The church pictured above is an example of ottonian architecture

Unit 3 Tutorials: Early Christian Through Early Renaissance Art: 401 AD - 1450 AD

INSIDE UNIT 3

Early Christian and Byzantine Art and Architecture

Early Christian Art and Architecture Images of Christ Early Churches Byzantine Art and Architecture Icons and Iconoclasm

Islamic Art

Islamic Art Islamic Architecture Ceramics, Textiles and Calligraphy Alhambra

Early Asian Art

Asian Art and Architecture Chinese Buddhist Art and Architecture Song Dynasty Landscape Painting Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan The Hindu Temple

The Ancient Americas

The Ancient Americas The Maya South America Art and Architecture of Ancient American Civilizations

Early Mediveal, Romanesque, and Gothic Art

Early Medieval and Romanesque Art Romanesque Architecture Romanesque Art Gothic Architecture Chartres Cathedral

Late Gothic/Early Renaissance Art

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Late Gothic/ Early Renaissance in Italy Early Northern Renaissance Art Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting The Early Renaissance in Florence Evaluating Works of Art Early Renaissance Architecture

Early Christian Art and Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Early Christian art and architecture has a relationship with Christianity, Judaism, and the Roman Empire. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art and Architecture 2. Early Christianity 3. Catacombs 4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos

 BIG IDEA

Early Christian art reflects its close ties to Judaism, and its architecture reflects the need for secrecy.

1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art and Architecture In this lesson you will explore the following two periods of time:

The historical lifespan of Jesus Christ Early Christianity

The historical lifespan of Jesus Christ was an important period. Zero AD is commonly associated with the birth of Christ; however, 0 AD marks a single moment in time and was either a best estimate or a miscalculation. Depending on the Gospel in the Bible, the birth of Christ actually falls within a range from 4 BC, which corresponds to the death of Herod the Great, to 6 AD, which corresponds to the census of Quirinius, who was the Roman head of Syria.

 DID YOU KNOW

The reason the census comes into play is that it is often the reason given for Joseph and Mary, who are the parents of Jesus, to be traveling to Joseph’s homeland of Bethlehem from their new home of Nazareth.

The second time period covered in this lesson is referred to as early Christianity, and it ranges from sometime after Jesus’ historical death to the First Council of Nicea in 325 AD, when Christian leaders got together under the Emperor Constantine and made the first group effort to organize Christianity into a formal religion.

The timeline below highlights the two periods covered in this lesson.

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The origins of Christianity are in the Middle East, within and around the modern-day borders of Israel. This region is considered extremely important to the Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Due to its religious and historical significance, it has been fought over since antiquity, and the borders have changed countless times.

The map below shows the region covered in this lesson.

On the above map, modern-day Israel is shown in red. To the east is the modern-day country of Jordan. The ancient and biblical cities of Jericho, which is not pictured, and Bethlehem, the city of Jesus’ birth and ancestral home to his father, Joseph, are located in an area called the West Bank. This area is the present-day home of the largest population of Palestinian Arabs. Nazareth in northern Israel is where Jesus was thought to have grown up. Jerusalem is very important in the history of all three Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam). For Christians, Jerusalem is of particular importance because of its association with the crucifixion of Jesus.

2. Early Christianity The Christian movement began with the teaching and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. “Christian” means

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“relating to Christ.” As influential as the figure of Christ is historically and religiously, his ministry only lasted around three years according to the Gospels, which are the scriptural accounts of his life and comprise part of the New Testament in the Christian Bible.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Jesus was eventually executed by the Romans when he was around the age of 33. Christianity really began as a movement well after his death. It’s important to note that Jesus himself was Jewish, not Christian.

The spread of Christianity wasn’t only due to one individual, however, but is largely credited to one of his apostles, named Paul. Eventually, the Christian movement spread outside of the Middle East. It took hold in many places within the Roman Empire, including Rome itself.

 DID YOU KNOW

Remember, Christianity at this time wasn’t a formal religion. In fact, there were many Christian sects, and it was considered more of a Jewish cult at this time.

Eventually the Roman government took notice of these Christians, and the Roman persecution of them began during the first century AD. It didn’t officially end until the fourth century AD, but tolerance for Christians was beginning to show as early as the second century AD.

Christianity has close ties to ancient Rome and Judaism. The Christian religion even became the official religion of Rome during the fourth century AD, thanks in large part to the Emperor Constantine. However, until this time, being a Christian was a risky proposition. Due to this, early Christian architecture that predates the adoption of Christianity by the Roman Empire can be seen to reflect this need for secrecy.

3. Catacombs CatacombsCatacombs are essentially subterranean cemeteries. The rooms, or cubiculacubicula, were set off of the major hallways. The bodies of the dead were placed within these rooms.

IN CONTEXT

The use of catacombs to bury the dead isn’t unique to Christians. The catacombs of Rome were constructed in large part by necessity. Land within the city was in short supply. The secrecy of the location of catacombs allowed the early Christians a place to worship safely, as they were sacred ground and the Romans usually refrained from persecuting Christians there.

Here is an image of an artist’s depiction of what the catacombs looked like.

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A Procession in the Catacomb of Callixtus by Alberto PisaA Procession in the Catacomb of Callixtus by Alberto Pisa

1905

Painting

The Christian catacombs in Rome originated in the second century AD. Because they weren’t buried in the traditional sense of the word, exposed human remains were not uncommon.

Here is a picture of the catacombs as they actually are, lit up with a floodlight. This is from the second century AD. Notice the exposed human remains.

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Christian CatacombsChristian Catacombs

2nd century AD

Rome, Italy

This last image, below, shows the use of wall space as a place to create important religious imagery, typically inspired by stories from the sacred texts associated with Christianity.

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Christian CatacombsChristian Catacombs

2nd-3rd centuries AD

Rome, Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

There wasn’t an official split from Judaism until the fourth century. Even though the rift between Christianity and Judaism was widening, early Christians still borrowed traditions and religious history from Judaism. The first five books of the Christian Old Testament are still equivalent to the Torah of Judaism.

 TERMS TO KNOW

CatacombsCatacombs An underground cemetery with tunnels and rooms with burial chambers

CubiculaCubicula Burial chambers in a catacomb

4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos Dura-Europos was a Roman city located in modern-day Syria. Interestingly, this city was apparently rather tolerant of practicing Christians and Jews, given that there are above-ground examples of an early synagoguesynagogue, as well as the earliest known example of a Christian house-church. While these two structures were not physically connected, they are positioned rather close to each other in the city.

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Synagogue at Duras-EuroposSynagogue at Duras-Europos

3rd century AD

Syria

The images on the walls of the synagogue are notable for their similarity to the Christian imagery that can be found on the catacombs under the city of Rome. Both sets of imagery depict important scenes or stories from the Tanakh, or Jewish Bible.

The first image from the synagogue, pictured below, is of the baby Moses being picked out of the river in Egypt.

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Moses Found in the River from the synagogue at Dura-EuroposMoses Found in the River from the synagogue at Dura-Europos

3rd century AD

Syria

This next image is of Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea to escape the army of the Pharaoh Ramses II.

Exodus and the crossing of the Red Sea from the synagogue at Dura-EuroposExodus and the crossing of the Red Sea from the synagogue at Dura-Europos

3rd century AD

Syria

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 DID YOU KNOW

The orant figure is a figure of a person that is gesticulating in a particular way. It’s the traditional gesture of prayer, where the elbows are close to the body and the arms are sort of outstretched. Below is an example of Noah in the pose of an orant figure.

Noah praying in the Ark from a Roman catacombNoah praying in the Ark from a Roman catacomb

3rd century AD

Rome, Italy

 TERMS TO KNOW

SynagogueSynagogue A Jewish house of worship

Orant FiguresOrant Figures Image of a person in the early Christian position of prayer, with arms outstretched

 SUMMARY

Christianity, Judaism, and the Roman Empire all had an impact on early Christian art and architecture. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of early Christian art and architecture.time period and location of early Christian art and architecture.

Early ChristianityEarly Christianity began with the teaching and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth, and while his ministry only lasted around three years, according to the Gospels, Christianity really began as a movement after Jesus’ death.

Finally, you learned about catacombscatacombs and the Synagogue at Dura-Europos.Synagogue at Dura-Europos. Catacombs, or subterranean cemeteries, were used to bury the dead, but also were used as secret locations for early Christians to worship safely. The Synagogue at Dura-Europos was a Jewish house of worship located within the city of Dura-Europos, a Roman city located in modern-day Syria.

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

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Catacombs

An underground cemetery with tunnels and rooms with burial chambers.

Cubicula

Burial chambers in a catacomb.

Orant figures

Image of a person in the early Christian position of prayer, with arms outstretched.

Synagogue

A Jewish house of worship.

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Images of Christ by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Christian art did not begin to flourish until after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman Empire's official religion. This lesson is about images of Christ and the relationship between pagan religion, Christianity, and the artwork from this period. Specifically, you will learn about:

1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ 2. Early Christian Art 3. Christ as Good Shepherd #1 4. Christ as Sol Invictus 5. Christ as Good Shepherd #2

 BIG IDEA

Early Christian art was influenced by the religion and culture of the Roman Empire.

1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ The lifespan of Jesus Christ covers only about 33 years. Interestingly, his official birth year is up for debate. The artwork covered in this lesson ranges from the second century AD to around 450 AD. The geographical region of this lesson is the Italian Peninsula, mainly two cities, Rome and Ravenna, both in Italy.

Below is the timeline highlighting the period covered in this lesson.

Here is a map of the Italian Peninsula with the cities of Rome and Ravenna marked.

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2. Early Christian Art One of the reasons that the study of Christian art is important is that there are no existing images of Christ from his lifetime. Images depicting Christ don’t appear until sometime after his death.

Christian art really began to flourish after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman empire’s official religion. In fact, Christian art wasn’t publicly produced until after Constantine because of the fear that Christians would be persecuted and killed. Christian art shows strong evidence of syncretismsyncretism, or a union of sorts between elements of the pagan and Christian religions. This cultural exchange between religions and philosophies isn’t new, but it is interesting in how it affects traditional understandings of the Christian religion.

 EXAMPLE Take for instance, December 25. This is the official date for celebrating the birth of Christ, but scholars agree almost unanimously that this is most likely not the true date of his birth. However, there are two pools of thought as to why December 25 was the chosen date. The first is that it is a mathematical calculation based on his supposed death during the Jewish feast of Passover. The second thought is that it was adopted based on a pagan religious celebration associated with the solstice and the return of the sun that was celebrated on or around December 25.

Although the origin of December 25 as the birth of Christ is debatable, the syncretism that is suggested in the works of art from this time is widely accepted by scholars.

 TERM TO KNOW

SyncretismSyncretism Attempt at uniting differing or opposing practices in religion or philosophy

3. Christ as Good Shepherd #1 This example of Christ as good shepherd is from the catacomb of Priscilla, located in Rome, Italy.

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Christ as a Good Shepard at Catacomb of PriscillaChrist as a Good Shepard at Catacomb of Priscilla

2nd-3rd century AD

Fresco

Rome, Italy

Like other images of Christ from this time, he’s shown as a youthful shepherd figure, an inspiration that likely stemmed from earlier Greco-Roman depictions of Apollo and Hermes as good shepherds.

This image also draws forth comparisons to an earlier example of Arcade Greek sculpture and its depiction of a calf-bearer, an example of which can be seen here:

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Moschophoros (also known as Calf-Bearer)Moschophoros (also known as Calf-Bearer)

570 BC

Marble

Rather than offering an animal for sacrifice, the good shepherd finds a lamb lost from his flock and returns it to the fold. The artwork of Christ carrying a sheep on his shoulders symbolizes the Christian religion, where Christ is the good shepherd and the fold is faith in the Christian God.

This is also an example of Christian iconographyiconography, or visual symbolism, that represents the Gospel narratives of Christ describing himself as the good shepherd laying his life down for his flock, which foreshadows Jesus’ eventual crucifixion, a sacrifice scripture says is done willingly for the good of humankind.

 TERM TO KNOW

IconographyIconography A type of visual symbolism; Christian iconography, for instance, might make references to the biblical story of the nativity.

4. Christ as Sol Invictus Syncretism is evident in the mosaic “Christ as Sol Invictus.” Found in a mausoleum beneath the Basilica of Saint Peter’s in Rome, this is one of the earliest known images of a regal Christ. He’s also thought to be depicted as the sun god Sol Invictus, which was a later form of the sun deity in the Roman religion.

 EXAMPLE Below is an image of the mosaic “Christ as Sol Invictus”.

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Christ as Sol Invictus in the Mausoleum of the Julii, St. Peter's BasilicaChrist as Sol Invictus in the Mausoleum of the Julii, St. Peter's Basilica

Late 3rd century

Mosaic

Rome, Italy

Pay close attention to the rays of light emanating from his head in the image above. Aside from the cross-like shape depicted, the halo or ring of light surrounding the head of Christ or other important church figures is a type of imagery seen in almost all of the later depictions of Christ. This is another example of syncretism.

5. Christ as Good Shepherd #2 This final image is another mosaic, this time for the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy.

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Christ as Good Shepherd at Mausoleum of Galla PlacidiaChrist as Good Shepherd at Mausoleum of Galla Placidia

425-433 AD

Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

A mosaic is an image, typically on the ceiling, wall, or floor, created out of colored ceramic or glass tiles.

The mausoleum of Galla Placidia is literally covered in mosaics and is considered one of the best surviving examples of mosaic artwork from this time period.

 THINK ABOUT IT

What is interesting about this image of Christ as good shepherd is how he’s changed in appearance from a youthful Apollo-like version of a shepherd to a much more regal- or imperial-looking version of a shepherd. It’s quite obvious, given the dates of these creations and the manner in which they are depicted, that these are not actual likenesses of Christ but rather reflections of the people or cultures that created them.

This mosaic was created after Christianity became the main religion of Rome, and undoubtedly it reflects the desire to make the image of Christ appear more grand and imperial. Some clues to this are the use of the gold and purple robes, which are colors of the emperor, the golden cross-shaped staff, and his head bathed in a golden aura. This imagery of Christ as King is another common depiction in the Christian art that was to come.

 SUMMARY

When Christianity became the Roman empire’s official religion, Christian art began to flourish. In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of images of Christ.time period and location of images of Christ. One of the reasons that the study of early Christian artearly Christian art is important is that there are no existing images of Christ from his lifetime.

You explored some examples of artwork in this lesson, including: Christ as Good Shepherd #1Christ as Good Shepherd #1 “Christ as Sol Invictus”“Christ as Sol Invictus”

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Christ as Good Shepherd #2Christ as Good Shepherd #2

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Iconography

A type of visual symbolism. Christian iconography for instance, might make references to the biblical

story of the nativity.

Syncretism

Attempt of union between differing or opposing practices in religion or philosophy.

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Early Churches by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

Early churches used two different design formats, which you will explore in this lesson. Specifically, you will learn about:

1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches 2. Early Churches 3. Santa Costanza 4. Old St. Peter's 5. Santa Sabina

 BIG IDEA

Many early Christian churches were based on the design format of the Roman basilica.

1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches The architecture in this lesson is dated in the range of the third century AD to fourth century AD in Rome.

Below is a timeline highlighting the period covered in this lesson.

2. Early Churches Like art, early churches are a reflection of the cultures in which they were created. Early Christians didn’t necessarily have an inherent artistic style, so they drew upon what they knew or what they had been exposed to.

IN CONTEXT

Churches are often re-purposed buildings or temples. Two main design plans for churches were used in the period explored in this lesson: the basilicabasilica design and the central plan. The basilica design was essentially an elongated rectangle that formed the central navenave, terminating in an apseapse. The apse area with a triumphal arch, which originally would have been where the emperor was seated, instead became an area for the Christian altar, clergy seating, and, in many cases, the choir

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as well.

Here is a diagram of the basilica design:

Here is a different example of the basilica style, this time with a transepttransept, which is the crosspiece that was added to give it more of a cross shape.

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A centrally planned church has no long central nave. Instead, the altar is positioned in the middle of the church, and is surrounded by a circular walkway called an ambulatoryambulatory. This style of church became more popular in the fourth and fifth centuries, but was largely replaced by the basilica-style design later on. The cross shape, which originally was more of a coincidence, eventually became its own major and intentional design element in the planning of churches.

Below is a diagram of a centrally planned church. Notice the altar in the center and the surrounding walkway.

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Many early churches were based on the design of the Roman basilica, which lent itself well to Christian religious ceremonies. Originally used as meeting or audience halls, the basilica was a rectangular shape with a long central aisleaisle called a nave, that terminated in a rounded, semi-circular section called an apse.

 TERMS TO KNOW

AmbulatoryAmbulatory An area for walking, usually semicircular, around the apse of a church

CathedralCathedral The main church that contains the bishop’s throne

ApseApse An architectural term; a recess or semicircular space in a building, vaulted and, in a church, often used by the choir

AislesAisles The walkway between the sections of seats, for example, in a theater

NaveNave A long central aisle that extends the whole length of the church

BasilicaBasilica A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome; later, a church with columns

3. Santa Costanza

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Not all churches were based on this basilica design, however. It was common to reclaim a temple or building to be repurposed as a church, and this was the case with Santa Costanza in Rome. Santa Costanza was originally built as a mausoleummausoleum for the Emperor Constantine’s daughter, but later was converted to a church. Because of its original purpose, Santa Costanza is based on what’s called a central plan.

Below is an interior view of Santa Costanza, which was originally constructed in 350 BC.

Santa CostanzaSanta Costanza

Coverted Mausoleum of Constantine's daugher

350 AD

Rome, Italy

This image is taken from the ambulatory, which is separated from the central area and altar by a colonnade of Corinthian-style columns. A clerestoryclerestory provides light from above. Notice the windows.

The next image is of one of the surviving mosaicsmosaics from inside Santa Costanza).

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Mosaic from Santa CostanzaMosaic from Santa Costanza

Originally, a Roman Bacchus motif, adapted to Christianity as symbolic of the blood and Eucharist of

Christ

350 AD

Mosaic

Rome Italy

 DID YOU KNOW

The original design was a Bacchus motif with putti, or little chubby, winged spirits, harvesting grapes for wine. Bacchus was the Roman deity of wine and the grape harvest. Interestingly, in an example of syncretism, this image was kept by the Christians, who felt it was evocative of the Christian rite of Eucharist. The angels gathering grapes for wine were symbolic of the blood of Christ.

 TERMS TO KNOW

ClerestoryClerestory A part of a building that rises above the roofs–basically windows above eye level, primarily for allowing light and ventilation

MosaicMosaic A system of patterns on a floor, wall, or ceiling constructed of small colored pieces of inlaid stone, glass, clay, or other materials

MausoleumMausoleum A tomb or building containing tombs

4. Old St. Peter’s The basilica style can be seen in several other churches, including Old Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome, diagrammed below.

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The term “old” is to distinguish it from the newer Saint Peter’s, built centuries later. If you look closely, you can see the rectangular basilica design with its central nave and auxiliary aisles, the cross shape, and the apse. It was originally constructed in 360 AD.

Nothing from Old Saint Peter’s Basilica survives. It was deconstructed and a new church, the new St. Peter’s Basilica, was built in its place. However, this fresco of Old Saint Peter’s provides a nice cross-section of what the fourth-century building looked like:

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Old Saint Peter's BasilicaOld Saint Peter's Basilica

4th Century

Fresco

Notice the colonnade and rounded arcade, which is that row of arches, as well as the tiered roof and resulting clerestory at the very top. In many ways, the basilica of Old Saint Peter’s evokes many of the design elements of Egyptian temples from centuries earlier. It’s no wonder, though, given that the Romans themselves were inspired by the stylistic conventions of ancient Egypt.

5. Santa Sabina This image is of the basilica-style fifth century church of Santa Sabina in Rome:

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Santa SabinaSanta Sabina

422-432 AD

Rome, Italy

At first glance it could be mistaken for the basilica at Trier, Germany, which has a very similar design, as well as an exterior brick construction. However, the interior features very familiar design elements. The central nave and side aisles are separated by a Corinthian-style colonnade that you can see here:

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Interior of Santa SabinaInterior of Santa Sabina

422-432 AD

Rome, Italy

Note the rounded arcade that supports the structure, with the clerestory above.

Here is an image of the apse of Santa Sabina:

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Apse and triumphal arch of Santa SabinaApse and triumphal arch of Santa Sabina

422-432 AD

Rome, Italy

 SUMMARY

Two main design formats were used in early churches. In this lesson, you learned about the timetime period and location of early churchesperiod and location of early churches.

Churches are often re-purposed buildings or temples, and this was no different in early churchesearly churches. Two main design plans for churches were used in the time period explored in this lesson: the basilica design and the central plan.

Finally, you explored the following examples of architecture from early churches: Santa CostanzaSanta Costanza Old St. Peter’sOld St. Peter’s Santa SabinaSanta Sabina

Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR IAN MCCONNELL.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Aisles

The walkway between the sections of seats located, for example in a theater.

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Ambulatory

An area for walking, usually semicircular, around the apse of a church.

Apse

An architectural term; a recess or semicircular space in a building, vaulted and used often by the choir

in a church.

Basilica

A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome, later a church with columns.

Cathedral

The main church that contains the bishop’s throne.

Clerestory

A part of a building that rises above the roofs – basically windows above eye level primarily for

allowing light and ventilation.

Mausoleum

A tomb or building containing tombs.

Mosaic

A system of patterns on a floor, wall, ceiling constructed of small color pieces of inlaid stone, glass, or

clay or other types of materials.

Nave

A long central aisle that extends the whole length of the church.

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Byzantine Art and Architecture by Sophia Tutorial

 WHAT'S COVERED

The Byzantine Empire is historically and religiously very important. It was during this time that the focus of the Roman Empire was moved east and Christianity replaced centuries of polytheism. Things changed, including architecture and artistic styles. In this lesson, you will explore:

1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and Architecture 2. Emperor Constantine 3. Rise of Christianity 4. Hagia Sophia 5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale 6. Christ Pantocrator

 BIG IDEA

The establishment of the new capital in Constantinople moved the focus of the Roman Empire east and facilitated a new artistic style that combined eastern and western conventions.

1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and Architecture The Byzantine Empire can be broken into the following periods:

The Early Period

Constantinople became the new capital of the eastern Roman Empire Middle Byzantium

843 to 1204 AD Late Byzantium

1204 to 1453 AD

Constantinople is finally overrun by the Ottoman Turks

Two empires were prominent during these times, Western and Eastern. Historically, Rome was the capital of the Western Empire. However, it is important to know that this capital did move twice. When Rome was defeated by the barbarians in 410 AD, the capital had already moved to Ravenna, Italy, from its former location in present-day Milan.

The new capital of the Eastern Empire, established under the emperor Constantine, was the city of Constantinople. This was originally the Greek city of Byzantium. After the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, it was renamed Istanbul. Istanbul is located in modern-day Turkey.

2. Emperor Constantine Constantine was a major figure in the political shakeup and subsequent religious changes that occurred during the fourth century AD. He is often credited with splitting the empire of Rome, but this is not true.

It was his predecessor, the emperor Diocletian, who split the empire into Eastern and Western empires. The

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Roman Empire had become so huge, it had become a bureaucratic nightmare to run. When Constantine became ruler of the Eastern Empire, he moved the capital to ByzantiumByzantium, renamed it Constantinople, and ran his empire from there.

Political disorganization of the time left major parts of the Western Empire vulnerable to continued barbarian attacks. Eventually, Rome was defeated in 410 AD by the Visigoths, a barbarian tribe. The Western Empire officially ended after the conquest of Ravenna by barbarians in 479 AD.

Take a look below at this image showing the approximate borders of the Western and Eastern Empires of Rome at the time of the conquest of Ravenna, Italy, in 476 AD:

 TERM TO KNOW

ByzantiumByzantium A Greek city rebuilt by Constantine in 330 AD and renamed Constantinople

3. Rise of Christianity The rise of Christianity was also historically important. Emperor Constantine is largely responsible for later adoption of Christianity as the official state religion, replacing centuries of polytheism. The Edict of Milan declared religious tolerance to Christians and others, and by the end of the fourth century, Christianity was officially declared the state religion. This all happened many years after Constantine’s death in 337 AD.

 TERM TO KNOW

ByzantineByzantine A term referencing the Byzantine Empire, a style of art developed during the Byzantine Empire characterized by religious iconography, very formal, shallow pictorial space, and rich colors

4. Hagia Sophia The ByzantineByzantine Empire, as it came to be known, developed its own unique blended style of Eastern and Western convention. It was in this new blended style that the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was designed under the reign of Emperor Justinian during the sixth century AD.

This church embodies the style and architectural elements that are now associated with the Byzantine Empire, including:

A pendentive dome

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A centralized plan Extensive detail covering every surface of the church’s interior

Hagia Sophia was built to be a cathedral, or a church that houses the cathedra, the throne of a Christian bishop. Justinian developed an ambitious plan to return the empire to its former glory, and from this plan came the architectural masterpiece, Hagia Sophia.

 DID YOU KNOW

The supportive pendentives are separated by a clerestory at the base of the massive dome, which creates the effect of the dome appearing to float effortlessly above the building. PendentivePendentive is one of two primary architectural methods of supporting a circular dome on a rectangular or polygonal base. A squinchsquinch is another method.

In the image below, the arrow highlights the pendentive.

Take a look at the rectangular base below. The squinches are the four blue triangles that are built in to provide a base for the circular bottom of the dome.

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Here is an exterior view of the Hagia Sophia:

Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia

532-537 AD

Istanbul, Turkey

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Notice the minarets, the four towers, on the side. These were a later addition completed when the church was converted to a Muslim mosque after the Ottoman Turks. Hagia Sophia is in Istanbul, Turkey, which is the modern-day city of what used to be Constantinople.

 TERMS TO KNOW

PendentivePendentive An architectural term; a construction that allows the placement of the circular dome over a rectangular room

SquinchSquinch An architectural term; a small arch, or corbelling, built across the interior between two walls as a support in a square tower

5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, is a centrally planned church.

Construction began in 526 AD. The exterior brick facade, an octagonal shape, is rather constrained in comparison to the interior design of the church.

Here is an image of San Vitale:

San VitaleSan Vitale

526-547 AD

Ravenna, Italy

IN CONTEXT

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The Basilica or Church of San Vitale is important because it is an example of classical Byzantine architectural design. The interior mosaics really capture our interest. It’s literally covered in these interior mosaics that have remained in relatively excellent condition, considering their age. The imagery depicted is all religious in nature.

San Vitale was completed during the reign of the Emperor Justinian, but it is not known whether he actually saw the church. He was a very religious man who ambitiously sought to establish the former greatness of the Roman Empire. In addition to his artistic campaign, his military campaign was successful in reclaiming large portions of the former empire, including Italy, much of North Africa, and parts of Spain.

Justinian was married to the empress Theodora. He saw himself as Christ’s representative on earth. This notion is evident in this depiction of Justinian and his attendants in this mosaic from the north wall of San Vitale.

Emperor Justinian and His Attendents on the north wall of San VitaleEmperor Justinian and His Attendents on the north wall of San Vitale

547 AD

Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy

This mosaic from 547 AD is positioned under and perpendicular to that mosaic on the right side of Christ, which was, symbolically, a very important position.

Some of the Byzantine stylistic high points that stand out include:

Almond-shaped eyes Tall, elongated bodies Roughly nine heads tall Flat, two-dimensional rendering Use of overlapping to suggest space and denote importance

The Emperor is the only one not overlapped. He also wears the purple and gold imperial robes. His

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head is surrounded by a golden halo, and he holds a Eucharistic platter.

Directly across from Justinian is his wife, Theodora, in a similar composition from 547 AD, shown below.

Empress Theodora and Her Attendants on south wall of San VitaleEmpress Theodora and Her Attendants on south wall of San Vitale

547 AD

Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy

Notice above that the figures are elongated, and there is the use of overlapping. Theodora is the furthest forward and wears the purple and gold imperial robes. Hers, however, are trimmed with images of the Magi, or the three wise men. Her head is framed by a halo.

Like her husband, she holds a Eucharistic object, a Eucharistic cup of Christ. However, she is attended by fewer people and is positioned on the less desirable left side of Christ, symbolic of her status in comparison to Justinian.

 DID YOU KNOW

An interesting tidbit of information about the mosaic of Justinian and his attendants is the number of attendants, which not coincidentally was the number 12. This is the same as the number of disciples of Jesus Christ.