The burning of the books by bertolt brecht analysis

The Holocaust

Required Resources
Read/review the following resources for this activity:

Textbook: Chapter 5, 6
Lesson
Minimum of 2 scholarly sources (in addition to the textbook)
Instructions
For this assignment, select one of the following options.

Option 1: Poetry
Select any 2 poems about the Holocaust. You can select from the following list of poets/poems or conduct additional research on Holocaust poetry. Make sure to get approval from your instructor if you are selecting something not on the list. Click on the link to see the list:

Link: List of Poets/Poems

Bronislawa Wajs: Tears of Blood
Primo Levi: Buna
Chaim Nachman Bialik: After My Death; On the Slaughter
Martin Niemöller: First They Came for the Jews
Mary Elizabeth Frye: Do not stand at my grave and weep
Carl Sandburg: Grass
Miklós Radnóti: Postcard 1; Postcard 2; Postcard 3; Postcard 4
Bertolt Brecht: The Burning of the Books; Parting; The Mask of Evil
Ber Horvitz: Der Himmel [The Heavens]
Yala Korwin: Passover Night 1942; The Little Boy with His Hands Up
Michael R. Burch: Something
Paul Celan: Death Fugue; O, Little Root of a Dream
Write an analysis of each poem, including the following information:

Explain the background on the author, especially in relation to the Holocaust.
Explain the content of the poem - what story or message is it trying to tell?
How does the poem relate to the bigger picture of the Holocaust?
How effective is the poem in relating the Holocaust to readers?
Option 2: Art
Select any 2 of works of art about the Holocaust. You can select from the following list or conduct additional research on Holocaust art. Make sure to get approval from your instructor if you are selecting something not on the list. Click on the link to see the list:

Link: List of Artists/Artworks

Morris Kestelman: Lama Sabachthani [Why Have You Forsaken Me?]
George Mayer-Marton: Women with Boudlers
Bill Spira: Prisoners Carrying Cement
Jan Hartman: Death March (Czechowice-Bielsko, January 1945)
Edgar Ainsworth: Belsen
Leslie Cole: One of the Death Pits, Belsen. SS Guards Collecting Bodies
Doris Zinkeisen: Human Laundry, Belsen: April 1945
Eric Taylor: A Young Boy from Belsen Concentration Camp
Mary Kessell: Notes from Belsen Camp
Edith Birkin: The Death Cart - Lodz Ghetto
Shmuel Dresner: Benjamin
Roman Halter: Mother with Babies
Leo Breuer: Path Between the Barracks, Gurs Camp
Leo (Lev) Haas: Transport Arrival, Theresienstadt Ghetto
Jacob Lipschitz: Beaten (My Brother Gedalyahu)
Norbert Troller: Terezin
Anselm Kiefer: Sternenfall
Write an analysis of each artwork, including the following information:

Identify the title, artist, date completed, and medium used.
Explain the content of the artwork - what do the images show?
How does the artwork relate to the bigger picture of the Holocaust?
How effective is the artwork in relating the Holocaust to viewers?
Option 3: Video
Watch the following video:

Link (video): The Holocaust (Links to an external site.) (35:00)
Write a paper on what you learned about peoples' experiences and intentions during the Holocaust:

What were the Nazis thinking of when they made these decisions?
What were the otherwise good people of Germany thinking when they allowed it to go on?
What were the victims of this genocide thinking and feeling as they went through this terrible process?
Describe at least one part of the video that had the greatest impact on you.
How effective are the writings/images in the video in relating the Holocaust to viewers?
Writing Requirements (APA format)

Length: 2-3 pages (not including title page or references page)
1-inch margins
Double spaced
12-point Times New Roman font
Title page
References page
References

Faison, H. (Director), & Faison, H., Maguire, J., Cotton, E., & Nathan, L. (Producers). (1985). The Holocaust [Video]. Guidance Associates. Academic Video Online.
CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY

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SIXTH EDITION SIXTH

EDITION

CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY

W ILLIAM J . D UIKER The Pennsylvania State University

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Contemporary World History, Sixth Edition William J. Duiker

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2013950398

ISBN 13: 978-1-285-44790-2 ISBN 10: 1-285-44790-5

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WCN: 02-200-203

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

WILLIAM J. DUIKER is liberal arts professor emeritus of East Asian studies at The Pennsylvania State University. A former U.S. diplomat with service in Taiwan, South Vietnam, and Washington, D.C., he received his doctorate in Far Eastern history from Georgetown University in 1968, where his dissertation dealt with the Chinese educator and reformer Cai Yuanpei. At Penn State, he has written extensively on the history of Vietnam and modern China, including the highly acclaimed The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam (revised edition, Westview Press, 1996), which was selected for a Choice Out- standing Academic Book Award in 1982–1983 and 1996–1997. Other recent books are China and Vietnam: The Roots of Conflict (Berkeley, 1987); Sacred War: Nationalism and Rev- olution in a Divided Vietnam (McGraw-Hill, 1995); and Ho Chi Minh (Hyperion, 2000), which was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize in 2001. He is the author, with colleague Jack- son Spielvogel, of World History (seventh edition, Wadsworth, 2013). While his research specialization is in the field of nationalism and Asian revolutions, his intellectual interests are considerably more diverse. He has traveled widely and has taught courses on the his- tory of communism and non-Western civilizations at Penn State, where he was awarded a Faculty Scholar Medal for Outstanding Achievement in the spring of 1996.

TO JULES F. DIEBENOW (1929–2013), INVETERATE FELLOW TRAVELER, MENTOR, AND FRIEND.

W.J.D.

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B R I E F C O N T E N T S

DOCUMENTS XIII

MAPS XIV

FEATURES XV

PREFACE XVI

I NEW WORLD IN THE MAKING 1 1 THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY IN THE WEST 2

2 THE HIGH TIDE OF IMPERIALISM: AFRICA AND ASIA IN AN ERA OF WESTERN DOMINANCE 25

3 SHADOWS OVER THE PACIFIC: EAST ASIA UNDER CHALLENGE 47

II CULTURES IN COLLISION 69 4 WAR AND REVOLUTION: WORLD WAR I AND ITS

AFTERMATH 70

5 NATIONALISM, REVOLUTION, AND DICTATORSHIP: ASIA, THE MIDDLE EAST, AND LATIN AMERICA FROM 1919 TO 1939 94

6 THE CRISIS DEEPENS: THE OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR II 121

III ACROSS THE IDEOLOGICAL DIVIDE 147

7 EAST AND WEST IN THE GRIP OF THE COLD WAR 148

8 THE UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND LATIN AMERICA 169

9 BRAVE NEW WORLD: THE RISE AND FALL OF COMMUNISM IN THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 190

10 POSTWAR EUROPE: ON THE PATH TO UNITY? 210

11 TOWARD THE PACIFIC CENTURY? JAPAN AND THE LITTLE TIGERS 231

IV THIRD WORLD RISING 251 12 THE EAST IS RED: CHINA UNDER COMMUNISM 252

13 NATIONALISM TRIUMPHANT: THE EMERGENCE OF INDEPENDENT STATES IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 271

14 EMERGING AFRICA 291

15 FERMENT IN THE MIDDLE EAST 308

V THE NEW MILLENNIUM 329 16 THE CHALLENGE OF A NEW MILLENNIUM 330

GLOSSARY 343

INDEX 348

vi

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D E T A I L E D C O N T E N T S

DOCUMENTS XIII

MAPS XIV

FEATURES XV

PREFACE XVI

PART I NEW WORLD IN THE MAKING 1

1 THE RISE OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY IN THE WEST 2

The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain 2

The Spread of the Industrial Revolution 3 New Products and New Patterns 4

The Emergence of a Mass Society 6 Social Structures 6 Changing Roles for Women 7

Reaction and Revolution: The Decline of the Old Order 9

Liberalism and Nationalism 9 The Unification of Germany and Italy 11 Roots of Revolution in Russia 12 The Ottoman Empire and Nationalism in

the Balkans 13

Liberalism Triumphant 14 The United States and Canada 14 Tradition and Change in Latin America 15

The Rise of the Socialist Movement 17 The Rise of Marxism 17 Capitalism in Transition 19

Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual and Cultural Developments 19

Developments in the Sciences: The Emergence of a New Physics 19

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution 20 Sigmund Freud and the Emergence of

Psychoanalysis 20 Literature and the Arts: The Culture of

Modernity 20 Conclusion 23

Chapter Notes 24

2 THE HIGH TIDE OF IMPERIALISM: AFRICA AND ASIA IN AN ERA OF WESTERN DOMINANCE 25

The Spread of Colonial Rule 25 The Myth of European Superiority 26 The Advent of Western Imperialism 26

The Colonial System 27 The Philosophy of Colonialism 28 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS WHITE MAN’S BURDEN, BLACK MAN’S SORROW 29

India Under the British Raj 30 The Nature of British Rule 31

The Colonial Takeover of Southeast Asia 33 The Imposition of Colonial Rule 33 Colonial Regimes in Southeast Asia 34

Empire Building in Africa 36 Africa Before the Europeans 37 The Growing European Presence in West Africa 37 Imperialist Shadow over the Nile 39 The Scramble for Africa 39 FILM & HISTORY KHARTOUM (1966) 40 Bantus, Boers, and British in South Africa 42 Colonialism in Africa 43

Conclusion 44

Chapter Notes 46

3 SHADOWS OVER THE PACIFIC: EAST ASIA UNDER CHALLENGE 47

China at Its Apex 47 Changeless China? 48

Traditional China in Decline 50 Opium and Rebellion 50 The Taiping Rebellion 51 Efforts at Reform 51 The Climax of Imperialism in China 52 The Collapse of the Old Order 54

vii

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Chinese Society in Transition 56 The Impact of Western Imperialism 57 Daily Life in Qing China 57 Changing Roles for Women 57

Traditional Japan and the End of Isolation 58 A “Closed Country” 59 The Opening of Japan 59

Rich Country, Strong Army 60 The Transformation of Japanese Politics 60 Meiji Economics 60 Building a Modern Social Structure 61 Joining the Imperialist Club 62 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS TWO VIEWS OF THE WORLD 63 Japanese Culture in Transition 64

Conclusion 65

Chapter Notes 65

Reflections Part I 66

PART II CULTURES IN COLLISION 69 4 WAR AND REVOLUTION: WORLD WAR I AND

ITS AFTERMATH 70

The Coming of War 70 Rising Tensions in Europe 71 Crisis in the Balkans, 1908–1913 71 The Outbreak of War 72

The World at War 72 Illusions and Stalemate, 1914–1915 72 The Great Slaughter, 1916–1917 72 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS “YOU HAVE TO BEAR THE RESPONSIBILITY FOR WAR OR PEACE” 73 The Widening of the War 75 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS THE EXCITEMENT AND THE REALITY OF WAR 76 The Home Front: The Impact of Total War 77 The Last Year of the War 77 FILM & HISTORY LAWRENCE OF ARABIA (1962) 78

Seeking Eternal Peace 79 The Vision of Woodrow Wilson 79 The Peace Settlement 80

Revolution in Russia 80 The March Revolution 81 The Bolshevik Revolution 82 The Civil War 84

The Failure of the Peace 85 The Search for Security 85 A Return to Normalcy? 86 The Great Depression 87 Building Socialism in Soviet Russia 89

The Search for a New Reality in the Arts 90 New Schools of Artistic Expression 91 Culture for the Masses 92

Conclusion 92

Chapter Notes 93

5 NATIONALISM, REVOLUTION, AND DICTATORSHIP: ASIA, THE MIDDLE EAST, AND LATIN AMERICA FROM 1919 TO 1939 94

The Spread of Nationalism in Asia and Africa 95 Traditional Resistance: A Precursor to Nationalism 95 Modern Nationalism 96 Gandhi and the Indian National Congress 98 FILM & HISTORY GANDHI (1982) 100 Nationalist Ferment in the Middle East 100 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS ISLAM IN THE MODERN WORLD: TWO VIEWS 104 Nationalism and Revolution 106

Revolution in China 108 Mr. Science and Mr. Democracy: The New Culture

Movement 108 The Nanjing Republic 110 Social Change in Republican China 113

Japan Between the Wars 113 Experiment in Democracy 113 A Zaibatsu Economy 114 Shidehara Diplomacy 114

Nationalism and Dictatorship in Latin America 115 A Changing Economy 115 The Effects of Dependency 116 Latin American Culture 118

Conclusion 119

Chapter Notes 120

6 THE CRISIS DEEPENS: THE OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR II 121

The Rise of Dictatorial Regimes 121 The Birth of Fascism 122 Hitler and Nazi Germany 122 The Spread of Authoritarianism in Europe 124 The Rise of Militarism in Japan 125

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The Path to War in Europe 126 Stalin Seeks a United Front 126 Decision at Munich 127 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS THE MUNICH CONFERENCE 128

The Path to War in Asia 129 A Monroe Doctrine for Asia 129 Tokyo’s “Southern Strategy” 130

The World at War 130 The War in Europe 131 The New Order in Europe 133 War Spreads in Asia 134 The New Order in Asia 135 The Turning Point of the War, 1942–1943 137 The Last Years of the War 138

The Peace Settlement in Europe 139 The Yalta Agreement 139 Confrontation at Potsdam 140 The War in the Pacific Ends 140 FILM & HISTORY LETTERS FROM IWO JIMA (2006) 141

Conclusion 142

Chapter Notes 143

Reflections Part II 144

PART III ACROSS THE IDEOLOGICAL DIVIDE 147

7 EAST AND WEST IN THE GRIP OF THE COLD WAR 148

The Collapse of the Grand Alliance 148 The Iron Curtain Descends 149 The Truman Doctrine and the Beginnings of

Containment 149 Europe Divided 150

Cold War in Asia 154 The Chinese Civil War 154 The New China 156 The Korean War 156 Conflict in Indochina 157

From Confrontation to Coexistence 158 Khrushchev and the Era of Peaceful

Coexistence 158 The Cuban Missile Crisis 160 The Sino-Soviet Dispute 160 FILM & HISTORY THE MISSILES OF OCTOBER (1973) 161

The Second Indochina War 161 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS CONFRONTATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 163

An Era of Equivalence 165 An End to D�etente? 165 Countering the Evil Empire 166 Toward a New World Order 166

Conclusion 167

Chapter Notes 168

8 THE UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND LATIN AMERICA 169

The United States Since 1945 169 An Era of Prosperity and Social Commitment 169 America Shifts to the Right 171 Seizing the Political Center 173

The Changing Face of American Society 175 A Consumer Society, a Permissive Society 176 The Melting Pot in Action 176 Women and Society 176 The Environment 177 Science and Technology 178

The World of Culture 179 Art and Architecture 179 New Concepts in Music 179 New Trends in Literature 179 Popular Culture 180

Canada: In the Shadow of Goliath 180

Democracy, Dictatorship, and Development in Latin America Since 1945 181

An Era of Dependency 182 Nationalism and the Military: The Examples of

Argentina and Brazil 183 The Mexican Way 185 The Leftist Variant 186 Trends in Latin American Culture 187

Conclusion 188

Chapter Notes 189

9 BRAVE NEW WORLD: THE RISE AND FALL OF COMMUNISM IN THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 190

The Postwar Soviet Union 190 From Stalin to Khrushchev 190 The Brezhnev Years, 1964–1982 193

DETAILED CONTENTS ix

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Ferment in Eastern Europe 197 Unrest in Poland 198 The Hungarian Uprising 198 The Prague Spring 199 The Persistence of Stalinism in

East Germany 199

Culture and Society in the Soviet Bloc 200 Cultural Expression 200 Social Changes in Eastern Europe 202 Women in the Soviet Bloc 202

The Disintegration of the Soviet Empire 203 The Gorbachev Era 203 Eastern Europe: From Soviet Satellites to Sovereign

Nations 203 End of Empire 204 The New Russia: From Empire to Nation 205

Conclusion 208

Chapter Notes 209

10 POSTWAR EUROPE: ON THE PATH TO UNITY? 210

Western Europe: Recovery and Renewal 210 The Triumph of Democracy in Postwar Europe 211

The Modern Welfare State: Three European Models 211

France 211 Germany: Across the Cold War Divide 214 Great Britain 215 FILM & HISTORY THE LIVES OF OTHERS (2006) 216 The Fall of the Iron Curtain 219

Western Europe: The Search for Unity 221 The Curtain Rises: The Creation of the Common

Market 222 The European Union 222 Plans for Expansion: A Bridge Too Far? 222 Beware of Greeks Seeking Gifts 224

Aspects of Society in Postwar Europe 224 An Age of Affluence 225 A Transvaluation of Values 226 Expanding Roles for Women 226 The Environment 227

Aspects of Culture in Postwar Europe 228 Postwar Literature 228 Music and the Arts 229

Conclusion 230

Chapter Note 230

11 TOWARD THE PACIFIC CENTURY? JAPAN AND THE LITTLE TIGERS 231

Japan: Asian Giant 231 The Occupation Era 232 The Transformation of Modern Japan: Politics and

Government 232 The Economy 234 A Society in Transition 236 Religion and Culture 239 The Japanese Difference 239

Taiwan: The Other China 239 Taiwan Under Nationalist Rule 240 Crafting a Taiwanese Identity 241

South Korea: A Peninsula Divided 242 The Korean Model 242 South Korea: The Little Tiger with Sharp Teeth 243

Singapore and Hong Kong: The Littlest Tigers 243

On the Margins of Asia: Postwar Australia and New Zealand 245 Conclusion 246

Chapter Notes 247

Reflections Part III 248

PART IV THIRD WORLD RISING 251 12 THE EAST IS RED: CHINA UNDER

COMMUNISM 252

China Under Mao Zedong 252 New Democracy 252 The Transition to Socialism 253 The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution 255 FILM & HISTORY THE LAST EMPEROR (1987) 256

From Mao to Deng 257 The Four Modernizations 257 Incident at Tiananmen Square 258 Back to Confucius? 258 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS STUDENTS APPEAL FOR DEMOCRACY 259

Serve the People: Chinese Society Under Communism 261

The Politics of the Mass Line 261 Economics in Command 262 Evaluating the Four Modernizations 264 Chinese Society in Flux 265

x DETAILED CONTENTS

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China’s Changing Culture 268 Culture in a Revolutionary Era 268 Art and Architecture 268 Literature 269

Conclusion 269

Chapter Notes 270

13 NATIONALISM TRIUMPHANT: THE EMERGENCE OF INDEPENDENT STATES IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 271

South Asia 271 The End of the British Raj 272 Independent India 272 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS TWO VISIONS FOR INDIA 273 The Land of the Pure: Pakistan Since

Independence 275 Poverty and Pluralism in South Asia 276 South Asian Art and Literature Since

Independence 280 What Is the Future of India? 280

Southeast Asia 281 The End of the Colonial Era 282 In the Shadow of the Cold War 282 On the Road to Political Reform 284 FILM & HISTORY THE YEAR OF LIVING DANGEROUSLY (1983) 285 Regional Conflict and Cooperation: The Rise of

ASEAN 287 Daily Life: Town and Country in Contemporary

Southeast Asia 288 Cultural Trends 289

Conclusion 290

Chapter Notes 290

14 EMERGING AFRICA 291 Uhuru: The Struggle for Independence in Africa 291

The Colonial Legacy 292 The Rise of Nationalism 292

The Era of Independence 294 The Destiny of Africa: Unity or Diversity? 294 Dream and Reality: Political and Economic Conditions in

Independent Africa 294 The Search for Solutions 296 Africa: A Continent in Flux 300

Continuity and Change in Modern African Societies 301 Education 301

Urban and Rural Life 302 African Women 302 African Culture 303 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS AFRICA: DARK CONTINENT OR RADIANT LAND? 305

Conclusion 306

Chapter Notes 307

15 FERMENT IN THE MIDDLE EAST 308 Crescent of Conflict 308

The Question of Palestine 309 Nasser and Pan-Arabism 309 The Arab-Israeli Dispute 311 Revolution in Iran 313 FILM & HISTORY PERSEPOLIS (2007) 315 Crisis in the Persian Gulf 315 Revolution in the Middle East 317

Society and Culture in the Contemporary Middle East 319

Varieties of Government: The Politics of Islam 319 The Economics of the Middle East: Oil and Sand 320 The Islamic Revival 322 Women in the Middle East 323 Literature and Art 324

Conclusion 325

Chapter Notes 326

Reflections Part IV 327

PART V THE NEW MILLENNIUM 329 16 THE CHALLENGE OF A NEW

MILLENNIUM 330

After the Cold War: The End of History? 331

Contemporary Capitalism and Its Discontents 331 Europe: Speed Bumps on the Road to Unity? 331 The United States: Capitalism Ascendant? 331 Asian Miracle or Asian Myth? 332 Eliminating World Poverty 332 From the Industrial to the Technological

Revolution 333

A Transvaluation of Values 334 The Family 334 Religion 334 Technology and Society 335 The Impact of Capitalism 336

DETAILED CONTENTS xi

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One World, One Environment 336 Facing the Issue of Global Warming 337 The Population Debate 338

Global Village or Clash of Civilizations? 338 The Future of Liberal Democracy 339 Civilizations at War 339 Globalization: The Pros and the Cons 340

The Arts: Mirror of the Age 341 Chapter Notes 342

GLOSSARY 343

INDEX 348

xii DETAILED CONTENTS

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D O C U M E N T S

C H A P T E R 1

DISCIPLINE IN THE NEW FACTORIES 8

ESCAPING THE DOLL’S HOUSE 10

THE CLASSLESS SOCIETY 18

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION 21

C H A P T E R 2

INDIAN IN BLOOD, ENGLISH IN TASTE AND INTELLECT 32

TRAGEDY AT CAFFARD COVE 38

C H A P T E R 3

AN APPEAL FOR CHANGE IN CHINA 52

PROGRAM FOR A NEW CHINA 56

C H A P T E R 4

ALL POWER TO THE SOVIETS! 83

C H A P T E R 5

THE DILEMMA OF THE INTELLECTUAL 97

A CALL FOR REVOLT 111

C H A P T E R 6

JAPAN’S PLAN FOR ASIA 136

C H A P T E R 7

THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE 151

A PLEA FOR PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE 162

C H A P T E R 8

“I HAVE A DREAM” 172

C H A P T E R 9

KHRUSHCHEV DENOUNCES STALIN 194

THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF SOVIET CITIZENS 196

THE BREZHNEV DOCTRINE 200

C H A P T E R 1 0

THE TRABI LIVES! 217

MARGARET THATCHER: ENTERING A MAN’S WORLD 218

TOWARD A UNITED EUROPE 223

C H A P T E R 1 1

GROWING UP IN JAPAN 238

RETURN TO THE MOTHERLAND 246

C H A P T E R 1 2

LAND REFORM IN ACTION 254

LOVE AND MARRIAGE IN CHINA 266

C H A P T E R 1 3

SAY NO TO MCDONALD’S AND KFC! 278

THE GOLDEN THROAT OF PRESIDENT SUKARNO 284

C H A P T E R 1 4

STEALING THE NATION’S RICHES 295

MEETING THE CHALLENGES OF INDEPENDENCE 298

C H A P T E R 1 5

THE ARAB CASE FOR PALESTINE 310

I ACCUSE! 318

ISLAM AND DEMOCRACY 321

xiii

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M A P S

MAP 1.1 The Industrial Regions of Europe at the End of the Nineteenth Century 4

MAP 1.2 Europe in 1871 12

MAP 2.1 India Under British Rule, 1805–1931 31

MAP 2.2 Colonial Southeast Asia 34

SPOT MAP The Spread of Islam in Africa 37

SPOT MAP The Suez Canal 39

MAP 2.3 Africa in 1914 41

MAP 2.4 The Struggle for Southern Africa 42

MAP 3.1 The Qing Empire 48

SPOT MAP Area Under Taiping Rebellion Control 51

MAP 3.2 Foreign Possessions and Spheres of Influence About 1900 54

MAP 3.3 Japanese Overseas Expansion During the Meiji Era 62

MAP 4.1 Europe in 1914 71

MAP 4.2 World War I, 1914–1918 74

MAP 4.3 Territorial Changes in Europe and the Middle East After World War I 81

SPOT MAP British India Between the Wars 98

SPOT MAP The Middle East in 1923 101

MAP 5.1 The Northern Expedition and the Long March 110

MAP 5.2 Latin America in the First Half of the Twentieth Century 117

SPOT MAP Central Europe in 1939 127

SPOT MAP Japanese Advances into China, 1931–1939 129

MAP 6.1 World War II in Europe and North Africa 132

MAP 6.2 World War II in Asia and the Pacific 135

SPOT MAP Eastern Europe in 1948 149

MAP 7.1 The New European Alliance Systems During the Cold War 153

MAP 7.2 The Chinese Civil War 155

SPOT MAP The Korean Peninsula 157

SPOT MAP Indochina After 1954 158

MAP 7.3 The Global Cold War 159

SPOT MAP South America 181

MAP 9.1 The Soviet Union 191

MAP 9.2 Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union 205

MAP 10.1 Territorial Changes in Europe After World War II 212

MAP 10.2 European Union, 2013 220

MAP 11.1 Modern Japan 233

SPOT MAP Modern Taiwan 239

SPOT MAP The Korean Peninsula Since 1953 242

SPOT MAP The Republic of Singapore 244

SPOT MAP Hong Kong 245

MAP 12.1 The People’s Republic of China 260

MAP 13.1 Contemporary South Asia 274

MAP 13.2 Contemporary Southeast Asia 283

MAP 14.1 Contemporary Africa 293

MAP 15.1 Israel and Its Neighbors 312

SPOT MAP Iran 313

MAP 15.2 The Modern Middle East 316

SPOT MAP Afghanistan 317

SPOT MAP Iraq 317

xiv

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F E A T U R E S

FILM & HISTORY Khartoum (1966) 40

Lawrence of Arabia (1962) 78

Gandhi (1982) 100

Letters from Iwo Jima (2006) 141

The Missiles of October (1973) 161

The Lives of Others (2006) 216

The Last Emperor (1987) 256

The Year of Living Dangerously (1983) 285

Persepolis (2007) 315

OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS White Man’s Burden, Black Man’s Sorrow 29

Two Views of the World 63

“You Have to Bear the Responsibility for War or Peace” 73

The Excitement and the Reality of War 76

Islam in the Modern World: Two Views 104

The Munich Conference 128

Confrontation in Southeast Asia 163

Students Appeal for Democracy 259

Two Visions for India 273

Africa: Dark Continent or Radiant Land? 305

xv

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P R E F A C E

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY was an era of paradox. When it began, Western civilization was an emerging powerhouse that bestrode the world like a colossus. Inter- nally, however, the continent of Europe was a patchwork of squabbling states that within a period of less than three decades engaged in two bitter internecine wars that threat- ened to obliterate two centuries of human progress. As the century came to an end, the Western world had become prosperous and increasingly united, yet there were clear signs that global economic and political hegemony was be- ginning to shift to the East. In the minds of many observ- ers, the era of Western dominance had come to a close.

In other ways as well, the twentieth century was marked by countervailing trends. While parts of the world experienced rapid industrial growth and increasing eco- nomic prosperity, other regions were still mired in abject poverty. The century’s final decades were characterized by a growing awareness of not only global interdepen- dence, but also burgeoning ethnic and national conscious- ness; the period witnessed both the rising power of science and fervent religiosity and growing doubts about the impact of technology on the human experience. As the closing chapters of this book indicate, these trends have continued and even intensified in the decade that has ensued since the advent of the new millennium.

Contemporary World History (formerly titled Twentieth- Century World History) attempts to chronicle the key events in this revolutionary century and its aftermath while seeking to throw light on some of the underlying issues that shaped the times. Did the beginning of a new millennium indeed mark the end of the long period of Western dominance? If so, will recent decades of Euro- pean and American superiority be followed by a “Pacific century,” with economic and political power shifting to the nations of eastern Asia? Will the end of the Cold War eventually lead to a “new world order” marked by global cooperation, or are we now entering an unstable era of ethnic and national conflict? Why has a time of unparal- leled prosperity and technological advance been accompa- nied by deep pockets of poverty and widespread doubts about the role of government and the capabilities of human reason? Although this book does not promise final answers to such questions, it seeks to provide a frame- work for analysis and a better understanding of some of the salient issues of modern times.

Any author who seeks to encompass in a single vol- ume the history of our turbulent times faces some impor- tant choices. First, should the book be arranged in strict chronological order, or should separate chapters focus on individual cultures and societies in order to place greater emphasis on the course of events taking place in different regions of the world? In this book, I have sought to achieve a balance between a global and a regional approach. I accept the commonplace observation that the world we live in is increasingly interdependent in terms of economics as well as culture and communications. Yet the inescapable reality is that this process of globalization is at best a work in progress, as ethnic, religious, and re- gional differences continue to proliferate and to shape the course of our times. To many observers around the world, the oft-predicted inevitable victory of the demo- cratic capitalist way of life is by no means a preordained vision of the future of the human experience. In fact, in- fluential figures in many countries, from China to Russia and the Middle East, emphatically deny that the forces of globalization will inevitably lead to the worldwide adop- tion of the Western model.

This issue has practical observations as well. College students today are often not well informed about the dis- tinctive character of civilizations such as China, India, and sub-Saharan Africa. Without sufficient exposure to the his- torical evolution of such societies, students will assume all too readily that the peoples in these countries have had historical experiences similar to their own and react to various stimuli in a fashion similar to those living in west- ern Europe or the United States. If it is a mistake to ignore the forces that link us together, it is equally errone- ous to underestimate the factors that divide us.

Balancing the global and regional perspectives means that some chapters focus on issues that have a global impact, such as the Industrial Revolution, the era of impe- rialism, and the two world wars. Others center on individ- ual regions of the world, while singling out contrasts and comparisons that link them to the broader world commu- nity. The book is divided into five parts. The first four parts are each followed by a short section labeled “Reflections,” which attempts to link events in a broad comparative and global framework. The chapter in the fifth and final part examines some of the common prob- lems of our time—including environmental pollution, the

xvi

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population explosion, and spiritual malaise—and takes a cautious look into the future to explore how such issues will evolve in the twenty-first century.

Another issue that has recently attracted widespread discussion and debate among historians is how to balance the treatment of Western civilization with other parts of the world. The modern world has traditionally been viewed essentially as the history of Europe and the United States, with other regions treated as mere appendages of the industrial countries. It is certainly true that much of the twentieth century was dominated by events that were initiated in Europe and North America, and in recognition of this fact, the opening chapters in this book focus on the Industrial Revolution and the age of imperialism, both issues related to the rise of the West in the modern world. In recent decades, however, other parts of the world have assumed greater importance, thus restoring a global balance that had existed prior to the scientific and techno- logical revolution that transformed the West in the eigh- teenth and nineteenth centuries. Later chapters examine this phenomenon in more detail, according to regions such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America the importance that they merit today.

In sum, this sixth edition of Contemporary World History seeks to present a balanced treatment of the most impor- tant political, economic, social, and cultural events of the modern era within an integrated and chronologically or- dered synthesis. In my judgment, a strong narrative, link- ing key issues in a broad interpretive framework, is still the most effective way to present the story of the past to young minds.

To supplement the text, I have included a number of boxed documents that illustrate key issues within each chapter. A new feature, Opposing Viewpoints, presents a comparison of two or more primary sources to facilitate stu- dent analysis of historical documents, including examples such as “Islam in the Modern World: Two Views” (Chapter 5), “Two Visions for India” (Chapter 13), and “Africa: Dark Continent or Radiant Land?” (Chapter 14). Film & History features present a brief analysis of the plot as well as the his- torical significance, value, and accuracy of nine films, includ- ing such movies as Khartoum (1966), Gandhi (1982), The Last Emperor (1987), The Lives of Others (2006), and Persepolis (2007). Extensive maps and illustrations, each positioned at the appropriate place in the chapter, serve to deepen the reader’s understanding of the text. “Spot maps” provide details not visible in the larger maps. Suggested Readings, now available on the companion website, review the most recent literature on each period while referring also to some of the older “classic” works in the field.

The following supplements are available to accompany this text.

Instructor Resources Online PowerLecture with CogneroVR [ISBN: 9781285458212] This PowerLecture is an all-in-one online multimedia resource for class preparation, presenta- tion, and testing. It is accessible through Cengage.com/ login with your faculty account. There you will find avail- able for download: book-specific MicrosoftVR PowerPointVR presentations; a Test Bank in both MicrosoftVR WordVR and CogneroVR formats; an Instructor’s Manual; MicrosoftVR PowerPointVR Image Slides; and a JPEG Image Library.

The Test Bank, offered in MicrosoftVR WordVR and CogneroVR formats, contains multiple-choice and essay questions for each chapter. CogneroVR is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content for Contemporary World History, 6e. Create multiple test versions instantly and deliver through your LMS from your classroom, or wherever you may be, with no special installs or downloads required.

The Instructor’s Manual contains the following for each chapter: an outline, discussion questions, learning objectives, lecture launching suggestions, suggested stu- dent projects, essay topics, and Web resources.

The MicrosoftVR PowerPointVR presentations are ready- to-use, visual outlines of each chapter. These presenta- tions are easily customized for your lectures and offered along with chapter-specific MicrosoftVR PowerPointVR Image Slides and JPEG Image Libraries. Access your Online PowerLecture at www.cengage.com/login.

Companion Site [ISBN: 9781285458229] This web- site for instructors features all of the free student assets, plus an Instructor’s Resource Manual (instructional objec- tives, chapter outlines, discussion questions, suggested lec- ture topics, suggested paper topics, and related Internet resources) and PowerPointVR presentations (lecture out- lines, images, and maps).

CourseReader CourseReader is an online collection of primary and secondary sources that lets you create a cus- tomized electronic reader in minutes. With an easy-to-use interface and assessment tool, you can choose exactly what your students will be assigned—simply search or browse Cengage Learning’s extensive document database to pre- view and select your customized collection of readings. In addition to print sources of all types (letters, diary entries, speeches, newspaper accounts, etc.), the collection includes a growing number of images and video and audio clips.

Each primary source document includes a descriptive headnote that puts the reading into context and is further supported by both critical thinking and multiple-choice questions designed to reinforce key points. For more in- formation visit www.cengage.com/coursereader.

PREFACE xvii

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Cengagebrain.com Save your students time and money. Direct them to www.cengagebrain.com for a choice in formats and savings and a better chance to suc- ceed in your class. Cengagebrain.com, Cengage Learning’s online store, is a single destination for more than 10,000 new textbooks, eTextbooks, eChapters, study tools, and audio supplements. Students have the freedom to pur- chase �a la carte exactly what they need when they need it. Students can save 50 percent on the electronic text- book and can pay as little as $1.99 for an individual eChapter.

Student Resources Book Companion Site [ISBN: 9781285458229] This website provides a variety of resources to help you review for class. These study tools include a glossary, crossword puzzles, short quizzes, essay questions, critical thinking questions, and primary sources.

Doing History: Research and Writing in the Digital Age, 2e [ISBN: 9781133587880] Prepared by Michael J. Galgano, J. Chris Arndt, and Raymond M. Hyser of James Madison University. Whether you’re starting down the path as a history major, or simply looking for a straightforward and systematic guide to writing a success- ful paper, you’ll find this text to be an indispensable hand- book to historical research. This text’s “soup to nuts” approach to researching and writing about history addresses every step of the process, from locating your sources and gathering information, to writing clearly and making proper use of various citation styles to avoid pla- giarism. You’ll also learn how to make the most of every tool available to you—especially the technology that helps you conduct the process efficiently and effectively. The second edition includes a special appendix linked to CourseReader (see above), where you can examine and interpret primary sources online.

The History Handbook, 2e [ISBN: 9780495906766] Prepared by Carol Berkin of Baruch College, City University of New York, and Betty Ander- son of Boston University. This book teaches students both basic and history-specific study skills such as how to take notes, get the most out of lectures and readings, read pri- mary sources, research historical topics, and correctly cite sources. Substantially less expensive than comparable skill-building texts, The History Handbook also offers tips for Internet research and evaluating online sources.

Additionally, students can purchase and download the eAudio version of The History Handbook or any of its eigh- teen individual units at www.cengagebrain.com to listen to on the go.

Writing for College History, 1e [ISBN: 9780618306039] Prepared by Robert M. Frakes, Clar- ion University. This brief handbook for survey courses in American history, Western civilization/European history, and world civilization guides students through the various types of writing assignments they encounter in a history class. Providing examples of student writing and candid assessments of student work, this text focuses on the rules and conventions of writing for the college history course.

The Modern Researcher, 6e [ISBN: 9780495318705] Prepared by Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff of Columbia University. This classic intro- duction to the techniques of research and the art of expression is used widely in history courses, but is also appropriate for writing and research methods courses in other departments. Barzun and Graff thoroughly cover ev- ery aspect of research, from the selection of a topic through the gathering, analysis, writing, revision, and publication of findings. They present the process not as a set of rules but through actual cases that put the subtleties of research in a useful context. Part One covers the princi- ples and methods of research; Part Two covers writing, speaking, and getting one’s work published.

Rand McNally Historical Atlas of the World, 2e [ISBN: 9780618841912] This valuable resource fea- tures more than seventy maps that portray the rich pano- ply of the world’s history from preliterate times to the present. They show how cultures and civilization were linked and how they interacted. The maps make it clear that history is not static. Rather, it is about change and movement across time. The maps show change by pre- senting the dynamics of expansion, cooperation, and con- flict. This atlas includes maps showing the world from the beginning of civilization; the political development of all major areas of the world; extensive coverage of Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East; the current Islamic world; and the world population change in 1900 and 2000.

Custom Options Nobody knows your students like you, so why not give them a text that is tailor-fit to their needs? Cengage Learn- ing offers custom solutions for your course—whether it’s making a small modification to Contemporary World His- tory, 6e to match your syllabus or combining multiple sources to create something truly unique. You can pick and choose chapters, include your own material, and add additional map exercises along with the Rand McNally Atlas to create a text that fits the way you teach. Ensure that your students get the most out of their textbook dol- lar by giving them exactly what they need. Contact your

xviii PREFACE

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Cengage Learning representative to explore custom solu- tions for your course.

Acknowledgments I would like to express my appreciation to the reviewers who have read individual chapters and provided useful suggestions for improvement on this edition: Marjorie Berman, Red Rocks Community College; Elizabeth Clark, West Texas A&M University; Margaret B. Denning, Slip- pery Rock University; Hayley Froysland, Indiana Univer- sity, South Bend; Irwin Halfond, McKendree University; Eduardo Magalhaes, Simpson College; and Jeffrey Martin- son, Meredith College.

Jackson Spielvogel, coauthor of our textbook World His- tory, was kind enough to permit me to use some of his sec- tions in that book for the purposes of writing this one. Several of my other colleagues at Penn State—including Kumkum Chatterjee, E-tu Zen Sun, On-cho Ng, and Arthur F. Goldschmidt—have provided me with valuable assistance in understanding parts of the world that are beyond my own area of concentration. Ian Bell, Carol Cof- fin, Ruth Petzold, and my daughter Claire L. Duiker have

provided useful illustrations, while Dale and Jan Peterson have been stimulating travel companions and a steady source of useful books and news items. I have also bene- fited from Nan Johnson’s broad understanding of the growth of the women’s movement in the United States. To Clark Baxter, whose unfailing good humor, patience, and sage advice have so often eased the trauma of text- book publishing, I offer my heartfelt thanks. I am also grateful to Brooke Barbier, product manager, Margaret McAndrew Beasley, senior development editor, and Jane Lee, senior content project manager, for their assistance in bringing this project to fruition, and to John Orr of Orr Book Services, Chris Schoedel of Cenveo Publisher Ser- vices, and Pat Lewis, copyeditor, for production services.

Finally, I am eternally grateful to my wife, Yvonne V. Duiker, Ph.D. Her research and her written contributions on art, architecture, literature, and music have added spar- kle to this book. Her presence at my side has added immeasurable sparkle to my life.

William J. Duiker The Pennsylvania State University

PREFACE xix

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P A R TP A R T I

The Crystal Palace in London Ev

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New World in the Making

1

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C H A P T E R

1

The Rise of Industrial Society in the West

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY was a turbulent era, marked by two violent global conflicts, a bitter ideological struggle between two dominant world powers, explosive developments in the realm of science, and dramatic social change. When the century began, the vast majority of the world’s peoples lived on farms, and the horse was still the most common means of transportation. By its end, human beings had trod on the moon and lived in a world increasingly defined by urban sprawl and modern technology.

What had happened to bring about these momentous changes? Although a world as complex as ours cannot be assigned a single cause, a good candidate for consideration is the Industrial Revolution, which began on the British Isles at the end of the eighteenth century and spread steadily throughout the world during the next two hundred years. The Industrial Revolution was unquestionably one of the most important factors in laying the foundation of the modern world. It not only transformed the economic means of production and distribution, but also altered the political systems, the social institutions and values, and the intellectual and cultural life of all the societies that it touched. The impact has been both massive and controversial. While proponents have stressed the enormous material and technological benefits that industrialization has brought, critics have pointed out the high costs involved, from growing economic inequality and environmental pollution to the dehumanization of everyday life. Already in the nineteenth century, the German philosopher Karl Marx charged that factory labor had reduced workers to a mere

“appendage of the machine,” and the English novelist Charles Dickens wrote about an urban environment of factories, smoke, and ashes that seemed an apparition from Dante’s Hell.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G

Q What factors appear to explain why GreatBritain was the first nation to enter the industrial age?

The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain Why the Industrial Revolution occurred first in Great Brit- ain rather than in another part of the world has been a subject for debate among historians for many decades. Some observers point to cultural factors, such as the Prot- estant “work ethic” that predisposed British citizens to risk taking and the belief that material rewards in this world were a sign of heavenly salvation to come.

Others point out more tangible factors that contributed to the rapid transformation of eighteenth-century British society from a predominantly agricultural to an industrial and commercial economy. First, improvements in agricul- ture during the eighteenth century had led to a significant increase in food production. British agriculture could now feed more people at lower prices with less labor; even

Sheffield became one of England’s greatest manufacturing cities during the nineteenth century.

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ordinary British families no longer had to use most of their income to buy food, giving them the potential to purchase manufactured goods. At the same time, a rapidly growing population in the second half of the eighteenth century provided a pool of surplus labor for the new fac- tories of the emerging British industrial sector.

Another factor that played a role in promoting the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain was the rapid increase in national wealth. Two centuries of expanding trade had provided Britain with a ready supply of capital for investment in the new industrial machines and the fac- tories that were required to house them. As the historian Kenneth Pomeranz has recently pointed out, it was the country’s access to cheap materials from other parts of the world—notably from Asia and the Americas—that pro- vided the assets that fueled Britain’s entrance into the industrial age (see Chapter 2).1

In addition to profits from trade, Britain possessed an effective central bank and well-developed, flexible credit facilities. Many early factory owners were merchants and entrepreneurs who had profited from the eighteenth- century cottage industry. The country also possessed what might today be described as a “modernization elite”—individuals who were interested in making profits if the opportunity presented itself. In that objective, they were generally supported by the government.

Moreover, Britain was richly supplied with important mineral resources, such as coal and iron ore, needed in the manufacturing process. Britain was also a small coun- try and the relatively short distances made transportation facilities readily accessible. In addition to nature’s provi- sion of abundant rivers, from the mid-seventeenth century onward, both private and public investment poured into the construction of new roads, bridges, and canals. By 1780, roads, rivers, and canals linked the major industrial centers of the north, the Midlands, London, and the Atlan- tic coast.

During the last decades of the eighteenth century, tech- nological innovations, including the flying shuttle, the spin- ning jenny, and the power loom, led to a significant increase in textile production. The cotton textile industry—fueled by the import of cheap cotton fibers from Britain’s growing empire in South Asia—achieved even greater heights of pro- ductivity with the invention of the steam engine, which proved invaluable to Britain’s Industrial Revolution. The steam engine was a tireless source of power and depended for fuel on a substance—namely, coal—that seemed then to be available in unlimited quantities. The success of the steam engine increased the demand for coal and led to an expansion in coal production. In turn, new processes using coal furthered the development of an iron industry, the pro- duction of machinery, and the invention of the railroad.

The Spread of the Industrial Revolution By the turn of the nineteenth century, industrialization had begun to spread to the continent of Europe, where it took a different path than had been followed in Great Britain (see Map 1.1). Governments on the Continent were accustomed to playing a major role in economic affairs and continued to do so as the Industrial Revolution got under way, subsidiz- ing inventors, providing incentives to factory owners, and improving the transportation network. By 1850, a network of iron rails (described by the French novelist �Emile Zola as a “monstrous great steel skeleton”) had spread across much of western and central Europe, while water routes were improved by the deepening and widening of rivers and canals.

Across the Atlantic Ocean, the United States experienced the first stages of its industrial revolution in the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1800, America was still a pre- dominantly agrarian society, as six out of every seven work- ers were farmers. Sixty years later, only half of all workers were farmers, while the total population had grown from 5 to 30 million people, larger than Great Britain itself.

The initial application of machinery to production was accomplished by borrowing from Great Britain. Soon, however, Americans began to equal or surpass British tech- nical achievements. The Harpers Ferry arsenal, for exam- ple, built muskets with interchangeable parts. Because all the individual parts of a musket were identical (for exam- ple, all triggers were the same), the final product could be put together quickly and easily; this innovation enabled Americans to avoid the more costly system in which skilled craftsmen fitted together individual parts made separately. The so-called American system reduced costs and revolu- tionized production by saving labor, an important consid- eration in a society that had few skilled artisans.

Unlike Britain, the United States was a large country, and the lack of a good system of internal transportation ini- tially seemed to limit American economic development by making the transport of goods prohibitively expensive. This difficulty was gradually remedied, however. Thousands of miles of roads and canals were built linking east and west. The steamboat facilitated transportation on rivers and the Great Lakes and in Atlantic coastal waters. Most important of all in the development of an American transportation system was the railroad. Beginning with 100 miles in 1830, more than 27,000 miles of railroad track were laid in the next thirty years. This transportation revolution turned the United States into a single massive market for the manufac- tured goods of the Northeast, the early center of American industrialization, and by 1860, the United States was well on its way to being an industrial nation.

The Spread of the Industrial Revolution 3

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New Products and New Patterns During the fifty years before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Western world witnessed a dynamic age of material prosperity. Thanks to new industries, new sour- ces of energy, and new technological achievements, a sec- ond stage of the Industrial Revolution transformed the human environment and led people to believe that their

material progress would improve world conditions and solve all human problems.

The first major change in industrial development af- ter 1870 was the substitution of steel for iron. Steel, an alloy stronger and more malleable than iron, soon became an essential component of the Industrial Revolu- tion. New methods for rolling and shaping steel made it useful in the construction of lighter, smaller, and faster

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MAP 1.1 The Industrial Regions of Europe at the End of the Nineteenth Century. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution—in steelmaking, electricity, petroleum, and chemicals—had spurred substantial economic growth and prosperity in western and central Europe; it had also sparked economic and political competition between Great Britain and Germany.

Which parts of Europe became industrialized most quckly in the nineteenth century? Why do you think this was?

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4 CHAPTER 1 The Rise of Industrial Society in the West

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machines and engines as well as for railways, shipbuild- ing, and armaments. It also paved the way for the build- ing of the first skyscrapers, a development that would eventually transform the skylines of the cities of the West. In 1860, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Bel- gium produced 125,000 tons of steel; by 1913, the total was 32 million tons.

THE INVENTION OF ELECTRICITY Electricity was a major new form of energy that proved to be of great value since it moved relatively effortlessly through space by means of transmitting wires. The first commercially practical generators of electric current were not developed

until the 1870s. By 1910, hydroelectric power stations and coal-fired steam-generating plants enabled entire districts to be tied into a single power distribution system that pro- vided a common source of power for homes, shops, and industrial enterprises.

Electricity spawned a whole series of new products. The invention of the incandescent filament lamp opened homes and cities to illumination by electric lights. Although most electricity was initially used for lighting, it was eventually put to use in transportation. By the 1880s, streetcars and subways had appeared in major European cities. Electricity also transformed the factory. Conveyor belts, cranes, machines, and machine tools could all be powered by elec- tricity and located anywhere. Meanwhile, a revolution in communications ensued when Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901.

THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE The develop- ment of the internal combustion engine had a similar effect. The processing of liquid fuels—petroleum and its distilled derivatives—made possible the widespread use of the internal combustion engine as a source of power in transportation. An oil-fired engine was made in 1897, and by 1902, the Hamburg-Amerika Line had switched from coal to oil on its new ocean liners. By the beginning of the twentieth century, some naval fleets had been con- verted to oil burners as well.

The internal combustion engine gave rise to the auto- mobile and the airplane. In 1900, world production, ini- tially led by the French, stood at 9,000 cars, but by 1906, Americans had taken the lead. It was an American, Henry Ford, who revolutionized the automotive industry with the mass production of the Model T. By 1916, Ford’s fac- tories were producing 735,000 cars a year. In the mean- time, air transportation had emerged with the Zeppelin airship in 1900. In 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, the Wright brothers made the first flight in a fixed-wing plane powered by a gasoline engine. World War I stimu- lated the aircraft industry, and in 1919 the first regular pas- senger air service was established.

TRADE AND MANUFACTURING The growth of indus- trial production depended on the development of markets for the sale of manufactured goods. Competition for for- eign markets was keen, and by 1870, European countries were increasingly compelled to focus on promoting domestic demand. Between 1850 and 1900, real wages increased in Britain by two-thirds and in Germany by one- third. A decline in the cost of food combined with lower prices for manufactured goods because of reduced pro- duction and transportation costs made it easier for Euro- peans to buy consumer products. In the cities, new

The Colossus of Paris. When it was completed for the Paris World’s Fair in 1889, the Eiffel Tower became, at 1,056 feet, the tallest human-made monument in the world. The colossus, which seemed to be rising from the shadows of the city’s feudal past like some new technological giant, symbolized the triumph of the Industrial Revolution and machine-age capitalism, proclaiming the dawn of a new era of endless possibilities and power. Constructed of wrought iron with more than 2.5 million rivet holes, the structure was completed in two years and was paid for entirely by the builder himself, the engineer Gustave Eiffel. From the outset, the monument was wildly popular. Nearly 2 million people lined up at the fair to visit this gravity-defying marvel.

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The Spread of the Industrial Revolution 5

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methods for retail distribution—in particular, the depart- ment store—were used to expand sales of a whole new range of consumer goods made possible by the develop- ment of the steel and electric industries. The desire to own sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters generated a new consumer ethic that has since become a crucial part of the modern economy.

Meanwhile, increased competition for foreign markets and the growing importance of domestic demand led to a reaction against the free trade that had characterized the European economy between 1820 and 1870. By the 1870s, Europeans were returning to the use of protective tariffs to guarantee domestic markets for the products of their own industries. At the same time, cartels were being formed to decrease competition internally. In a cartel, in- dependent enterprises worked together to control prices and fix production quotas, thereby restraining the kind of competition that led to reduced prices. The Rhenish- Westphalian Coal Syndicate, founded in 1893, controlled 98 percent of Germany’s coal production by 1904.