they can make those connections, they need to have a good grasp of what the theorists are saying. The bulk of the book provides that raw material.

With the help of journal and yearbook editors, and the feedback of 200 instructors, I’ve selected a range of theories that refl ect the diversity within the discipline. Some theories are proven candidates for a Communication Theory Hall of Fame. For example, Aristotle’s analysis of logical, emotional, and ethical appeals continues to set the agenda for many public-speaking courses. Mead’s symbolic interactionism is formative for interpretive theorists who are dealing with language, thought, self-concept, or the effect of society upon the individual. Berger’s uncertainty reduction theory was the fi rst objective theory to be crafted by a social scientist trained in the fi eld. The axioms of Watzlawick’s interactional view continue to be debated by interpersonal scholars. And no student of medi- ated communication should be ignorant of Gerbner’s cultivation theory, which explains why heavy television viewing cultivates fear of a mean and scary world.

It would be shortsighted, however, to limit the selection to the classics of communication. Some of the discipline’s most creative approaches are its newest. For example, Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery’s theory of relational dia- lectics offers insight into the ongoing tensions inherent in personal relationships.

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xi

Joe Walther’s social information processing is one of the few fully developed and well-researched theories of computer-mediated communication. And Gerry Philipsen’s speech codes theory upgrades the ethnography of communication from a methodology to a theory that can be used to explain, predict, and control discourse about discourse.

Organizational Plan of the Book. Each chapter introduces a single theory in 10–15 pages. I’ve found that most undergraduates think in terms of discrete packets of information, so the concentrated coverage gives them a chance to focus their thoughts while reading a single chapter. In this way, students can gain an in-depth understanding of important theories rather than acquire only a vague familiarity with a jumble of related ideas. The one-chapter–one-theory arrange- ment also gives teachers the opportunity to drop theories or rearrange the order of presentation without tearing apart the fabric of the text.

The fi rst four chapters provide a framework for understanding the theo- ries to come. The opening chapter, “Launching Your Study of Communication Theory,” presents working defi nitions of both theory and communication, and also prepares students for the arrangement of the chapters and the features within them. Chapter 2, “Talk About Theory,” lays the groundwork for understanding the differences between objective and interpretive theories. Chapter 3, “Weigh- ing the Words,” presents two sets of criteria for determining a good objective or interpretive theory. Based on Robert Craig’s (University of Colorado) conception, Chapter 4, “Mapping the Territory,” introduces seven traditions within the fi eld of communication theory.

Following this integrative framework, I present the 32 theories in 32 self- contained chapters. Each theory is discussed within the context of a commu- nication topic: interpersonal messages, relationship development, relationship maintenance, infl uence, group communication, organizational communication, public rhetoric, media and culture, media effects, intercultural communication, and gender and communication. These communication context sections usually contain two or three theories. Each section’s two-page introduction outlines a cru- cial issue that theorists working in this area address. The placement of theories in familiar contexts helps students recognize that theories are answers to questions they’ve been asking all along. The fi nal chapter, “Common Threads in Comm Theories,” offers students a novel form of integration that will help them discern order in the tapestry of communication theory that might otherwise seem chaotic.

Because all theory and practice has value implications, I briefl y explore a dozen ethical principles throughout the book. Consistent with the focus of this text, each principle is the central tenet of a specifi c ethical theory. Other disciplines may ignore these thorny issues, but to discuss communication as a process that is untouched by questions of good and bad, right and wrong, or virtue and vice would be to disregard an ongoing concern in our fi eld.

Features of Each Chapter. Most people think in pictures. Students will have a rough time understanding a theory unless they apply its explanations and inter- pretations to concrete situations. The typical chapter uses an extended example to illustrate the “truth” a theory proposes. I encourage readers to try out ideas by visualizing a fi rst meeting of freshman roommates, responding to confl ict in a dysfunctional family, trying to persuade other students to support a zero-tolerance policy on driving after drinking, and many others. I also use Toni Morrison’s book Beloved, speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, and the fi lms Bend It Like Beckham, Thank You for Smoking, Erin Brockovich, and When Harry Met

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xii PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

Sally to illustrate principles of the theories. The case study in each chapter follows the pedagogical principle of explaining what students don’t yet know in terms of ideas and images already within their experience.

Some theories are tightly linked with an extensive research project. For exam- ple, the impact of cognitive dissonance theory was greatly spurred by Festinger’s surprising fi nding in his now classic $1/$20 experiment. Philipsen’s speech codes theory began with a three-year ethnographic study of what it means to speak like a man in “Teamsterville.” And Delia’s constructivist research continues to be de- pendent on Crockett’s Role Category Questionnaire. When such exemplars exist, I describe the research in detail so that students can learn from and appreciate the benefi ts of grounding theory in systematic observation. Thus, readers of A First Look are led through a variety of research designs and data analyses.

Students will encounter the names of Baxter, Berger, Bormann, Burgoon, Burke, Deetz, Fisher, Giles, Kramarae, Pacanowsky, Pearce, Philipsen, Ting- Toomey, Walther, Wood, and many others in later communication courses. I therefore make a concerted effort to link theory and theorist. By pairing a particu- lar theory with its originator, I try to promote both recall and respect for a given scholar’s effort.

The text of each chapter concludes with a section that critiques the theory. This represents a hard look at the ideas presented in light of the criteria for a good theory outlined in Chapter 3. Some theorists have told me that I am a “friend” of their theory. I appreciate that. I want to present all of them in a constructive way, but after I provide a summary of the theory’s strengths, I then discuss the weaknesses, unanswered questions, and possible errors that remain. I try to stimu- late a “That makes sense, and yet I wonder . . .” response among students.

I include a short list of thought questions at the end of each chapter. Labeled “Questions to Sharpen Your Focus,” these probes encourage students to make connections among ideas in the chapter and also to apply the theory to their everyday communication experience. As part of this feature, words printed in italics remind students of the key terms of a given theory.

Each chapter ends with a short list of annotated readings entitled “A Second Look.” The heading refers to resources for students who are interested in a theory and want to go further than a 10- to 15-page introduction allows. The top item is the resource I recommend as the starting point for further study. The other list- ings identify places to look for material about each of the major issues raised in the chapter. The format is designed to offer practical encouragement and guidance for further study without overwhelming the novice with multiple citations. The sources of quotations and citations of evidence are listed in an “Endnotes” section at the end of the book.

I believe professors and students alike will get a good chuckle out of the cartoons I’ve selected for each chapter and section introduction. The art’s main function, however, is to illustrate signifi cant points in the text. As in other editions, I’m committed to using quality cartoon art from The New Yorker and Punch maga- zines, as well as comic strips such as “Calvin and Hobbes,” “Dilbert,” “Cathy,” and “Zits.” Perceptive cartoonists are modern-day prophets—their humor serves the education process well when it slips through mental barriers or attitudinal defenses that didactic prose can’t penetrate.

While no author considers his or her style ponderous or dull, I believe I’ve presented the theories in a clear and lively fashion. Accuracy alone does not com- municate. I’ve tried to remain faithful to the vocabulary each theorist uses so that

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xiii

the student can consider the theory in the author’s own terms, but I also translate technical language into more familiar words. Students and reviewers cite read- ability and interest as particular strengths of the text. I encourage you to sample a chapter so you can decide for yourself.

In 12 of the chapters, you’ll see photographs of the theorists who appear in my “Conversations with Communication Theorists,” eight-minute video clips of our discussions together. The text that accompanies each picture previews a few intriguing comments the theorists made so students can watch the interview with a specifi c purpose in mind. You can fi nd these videos on the book’s website, www. afi rstlook.com.

I encourage you to check out the website for other features that can equip you to make theory exciting for your students. Features include information on movie clips that illustrate specifi c theories, student application log entries that show Kurt Lewin was right when he said that there’s nothing as practical as a good theory, and a comparison of all major comm theory texts to fi nd out what theories are cov- ered in each book. Many of you will appreciate the theory archive, which contains more than 20 complete chapters from previous editions. This way you can assign one of your favorites if it isn’t in the current edition. The most popular resource on the site is the world-class instructor’s manual prepared by Emily Langan, which accounts for the vast majority of the 40,000 log-ins per month. In the password- protected, instructors-only section of the site, you’ll fi nd suggestions for discus- sions, classroom exercises and activities, and short-answer quizzes for each chapter.

Major Changes in the Eighth Edition. With the strong encouragement of a focus group and the results of an extensive online survey, I’ve added three new theories to this edition. Sandra Petronio’s communication privacy management theory has garnered great interest in the last decade. Though applicable whenever private information is disclosed, CPM’s relevance in the expanding fi eld of health com- munication makes its inclusion in the text particularly appropriate. In previous editions I’ve used an abbreviated version of Ernest Bormann’s symbolic convergence theory to illustrate the different criteria for evaluating scientifi c and interpretive theories. I now devote an entire chapter to this important group theory that com- bines rhetorical criticism with the desire for universal principles. And because the uses and gratifi cations approach of Elihu Katz changed the direction of media-effects theory and research, I’m pleased to introduce his work in this edition. In order to make room for those last two theories, I’ve moved my coverage of adaptive struc- turation theory and spiral of silence to the theory archive at www.afi rstlook.com.

I’ve streamlined all of the integration chapters. I’ve transferred my discussion of research from Chapter 2, “Talk About Theory” to Chapter 3, “Weighing the Words,” where quantitative or qualitative research becomes a sixth standard for a good objective or interpretive theory. Because I’ve moved my description of sym- bolic convergence theory to a stand-alone chapter, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 are shorter and more focused. In the previous edition, Chapter 4 illustrated the seven traditions of communication theory with a potpourri of early theories, research programs, and quotations that could confuse or overwhelm beginning students. In this edition, I describe how each tradition studies friendship, a topic near and dear to most college students. The end result is that these three integrative chap- ters are clearer and briefer, and do more to demonstrate the relationship between theory and research.

For the last 15 years in my communication theory course, I’ve given an “application log” assignment in which students write a paragraph or two applying

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xiv PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS

each theory to some aspect of their own lives or the world around them. When I read some exemplars in class, they are fascinated with the way their peers put theory into practice. I’ve inserted an application log entry into most chapters where I think it will not only spark interest, but also reinforce the specifi c feature of the theory I’m describing. In each case, the writer has given me explicit permis- sion to do so.

I’ve made at least one signifi cant change in two-thirds of the theory chapters. This may be a research update, a shift in the theorist’s thinking, a new example that runs throughout the theory, or a complete reorganization of the chapter. Here are a few examples: In the chapter on social judgment theory, I describe a media campaign at a Big Ten university that changed students’ perception and behavior by placing messages on binge drinking within students’ latitude of noncommit- ment. The treatment of social information processing (SIP) now addresses impres- sion formation on social networking sites like Facebook. Instead of illustrating the functional perspective on group decision making with an example of a faculty search committee (most students couldn’t care less), I now describe how two groups of students in similar off-campus courses made quite different decisions on how they would live together. And the entire chapter on cultivation theory has been restructured.

Acknowledgments. Working closely with three former students and friends has made crafting this edition an exciting and enjoyable project. Emily Langan, my colleague at Wheaton, has written an instructor’s manual that is recognized as the gold standard by others in our fi eld. Instructors tell me they walk into class with confi dence after reading Emily’s insights regarding a theory and her account of best practices on how to help students grasp and appreciate it.

On the title page of the book, Glenn Sparks (Purdue University) and Andrew Ledbetter (Texas Christian University) are listed as “Special Consultants.” What does this ambiguous title mean? For me, it signifi es that they’ve been involved in every major decision I’ve made for this edition. They were partners in creat- ing questions and interpreting the answers for a focus group and online survey of instructors teaching a communication theory course. They counseled me on changes that needed to be made and how best to make them. They read and made detailed comments on my drafts of new material. And they gladly took owner- ship of a few chapters in the book. Andrew did the rewrites of the chapters on social penetration, social information processing, and muted group theory. Glenn authored the new chapter on uses and gratifi cations and did a major rewrite of the chapter on cultivation theory. Emily, Andrew, and Glenn have contributed in ways that are above and beyond what any author has a right to expect. It’s been a delight working with them.

I gratefully acknowledge the wisdom and counsel of many other generous scholars whose intellectual capital is embedded in every page you’ll read. Over the last 24 years, hundreds of communication scholars have gone out of their way to make the book better. People who have made direct contributions to this edition include Ron Adler, Santa Barbara City College; Ron Arnett, Duquesne University; Julie Borkin, Oakland University; Brant Burleson, Purdue University; Stan Deetz, University of Colorado; Linda Desidero, University of Maryland; Thomas Discenna, Oakland University; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; Belle Edson, Arizona State University; Darin Garard, Santa Barbara City College; Howard Giles, University of California, Santa Barbara; Donna Gotch, California State University, San Bernardino; John Harrigan, Erie Community College; Cheris

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PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS xv

Kramarae, University of Oregon; Erina MacGeorge, Purdue University; Glen McClish, San Diego State University; Max McCombs, University of Texas; Marty Medhurst, Baylor University; Melanie Mills, Eastern Illinois University; Barnett Pearce, Fielding Graduate Institute; Russ Proctor, Northern Kentucky University; Read Schuchardt, Wheaton College; Paul Stob, Vanderbilt University; Stella Ting- Toomey, California State University, Fullerton; Scott Turcott, Indiana Wesleyan University; Robert Woods Jr., Spring Arbor University. Without their help, this edition would be less accurate and certainly less interesting.

My relationships with the professionals at McGraw-Hill have been highly satisfactory. I am grateful for Susan Gouijnstook, Executive Editor; Erika Lake, Editorial Coordinator; Leslie Oberhuber, Executive Marketing Manager; and Holly Irish, one of two Production Editors on the project. Jennie Katsaros, Senior Development Editor, Merrill Peterson, Production Editor from Matrix Produc- tions, and Penny Smith, Assistant Production Editor at Matrix are the three people with whom I’ve gladly worked most closely. Jennie has been my go-to person at McGraw-Hill for the last fi ve editions of the text—we’ve seen it all together. Merrill’s and Penny’s competence instills confi dence that the job will be done right; in a crisis they are unfl appable. When McGraw-Hill confi rmed that Merrill and Penny would shepherd the production process, I knew I could relax.

I’ve also been well-served by three outside contractors: Jenn Meyer, a com- mercial computer artist, created and revised fi gures on 24-hours notice; Judy Brody achieved the impossible by making the extensive permissions process en- joyable; Robyn Tellefsen was my student research assistant for the fourth edition of the book and is now a freelance writer and editor. When I wanted to work with someone who was familiar with the content and who I trusted implicitly, Robyn enthusiastically agreed to edit new material before I submitted it and proofread the entire text before it went to the printer. Other authors are envious when they hear of my good fortune to work with these nine people.

My research assistants for this edition have been Elizabeth Wilhoit and Ben Robertson. Elizabeth saw me through the fi rst half of the project before she en- tered a graduate program in rhetoric at Purdue. Ben, a media-studies honor stu- dent at Wheaton, picked up where Elizabeth left off. His work included the daunt- ing task of constructing the book’s extensive index while the publishing deadline loomed. I’m grateful for Elizabeth’s and Ben’s cheerful and helpful can-do attitude throughout the process. Colleagues at other schools are amazed when they hear of the dedicated and sophisticated help I receive from Wheaton undergraduates.

Finally, I gratefully recognize the continued encouragement, understanding, and loving support of my wife, Jean—not just on this project, but throughout 50 years of marriage. Her love, sense of humor, and parallel passion to create art and glorious music for others has made it possible for me to throw myself into this project.

Em Griffi n

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A FIRST LOOK AT

COMMUNICATION THEORY

EIGHTH EDITION

EM GRIFFIN

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DIVISION ONE

Overview

CHAPTER 1. Launching Your Study of Communication Theory CHAPTER 2. Talk About Theory CHAPTER 3. Weighing the Words CHAPTER 4. Mapping the Territory (Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication Theory)

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1 CHAPTER

Launching Your Study of Communication Theory

This is a book about theories—communication theories. After that statement you may already be stifl ing a yawn. Many college students, after all, regard theory as obscure, dull, and irrelevant. People outside the classroom are even less char- itable. An aircraft mechanic once chided a professor: “You academic types are all alike. Your heads are crammed so full of theory, you wouldn’t know which end of a socket wrench to grab. Any plane you touched would crash and burn. All Ph.D. stands for is ‘piled higher and deeper.’” The mechanic could be right. Yet it’s ironic that even in the process of knock- ing theory, he resorts to his own theory of cognitive overload to explain what he sees as the mechanical stupidity of scholars. I appreciate his desire to make sense of his world. Here’s a man who spends a big hunk of his life making sure that planes stay safely in the air until pilots are ready to land. When we really care about something, we should seek to answer the why and what if questions that always emerge. That was the message I heard from University of Arizona communication theorist Judee Burgoon when I talked with her in my series of interviews, Conversations with Communication Theorists. 1 If we care about the fas- cinating subject of communication, she suggested, we’ve got to “do theory.”

WHAT IS A THEORY AND WHAT DOES IT DO?

In earlier editions I’ve used theory as “an umbrella term for all careful, sys- tematic, and self-conscious discussion and analysis of communication phenom- ena,” a defi nition offered by University of Minnesota communication professor Ernest Bormann. 2 I like this defi nition because it’s general enough to cover the diverse theories presented in this book. Yet the description is so broad that it doesn’t give us any direction on how we might construct a theory, nor does it offer a way to fi gure out when thoughts or statements about communication haven’t attained that status. If I call any idea a “theory,” does saying it’s so make it so? In my discussion with Judee Burgoon, she suggested that a theory is nothing more than a “set of systematic hunches about the way things operate.” 3 Since Burgoon is the most frequently cited female scholar in the fi eld of communica-

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CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 3

tion, I was intrigued by her unexpected use of the nontechnical term hunch . Would it therefore be legitimate to entitle the book you’re reading Communication Hunches ? She assured me that it would, quickly adding that they should be “informed hunches.” So for Burgoon, a theory consists of a set of systematic, informed hunches about the way things work. In the rest of this section, I’ll examine the three key features of Burgoon’s notion of a theory. First, I’ll focus on the idea that theory consists of a set of hunches. But a set of hunches is only a starting point. Second, I’ll discuss what it means to say that those hunches have to be

From The Big Book of Hell © 1990 by Matt Groening. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, NY. Courtesy of Acme Features Syndicate.

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4 OVERVIEW

informed. Last, I’ll highlight the notion that the hunches have to be systematic. Let’s look briefl y at the meaning of each of these core concepts of theory.

A Set of Hunches

If a theory is a set of hunches, it means we aren’t yet sure we have the answer. When there’s no puzzle to be solved or the explanation is obvious, there’s no need to develop a theory. Theories always involve an element of speculation, or conjecture. Being a theorist is risky business because theories go beyond accepted wisdom. Once you become a theorist you probably hope that all thinking people will eventually embrace the trial balloon that you’ve launched, but when you fi rst fl oat your theory, it’s defi nitely in the hunch category. By referring to a plural “set of hunches” rather than a single “hunch,” Bur- goon makes it clear that a theory is not just one inspired thought or an isolated idea. The young theorist in the cartoon may be quite sure that dogs and bees can smell fear, but that isolated conviction isn’t a theory. A developed theory offers some sort of explanation. For example, how are bees and dogs able to sniff out fright? Perhaps the scent of sweaty palms that comes from high anxiety is qualitatively different than the odor of people perspiring from hard work. A theory will also give some indication of scope. Do only dogs and bees possess this keen sense of smell, or do butterfl ies and kittens have it as well? Theory construction involves multiple hunches.

Informed Hunches

Bormann’s description of creating communication theory calls for a careful, self-conscious analysis of communication phenomena, but Burgoon’s defi nition asks for more. It’s not enough simply to think carefully about an idea; a theo- rist’s hunches should be informed . Working on a hunch that a penny thrown from the Empire State Building will become deeply embedded in the sidewalk, the young theorist has a responsibility to check it out. Before developing a theory, there are articles to read, people to talk to, actions to observe, or exper- iments to run, all of which can cast light on the subject. At the very least, a communication theorist should be familiar with alternative explanations and interpretations of the type of communication they are studying. (Young Theo- rist, have you heard the story of Galileo dropping an apple from the Leaning Tower of Pisa?) Pepperdine University communication professor Fred Casmir’s description of theory parallels Burgoon’s call for multiple informed hunches:

Theories are sometimes defi ned as guesses—but signifi cantly as “educated” guesses. Theories are not merely based on vague impressions nor are they acciden- tal by-products of life. Theories tend to result when their creators have prepared themselves to discover something in their environment, which triggers the process of theory construction. 4

Hunches That Are Systematic

Most scholars reserve the term theory for an integrated system of concepts. A theory not only lays out multiple ideas, but also specifi es the relationships among

Theory A set of systematic, in- formed hunches about the way things work.

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CHAPTER 1: LAUNCHING YOUR STUDY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY 5

them. In common parlance, it connects the dots. The links among the informed hunches are clearly drawn so that a whole pattern emerges. None of the young theories in the cartoon rise to this standard. Since most of the nine are presented as one-shot claims, they aren’t part of a conceptual framework. One possible exception is the dual speculation that “adults are really Martians, and they’re up to no good.” But the connecting word and doesn’t really show the relationship of grown-ups’ unsavory activity and their hypothesized other-world origin. To do that, the young theorist could speculate about the basic character of Martians, how they got here, why their behavior is suspicious, and whether today’s youth will turn into aliens when they become parents. A theory would then tie together all of these ideas into a unifi ed whole. As you read about any theory covered in this book, you have a right to expect a set of systematic , informed hunches.

Images of Theory

In response to the question, What is a theory? I’ve presented a verbal defi nition. Many of us are visual learners as well and would appreciate a concrete image that helps us understand what a theory is and does. I’ll therefore present three metaphors that I fi nd helpful, but will also note how an over-reliance on these representations of theory might lead us astray.

Theories as Nets: Philosopher of science Karl Popper says that “theories are nets cast to catch what we call ‘the world’ . . . . We endeavor to make the mesh ever fi ner and fi ner.” 5 I appreciate this metaphor because it highlights the ongoing labor of the theorist as a type of deep-sea angler. For serious scholars, theories are the tools of the trade. The term the world can be interpreted as everything that goes on under the sun—thus requiring a grand theory that applies to all communication, all the time. Conversely, catching the world could be construed as calling for numerous special theories—different kinds of small nets to capture distinct types of commu- nication in local situations. Yet either way, the quest for fi ner-meshed nets is some- what disturbing because the study of communication is about people rather than schools of fi sh. The idea that theories could be woven so tightly that they’d snag everything that humans think, say, or do strikes me as naive. The possibility also raises questions about our freedom to choose some actions and reject others.

Theories as Lenses: Many scholars see their theoretical constructions as similar to the lens of a camera or a pair of glasses as opposed to a mirror that accurately refl ects the world out there. The lens imagery highlights the idea that theories shape our perception by focusing attention on some features of communication while ignoring other features, or at least pushing them into the background. Two theorists could analyze the same communication event—an argument, perhaps—and depending on the lens each uses, one theorist may view this speech act as a break- down of communication or the breakup of a relationship, while the other theorist will see it as democracy in action. For me, the danger of the lens metaphor is that we might regard what is seen through the glass as so dependent on the theoretical stance of the viewer that we abandon any attempt to discern what is real or true.

Theories as Maps: I use this image when I describe the First Look text to others. Within this analogy, communication theories are maps of the way communica- tion works. The truth they depict may have to do with objective behaviors “out there” or subjective meanings inside our heads. Either way we need to have

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6 OVERVIEW

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

To ask this question is to invite controversy and raise expectations that can’t be met. Frank Dance, the University of Denver scholar credited for publishing the fi rst comprehensive book on communication theory, cataloged more than 120 def- initions of communication —and that was more than 40 years ago. 7 Communication scholars have suggested many more since then, yet no single defi nition has risen to the top and become the standard within the fi eld of communication. When it comes to defi ning what it is we study, there’s little discipline in the discipline. At the conclusion of his study, Dance suggested that we’re “trying to make the concept of communication do too much work for us.” 8 Other communication theorists agree, noting that when the term is used to describe almost every kind of human interaction, it’s seriously overburdened. Michigan Tech University communication professor Jennifer Slack brings a splash of reality to attempts to draw defi nitive lines around what it is that our theories and research cover. She declares that “there is no single, absolute essence of communication that ade- quately explains the phenomena we study. Such a defi nition does not exist; nei- ther is it merely awaiting the next brightest communication scholar to nail it down once and for all.” 9 Despite the pitfalls of trying to defi ne communication in an all-inclusive way, it seems to me that students who are willing to spend a big chunk of their col- lege education studying communication deserve a description of what it is they’re looking at. Rather than giving the fi nal word on what human activities can be legitimately referred to as communication , this designation would highlight the essential features of communication that shouldn’t be missed. So for starters I offer this working defi nition: