The colosseum is an example of an ___________ (literally meaning a "double theater")-

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GARDNER’ S

A RT THROUGH THE

AGES

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GARDNER’ S

A RT THROUGH THE

AGES T H E W E ST E R N PE R SPEC T I V E

volume i

fifteenth edition

FRED S . KLEINER

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portant otice e ia content reference ithin the pro ct escription or the pro ct te t a not e availa le in the e oo version

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Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015

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www.cengage.com.

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Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, Fifteenth Edition, Volume I Fred S. Kleiner

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WCN: 02-200-203

Pont-du-Gard (looking northeast), Nîmes, France, ca. 16 bce.

Aqueducts, which brought fresh water to cities throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, are among the many engineering feats of the ancient Romans. The Pont-du-Gard, erected under Emperor Augustus (r. 27 bce–14 ce) over the Gard River in southern France (Roman Gaul), provided about 100 gal- lons of water a day for each inhabitant of the Roman colony at Nîmes from a mountain source some 30 miles away. The water flowed over the considerable distance by gravity alone, which required channels built with a continuous gradual decline over the entire route from source to city. The three-story Pont-du-Gard maintained the height of the water channel where the water crossed the river. Each large arch spans some 82 feet and consists of blocks weighing up to two tons each. The bridge’s uppermost level is a row of smaller arches, three above each of the large openings below. They carry the water channel itself. The harmonious proportional relationship between the larger and smaller arches reveals that the Roman hydraulic engineer who designed the aqueduct-bridge also had a keen aesthetic sense.

The name of that architect-engineer is unknown, which is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages, when almost all artists toiled in anonymity to fulfill the wishes of their patrons, whether Egyptian pharaohs, Roman emperors, or medieval monks. Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective surveys the art and architecture of all periods from prehistory to the present and examines how Western artworks and buildings of all kinds have always reflected the historical contexts in which they were created.A

BO U

T TH

E C

O V

ER A

RT

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vii

Preface xiii

INTRODUCTION What Is Art History? 1

CHAPTER 1 Art in the Stone Age 14

CHAPTER 2 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 30

CHAPTER 3 Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra 54

CHAPTER 4 The Prehistoric Aegean 82

CHAPTER 5 Ancient Greece 102

CHAPTER 6 The Etruscans 162

CHAPTER 7 The Roman Empire 176

CHAPTER 8 Late Antiquity 230

CHAPTER 9 Byzantium 256

CHAPTER 10 The Islamic World 284

CHAPTER 11 Early Medieval Europe 310

CHAPTER 12 Romanesque Europe 338

CHAPTER 13 Gothic Europe 372

CHAPTER 14 Late Medieval Italy 410

Notes 434

Glossary 435

Bibliography 448

Credits 458

Index 461

Brief Contents

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viii+ 

Preface xiii

INTRODUCTION

What Is Art History? 1 Art History in the 21st Century 2

Different Ways of Seeing 13

1 Art in the Stone Age  14 FRAMING THE ERA The Dawn of Art 15 T I M E L I N E   16

Paleolithic Art 16 Neolithic Art 23 ■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : How to Represent

an Animal 17

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Painting in the Dark 20

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Why Is There Art in Paleolithic Caves? 21

M A P 1 -1 Stone Age sites in Europe 16

M A P 1 - 2 Neolithic sites in Anatolia and Mesopotamia 24

THE BIG PICTURE   29

2 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia  30 FRAMING THE ERA Pictorial Narration in Ancient Sumer 31 T I M E L I N E   32

Mesopotamia 32 Persia 48 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Gods and Goddesses

of Mesopotamia 34

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Sumerian Votive Statuary 35

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Mesopotamian Seals 39

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Enheduanna, Priestess and Poet 41

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Gudea of Lagash 43

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Hammurabi’s Laws 44

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : How Many Legs Does a Lamassu Have? 46

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Babylon, City of Wonders 49

M A P 2 -1   Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia 32

THE BIG PICTURE   53

3 Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra  54 FRAMING THE ERA Life after Death in Ancient Egypt 55 T I M E L I N E   56

Egypt and Egyptology 56

Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods 56

Old Kingdom 60

Middle Kingdom 67

New Kingdom 68

First Millennium bce 79 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Gods and Goddesses

of Egypt 58

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Mummification and Immortality 60

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Building the Pyramids of Gizeh 62

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : How to Portray a God-King 64

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Hatshepsut, the Woman Who Would Be King 69

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Illuminating Buildings before Lightbulbs 73

M A P 3 -1   Ancient Egypt 56

THE BIG PICTURE   81

4 The Prehistoric Aegean  82 FRAMING THE ERA Greece in the Age of Heroes 83 T I M E L I N E   84

Contents

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Contents ix

Greece before Homer 84

Cycladic Art 85

Minoan Art 86

Mycenaean Art 93 ■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Archaeology, Art History, and the Art

Market 85

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The Theran Eruption and the Chronology of Aegean Art 91

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Fortified Palaces for a Hostile World 94

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Corbeled Arches, Vaults, and Domes 95

M A P 4 -1   The prehistoric Aegean 84

THE BIG PICTURE   101

5 Ancient Greece  102 FRAMING THE ERA The Perfect Temple 103 T I M E L I N E   104

The Greeks and Their Gods 104 Geometric and Orientalizing Periods 106 Archaic Period 109 Early and High Classical Periods 123 Late Classical Period 142 Hellenistic Period 150 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Gods and Goddesses

of Mount Olympus 105

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Greek Vase Painting 108

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Greek Temple Plans 113

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Doric and Ionic Orders 114

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Invention of Red-Figure Painting 119

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Herakles, the Greatest Greek Hero 124

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Hollow-Casting Life-Size Bronze Statues 127

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Polykleitos’s Prescription for the Perfect Statue 129

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The Hegeso Stele 139

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : White-Ground Painting 140

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Corinthian Capital 149

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Hippodamos’s Plan for the Ideal City 151

M A P 5 -1   The Greek world 104

THE BIG PICTURE   161

6 The Etruscans  162 FRAMING THE ERA The Painted Tombs of Tarquinia 163 T I M E L I N E   164

Etruria and the Etruscans 164

Early Etruscan Art 164

Later Etruscan Art 171 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Etruscan Counterparts

of Greco-Roman Gods and Heroes 165

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Etruscan Artists in Rome 166

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The “Audacity” of Etruscan Women 167

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Houses of the Dead in a City of the Dead 168

M A P 6 -1   Italy in Etruscan times 164

THE BIG PICTURE   175

7 The Roman Empire  176 FRAMING THE ERA Roman Art as Historical Fiction 177 T I M E L I N E   178

Rome, Caput Mundi 178

Republic 179

Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius 186

Early Empire 195

High Empire 206

Late Empire 218 ■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Who’s Who in the Roman World 179

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : Roman Concrete Construction 182

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Roman Ancestor Portraits 183

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Art for Former Slaves 185

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : An Eyewitness Account of the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius 186

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: The Roman House 188

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Role Playing in Roman Portraiture 196

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : The Res Gestae of Augustus 197

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture 199

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : The Golden House of Nero 201

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Spectacles in the Colosseum 202

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Spiral Frieze of the Column of Trajan 208

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x+ Contents

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Icons and Iconoclasm 271

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Born to the Purple: Empress Zoe 275

M A P 9 -1   The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian in 565 258

THE BIG PICTURE   283

10 The Islamic World  284 FRAMING THE ERA The Rise and Spread of Islam 285 T I M E L I N E   286

Early Islamic Art 286

Later Islamic Art 298 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Muhammad

and Islam 288

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Major Muslim Dynasties 290

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Mosque 291

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : A Venetian Visitor to the Alhambra 299

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Sinan the Great and the Mosque of Selim II 302

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Islamic Tilework 304

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Christian Patronage of Islamic Art 308

M A P 1 0 -1   The Islamic world around 1500 286

THE BIG PICTURE   309

11 Early Medieval Europe  310 FRAMING THE ERA The Psalms of David in Ninth-Century France 311 T I M E L I N E   312

Europe after the Fall of Rome 312

Merovingians and Anglo-Saxons 312

Vikings 315

Hiberno-Saxon Monasteries 315

Visigothic and Mozarabic Art 320

Carolingian Empire 321

Ottonian Empire 329 ■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Cloisonné 313

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Early Medieval Ship Burials 314

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Medieval Books 316

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Four Evangelists 318

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Beautifying God’s Words 319

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Charlemagne’s Renovatio Imperii Romani 322

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Ancient World’s Largest Dome 211

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Hadrian and Apollodorus of Damascus 212

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Iaia of Cyzicus and the Art of Encaustic Painting 217

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Tetrarchic Portraiture 224

M A P 7-1   The Roman Empire at the death of Trajan in 117 ce 178

THE BIG PICTURE   229

8 Late Antiquity  230 FRAMING THE ERA Romans, Jews, and Christians 231 T I M E L I N E   232

The Late Antique World 232

From the Soldier Emperors to the Sack of Rome 232

From the Sack of Rome to Justinian 248 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Early Christian Saints

and Their Attributes 236

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Jewish Subjects in Christian Art 238

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Life of Jesus in Art 240

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : What Should a Church Look Like? 242

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Medieval Manuscript Illumination 245

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Ivory Carving 246

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Mosaics 251

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Picturing the Spiritual World 254

M A P 8 -1   The Mediterranean world in Late Antiquity 232

THE BIG PICTURE   255

9 Byzantium  256 FRAMING THE ERA Church and State United 257 T I M E L I N E   258

The Christian Roman Empire 258

Early Byzantine Art 259

Middle Byzantine Art 272

Late Byzantine Art 280 ■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : The Emperors of New Rome 261

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Placing a Dome over a Square 264

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Contents xi

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen 325

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: Medieval Monasteries and Benedictine Rule 327

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Theophanu, a Byzantine Princess at the Ottonian Court 334

M A P 1 1 -1   The Carolingian Empire at the death of Charlemagne in 814 321

THE BIG PICTURE   337

12 Romanesque Europe  338 FRAMING THE ERA The Door to Salvation 339 T I M E L I N E   340

European Culture in the New Millennium 340 France and Northern Spain 340 Holy Roman Empire 357 Italy 363 Normandy and England 365 ■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Veneration

of Relics 341

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Pilgrimage Roads in France and Spain 342

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Timber Roofs and Stone Vaults 345

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : The Romanesque Revival of Stone Sculpture 346

■ W R I T T E N S O U R C E S : Bernard of Clairvaux on Cloister Sculpture 348

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Romanesque Church Portal 350

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Terrifying the Faithful at Autun 352

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Crusades 354

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Romanesque Countesses, Queens, and Nuns 360

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Embroidery and Tapestry 370

M A P 1 2 -1   Western Europe around 1100 342

THE BIG PICTURE   371

13 Gothic Europe  372 FRAMING THE ERA “Modern Architecture” in the Gothic Age 373 T I M E L I N E   374

“Gothic” 374

France 374

Opus Francigenum outside France 399

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Abbot Suger and the Rebuilding of Saint-Denis 375

■ A R C H I T E C T U R A L B A S I C S : The Gothic Rib Vault 378

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Paris, the New Center of Medieval Learning 380

■ P R O B L E M S A N D S O L U T I O N S : Building a High Gothic Cathedral 381

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Stained-Glass Windows 384

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Gothic Book Production 394

M A P 1 3 -1   Europe around 1200 374

THE BIG PICTURE   409

14 Late Medieval Italy  410 FRAMING THE ERA Late Medieval or Proto- Renaissance? 411 T I M E L I N E   412

Duecento (13th Century) 412

Trecento (14th Century) 417 ■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Italian Artists’ Names 413

■ R E L I G I O N A N D M Y T H O LO G Y: The Great Schism, Mendicant Orders, and Confraternities 415

■ M AT E R I A L S A N D T E C H N I Q U E S : Fresco Painting 419

■ T H E PAT R O N ’ S V O I C E : Artists’ Guilds, Artistic Commissions, and Artists’ Contracts 422

■ A R T A N D S O C I E T Y: Artistic Training in Renaissance Italy 426

M A P 1 4 -1   Italy around 1400 412

THE BIG PICTURE   433

Notes 434 Glossary 435 Bibliography 448 Credits 458 Index 461

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pieces as the Notre-Dame-du-Haut in Ronchamp, France, and the Guggenheim Museum in New York. The 15th edition also features an expanded number of the highly acclaimed architectural draw- ings of John Burge. Together, these exclusive photographs, videos, and drawings provide readers with a visual feast unavailable any- where else.

Once again, a scale accompanies the photograph of every painting, statue, or other artwork discussed—another unique fea- ture of the Gardner text. The scales provide students with a quick and effective way to visualize how big or small a given artwork is and its relative size compared with other objects in the same chapter and throughout the book—especially important given that the illus- trated works vary in size from tiny to colossal.

Also retained in this edition are the Quick-Review Captions (brief synopses of the most significant aspects of each artwork or building illustrated) that students have found invaluable when pre- paring for examinations. These extended captions accompany not only every image in the printed book but also all the digital images in the online supplement. Each chapter also again ends with the highly popular full-page feature called The Big Picture, which sets forth in bullet-point format the most important characteristics of each period or artistic movement discussed in the chapter. Also retained from the 14th edition are the timeline summarizing the major artistic and architectural developments during the era treated (again in bullet-point format for easy review) and a chapter-opening essay called Framing the Era, which discusses a characteristic paint- ing, sculpture, or building and is illustrated by four photographs.

Another pedagogical tool not found in any other introductory art history textbook is the Before 1300 section that appears at the beginning of the second volume of the book and at the beginning of Book D of the backpack edition. Because many students taking the second half of a survey course will not have access to Volume I or to Books A and B, I have provided a special (expanded) set of concise primers on architectural terminology and construction methods in the ancient and medieval worlds, and on mythology and reli- gion—information that is essential for understanding the history of Western art after 1300. The subjects of these special boxes are Greco-Roman Temple Design and the Classical Orders; Arches and Vaults; Basilican Churches; Central-Plan Churches; the Gods and Goddesses of Mount Olympus; the Life of Jesus in Art; and Early Christian Saints and Their Attributes.

Boxed essays once again appear throughout the book as well. These essays fall under eight broad categories, two of which are new to the 15th edition:

Architectural Basics boxes provide students with a sound foun- dation for the understanding of architecture. These discussions are concise explanations, with drawings and diagrams, of the major aspects of design and construction. The information included is essen- tial to an understanding of architectural technology and terminology.

I take great pleasure in introducing the extensively revised and expanded 15th edition of Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The West- ern Perspective, which, like the 14th edition, is a hybrid art history textbook—the first, and still the only, introductory survey of the history of art of its kind. This innovative new kind of “Gardner” retains all of the best features of traditional books on paper while harnessing 21st-century technology to significantly increase the number of works examined—without substantially increasing the size of the text or abbreviating the discussion of each work.

When Helen Gardner published the first edition of Art through the Ages in 1926, she could not have imagined that nearly a century later, instructors all over the world would still be using her textbook (available even in Mandarin Chinese) in their classrooms. Indeed, if she were alive today, she would not recognize the book that, even in its traditional form, long ago became—and remains—the world’s most widely read introduction to the history of art and architecture. I hope that instructors and students alike will agree that this new edition lives up to the venerable Gardner tradition and even exceeds their high expectations.

The 15th edition follows the 14th in incorporating an innova- tive new online component that includes, in addition to a host of other features (enumerated below), bonus essays and bonus images (with zoom capability) of nearly 300 additional important works of all eras, from prehistory to the present. The printed and online components of the hybrid 15th edition are very closely integrated. For example, every one of the bonus essays is cited in the text of the traditional book, and a thumbnail image of each work, with abbreviated caption, is inset into the text column where the work is mentioned. The integration extends also to the maps, index, glos- sary, and chapter summaries, which seamlessly merge the printed and online information.

KEY FEATURES OF THE 15TH EDITION In this new edition, in addition to revising the text of every chapter to incorporate the latest research and methodological develop- ments, I have added several important features while retaining the basic format and scope of the previous edition. Once again, the hybrid Gardner boasts roughly 1,400 photographs, plans, and draw- ings, nearly all in color and reproduced according to the highest standards of clarity and color fidelity, including hundreds of new images, among them a new series of superb photos taken by Jona- than Poore exclusively for Art through the Ages during photographic campaigns in 2012 and 2013 in Germany and Rome (following similar forays into France and Tuscany in 2009–2011). The online component also includes custom videos made at architectural sites. This extraordinary new archive of visual material ranges from ancient temples in Rome; to medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque churches in France, Germany, and Italy; to such modernist master-

Preface

xiii

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Materials and Techniques essays explain the various media that artists employed from prehistoric to modern times. Because materi- als and techniques often influence the character of artworks, these discussions contain essential information on why many monuments appear as they do.

Religion and Mythology boxes introduce students to the princi- pal elements of the world’s great religions, past and present, and to the representation of religious and mythological themes in painting and sculpture. These discussions of belief systems and iconography give readers a richer understanding of some of the greatest artworks ever created.

Art and Society essays treat the historical, social, political, cultural, and religious context of art and architecture. In some instances, specific monuments are the basis for a discussion of broader themes.

Written Sources present and discuss key historical documents illuminating important monuments of Western art and architecture. The passages quoted permit voices from the past to speak directly to the reader, providing vivid and unique insights into the creation of artworks in all media.

In the Artists on Art boxes, artists and architects throughout history discuss both their theories and individual works.

New to the 15th edition are The Patron’s Voice boxes. These essays underscore the important roles played by the individuals and groups who paid for the artworks and buildings in determin- ing the character of those monuments. Also new are boxes designed to make students think critically about the decisions that went into the making of every painting, sculpture, and building from the Old Stone Age to the present. Called Problems and Solutions, these essays address questions of how and why various forms developed; the problems that painters, sculptors, and architects confronted; and the solutions they devised to resolve them.

Other noteworthy features retained from the 14th edition are the extensive (updated) bibliography of books in English; a glos- sary containing definitions of italicized terms introduced in both the printed and online texts; and a complete museum index list- ing all illustrated artworks by their present location. The host of state-of-the-art online resources accompanying the 15th edition are enumerated on page xix).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A work as extensive as a comprehensive history of Western art could not be undertaken or completed without the counsel of experts in all sub-areas of art and architecture. As with previous editions, Cen- gage Learning/Wadsworth has enlisted more than a hundred art historians to review every chapter of Art through the Ages in order to ensure that the text lives up to the Gardner reputation for accu- racy as well as readability. I take great pleasure in acknowledging here the important contributions to the 15th edition made by the following: Patricia Albers, San Jose State University; Kirk Ambrose, University of Colorado Boulder; Jenny Kirsten Ataoguz, Indi- ana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne; Paul Bahn, Hull; Denise Amy Baxter, University of North Texas; Nicole Bensoussan, University of Michigan-Dearborn; Amy R. Bloch, University at Albany, State University of New York; Susan H. Caldwell, Univer- sity of Oklahoma; David C. Cateforis, University of Kansas; Joyce De Vries, Auburn University; Verena Drake, Hotchkiss School; Maria Gindhart, Georgia State University; Angela K. Ho, George Mason University; Julie Hochstrasser, University of Iowa; Julie Johnson, University of Texas at San Antonio; Paul H.D. Kaplan,

Purchase College, State University of New York; Rob Leith, Buck- ingham Browne & Nichols School; Brenda Longfellow, University of Iowa; Susan McCombs, Michigan State University; Mary Miller, Yale University; Erin Morris, Estrella Mountain Community Col- lege; Basil Moutsatsos, St. Petersburg College–Seminole; Johanna D. Movassat, San Jose State University; Micheline Nilsen, Indiana University South Bend; Allison Lee Palmer, University of Okla- homa; William H. Peck, University of Michigan–Dearborn; Lauren Peterson, University of Delaware; Holly Pittman, University of Pennsylvania; Romita Ray, Syracuse University; Wendy Wassyng Roworth, University of Rhode Island; Andrea Rusnock, Indiana University South Bend; Bridget Sandhoff, University of Nebraska Omaha; James M. Saslow, Queens College, City University of New York; Anne Rudolph Stanton, University of Missouri; Achim Tim- mermann, University of Michigan; David Turley, Weber State University; Lee Ann Turner, Boise State University; Marjorie S. Venit, University of Maryland; Shirley Tokash Verrico, Genesee Community College; Louis A. Waldman, University of Texas at Austin; Gregory H. Williams, Boston University; and Benjamin C. Withers, University of Kentucky.

I am especially indebted to the following for creating the instructor and student materials for the 15th edition: Ivy Coo- per, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Patricia D. Cosper (retired), University of Alabama at Birmingham; Anne McClanan, Portland State University; Amy M. Morris, University of Nebraska Omaha; Erika Schneider, Framingham State University; and Camille Serchuk, Southern Connecticut State University. I also thank the more than 150 instructors and students who participated in surveys, focus groups, design sprints, and advisory boards to help us better understand readers’ needs in our print and digital products.

I am also happy to have this opportunity to express my gratitude to the extraordinary group of people at Cengage Learning involved with the editing, production, and distribution of Art through the Ages. Some of them I have now worked with on various projects for nearly two decades and feel privileged to count among my friends. The success of the Gardner series in all of its various permutations depends in no small part on the expertise and unflagging commit- ment of these dedicated professionals, especially Sharon Adams Poore, product manager (as well as videographer extraordinaire); Rachel Harbour, content developer; Lianne Ames, senior content project manager; Chad Kirchner, media content developer; Erika Hayden, associate content developer; Rachael Bailey, senior product assistant; Cate Barr, senior art director; Jillian Borden, marketing manager; and the incomparable group of sales representatives who have passed on to me the welcome advice offered by the hundreds of instructors they speak to daily throughout North America.

I am also deeply grateful to the following out-of-house contrib- utors to the 15th edition: the incomparable quarterback of the entire production process, Joan Keyes, Dovetail Publishing Services; Helen Triller-Yambert, developmental editor; Michele Jones, copy editor; Susan Gall and Pete Shanks, proofreaders; Do Mi Stauber, indexer; tani hasegawa, TT Eye, cover designer; Frances Baca, text designer; PreMediaGlobal, photo researchers; Cenveo Publisher Services; Jay and John Crowley, Jay’s Publishing Services; Mary Ann Lidrbauch, art log preparer; and, of course, Jonathan Poore and John Burge, for their superb photos and architectural drawings.

I also owe thanks to two individuals not currently associated with this book but who loomed large in my life for many years: Clark Baxter, former Cengage publisher, who retired in 2013 at the end of a long and distinguished career, from whom I learned much about textbook publishing and whose continuing friendship I

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Preface xv

and Andokides Painters; the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina; the Par- thenon and two sections of its Ionic frieze; Mnesikles’s Propylaia; the Erechtheion and a detail of its caryatid porch; the restored Athena Nike temple; the Phiale Painter’s krater with Hermes and Dionysos; Gnosis’s stag hunt mosaic; the theater at Epidauros; the tholos at Delphi; the choragic monument of Lyskikrates; and the Barberini Faun.

6: The Etruscans. New Framing the Era essay “The Painted Tombs of Tarquinia.” New Problems and Solutions box “Houses of the Dead for a City of the Dead.” New section on Etruscan city plan- ning. New photographs of the Tarquinian Tomb of the Triclinium and the Tomb of the Leopards, including four new details, as well as of the Tomb of the Reliefs at Cerveteri. New plan of Marzabotto and new drawing of arch construction.

7: The Roman Empire. New Framing the Era essay “Roman Art as Historical Fiction.” New Patron’s Voice box “The Res Gestae of Augustus.” New Written Sources box “Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture.” New Problems and Solutions boxes “The Spiral Frieze of the Column of Trajan,” “The Ancient World’s Largest Dome,” and “Tetrarchic Portraiture.” New photographs of details of the apo- theosis of Antoninus and Faustina; the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli; cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus at Boscotrecase; the Ara Pacis and its Tellus panel; the Maison Carrée at Nîmes; the Arch of Titus (general view and three reliefs); the Column of Trajan (gen- eral view and four details of the frieze); the exterior and interior of the Markets of Trajan; the Pantheon; the Baths of Neptune at Ostia; the Arch of Constantine (general view and detail of the Hadrianic tondi and Constantinian frieze); the colossal portrait head of Con- stantine; the Basilica Nova in Rome; and the interior and exterior of the Aula Palatina at Trier.

8: Late Antiquity. Major reorganization of the chapter in order to treat the material in chronological order and merge the pre- viously separate discussions of Dura Europos, funerary art, architecture and architectural decoration, and luxury arts. New two-page Religion and Mythology box “Early Christian Saints and Their Attributes” and new Problems and Solutions boxes “What Should a Church Look Like?” and “Picturing the Spiritual World.” New photographs of the exterior and interior of Santa Costanza and Santa Sabina, the Abraham and Lot mosaic in Santa Maria Maggiore, and the Crucifixion panel of Santa Sabi- na’s wood doors.

9: Byzantium. New Problems and Solutions box “Placing a Dome over a Square.” Discussion of Vienna Genesis and Rossano Gos- pels transferred from Chapter 8. New photographs of the exterior and interior of Hagia Sophia, the choir and apse of San Vitale, the Katholikon at Hosios Loukas, and St. Catherine in Thessaloniki.

10: The Islamic World. New Art and Society box “Major Muslim Dynasties.” New Written Sources box “A Venetian Visitor to the Alhambra.” New photographs of the exterior and interior of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the mosaics of the Great Mosque of Damascus, the Great Mosque at Kairouan, the exterior and inte- rior of the Mosque of Selim II at Edirne, and the Imam Mosque at Isfahan. Expanded discussion and new photographs of the Friday Mosque at Isfahan, with new photographs and a new bonus essay on the 14th-century mihrab.

11: Early Medieval Europe. New Framing the Era essay “The Psalms of David in Ninth-Century France.” New Materials and Techniques box “Cloisonné.” New Art and Society box “Early Medi- eval Ship Burials.” New Problems and Solutions box “Beautifying

value highly; and my former coauthor and longtime friend and col- league, Christin J. Mamiya of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, with whom I have had innumerable conversations about not only Art through the Ages but the history of art in general. Her thinking continues to influence my own, especially with regard to the later chapters on the history of Western art. I conclude this long (but no doubt incomplete) list of acknowledgments with an expression of gratitude to my colleagues at Boston University and to the thou- sands of students and the scores of teaching fellows in my art history courses since I began teaching in 1975, especially my research assis- tant, Angelica Bradley. From them I have learned much that has helped determine the form and content of Art through the Ages and made it a much better book than it otherwise might have been.

Fred S. Kleiner

CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER CHANGES IN THE 15TH EDITION The 15th edition is extensively revised and expanded, as detailed below. Each chapter contains a revised Big Picture feature, and all maps in the text are new to this edition. Instructors will find a very helpful figure number transition guide in the online instructor com- panion site.

Introduction: What Is Art History? Added 18th-century Benin Altar to the Hand and details of Claude Lorrain’s Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba.

1: Art in the Stone Age. New Problems and Solutions boxes “How to Represent an Animal” and “Painting in the Dark.” New bonus essay on Göbekli Tepe. New photographs of the Paleolithic Hohlenstein-Stadel statuette and of Neolithic Jericho, Göbekli Tepe, and Stonehenge, as well as a new drawing of post-and-lintel construction.

2: Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia. New Framing the Era essay “Pictorial Narration in Ancient Sumer.” New Problems and Solu- tions boxes “Sumerian Votive Statuary” and “How Many Legs Does a Lamassu Have?” New Patron’s Voice box “Gudea of Lagash.” New pho- tographs of the Warka Vase (including three new details), Akkadian ruler portrait, Lion Gate at Hattusa, Khorsabad lamassu, Ashurbani- pal hunting lions, and the triumph of Shapur I over Valerian.

3: Egypt from Narmer to Cleopatra. New Framing the Era essay “Life after Death in Ancient Egypt” and new Problems and Solu- tions boxes “Building the Pyramids of Gizeh,” “How to Portray a God-King,” and “Illuminating Buildings before Lightbulbs.” New photographs of the palette of King Narmer, stepped pyramid of King Djoser, Great Sphinx, tomb of Khnumhotep II, temple com- plex and hypostyle hall at Karnak, portrait of Tiye with sun disk crown, and temple of Horus at Edfu.

4: The Prehistoric Aegean. New Problems and Solutions box “For- tified Palaces for a Hostile World.” New Architectural Basics box “Corbeled Arches, Vaults, and Domes.” New photographs of the Lion Gate, the exterior and interior of the Treasury of Atreus, and Grave Circle A at Mycenae. New restored view of the palace at Knossos.

5: Ancient Greece. New Problems and Solutions boxes “The Inven- tion of Red-Figure Painting,” “Polykleitos’s Prescription for the Perfect Statue,” and “Hippodamos’s Plan for the Ideal City.” New Materials and Techniques box “White-Ground Painting.” New pho- tographs of the Achilles and Ajax vases by Exekias and the Lysippides

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God’s Words.” New Written Sources box “Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel at Aachen.” New bonus essay on Saint Pantaleon at Cologne. New photographs of the Palatine Chapel at Aachen, abbey church at Corvey, Saint Cyriakus at Gernrode, Saint Michael’s at Hildesheim, and Bernward’s bronze column.

12: Romanesque Europe. New Framing the Era essay “The Door to Salvation.” New Problems and Solutions box “The Romanesque Revival of Stone Sculpture.” New Patron’s Voice box “Terrifying the Faithful at Autun.” New photographs of the tympanum and trumeau of the south portal and of a historiated capital in the clois- ter of Saint-Pierre at Moissac, the exterior and interior of Speyer Cathedral, and the facade of San Miniato al Monte in Florence. New bonus essays, with new photographs, on the Krak des Chevaliers in Syria and the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

13: Gothic Europe. New Framing the Era essay “‘Modern Architec- ture’ in the Gothic Age.” New Problems and Solutions box “Building a High Gothic Cathedral.” New Art and Society box “Gothic Book Production.” New photographs of the rose window of Reims Cathe- dral; Saint Theodore of the Chartres south transept; the interior of Salisbury Cathedral; the Death of the Virgin tympanum of Stras- bourg Cathedral; the Naumburg Master’s Crucifixion and Ekkehard and Uta; the Bamberg Rider; and the exterior and interior of Saint Elizabeth at Marburg.

14: Late Medieval Italy. Expanded discussions of Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, Pietro Cavallini, and Orvieto Cathedral. Addition of Pisa Cathedral pulpit. New photographs of Giovanni Pisano’s Nativity, Pietro Cavallini’s Last Judgment, Giotto’s Entry into Jerusa- lem, and the Doge’s Palace in Venice.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Fred S. Kleiner

Fred S. Kleiner (Ph.D., Columbia University) has been the author or coauthor of Gardner’s Art through the Ages beginning with the 10th edition in 1995. He has also published more than a hundred books, articles, and reviews on Greek and Roman art and architecture, including A History of Roman Art, also published by Cengage Learning. Both Art through the Ages and the book on Roman art have been awarded Texty prizes as the outstanding college textbook of the year in the humanities and social sciences, in 2001 and 2007, respectively. Professor Kleiner has taught the art history survey course since 1975, first at the University of Virginia and, since 1978, at Boston University, where he is currently professor of the history of art and archi- tecture and classical archaeology and has served as department chair for five terms, most recently from 2005 to 2014. From 1985 to 1998, he was editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Archaeology.

Long acclaimed for his inspiring lectures and devotion to students, Professor Kleiner won Boston Uni- versity’s Metcalf Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the College Prize for Undergraduate Advising in the Humanities in 2002, and he is a two-time winner of the Distinguished Teaching Prize in the College of Arts & Sciences Honors Program. In 2007, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and, in 2009, in recognition of lifetime achievement in publication and teaching, a Fellow of the Text and Academic Authors Association.

Also by Fred Kleiner: A History of Roman Art, Enhanced Edition (Wadsworth/Cengage Learning 2010; ISBN 9780495909873), winner of the 2007 Texty Prize for a new college textbook in the humanities and social sciences. In this authoritative and lavishly illustrated volume, Professor Kleiner traces the development of Roman art and architec- ture from Romulus’s foundation of Rome in the eighth century bce to the death of Constantine in the fourth century ce, with special chapters devoted to Pompeii and Herculaneum, Ostia, funerary and provincial art and architecture, and the earliest Christian art. The enhanced edition also includes a new introductory chapter on the art and architecture of the Etruscans and of the Greeks of South Italy and Sicily.

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xix

FOR STUDENTS

MindTap for Art through the Ages

MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Per- spective, 15th edition, helps you engage with your course content and achieve greater comprehension. Highly personalized and fully online, the MindTap learning platform presents authorita- tive Cengage Learning content, assignments, and services offering you a tailored presentation of course curriculum created by your instructor.

MindTap guides you through the course curriculum via an innovative Learning Path Navigator where you will complete read- ing assignments, annotate your readings, complete homework, and engage with quizzes and assessments. This new edition features a two-pane e-reader, designed to make your online reading experi- ence easier. Images discussed in the text appear in the left pane, while the accompanying text scrolls on the right. Highly accessible and interactive, this new e-reader pairs videos, Google Map links, and 360-degree panoramas with the matching figure in the text. Artworks are further brought to life through zoom capability right in the e-reader. Numerous study tools are included, such as image flashcards; glossary complete with an audio pronunciation guide; downloadable Image Guide (a note taking template with all chapter images); and the ability to synchronize your eBook notes with your personal EverNote account.

New Flashcard App

The new and improved Flashcard App in MindTap gives you more flexibility and features than ever before. Study from the preexisting card decks with all the images from the text, or create your own cards with new images from your collection or those shared by your instructor. Create your own custom study deck by combining cards from separate chapters or those you’ve created. Once you’ve com- piled your flashcard deck, you can save it for later use or print it for on-the-go studying.

FOR FACULTY

MindTap® for Instructors

Leverage the tools in MindTap for Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective, 15th edition, to enhance and personalize your course. Add your own images, videos, web links, readings, projects, and more either in the course Learning Path or right in the chapter reading. Set project due dates, specify whether assignments are for practice or a grade, and control when your students see these activities in their Learning Path. MindTap can be purchased as a stand-alone product or bundled with the print text. Connect with your Learning Consultant for more details via www.cengage.com /repfinder/.

Instructor Companion Site

Access the Instructor Companion Website to find resources to help you teach your course and engage your students. Here you will find the Instructor’s Manual; Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero; and Microsoft PowerPoint slides with lecture outlines and images that can be used as offered or customized by importing per- sonal lecture slides or other material.

Digital Image library

Display digital images in the classroom with this powerful tool. This one-stop lecture and class presentation resource makes it easy to assemble, edit, and present customized lectures for your course. Available on flash drive, the Digital Image Library provides high- resolution images (maps, diagrams, and the fine art images from the text) for lecture presentations and allows you to easily add your own images to supplement those provided. A zoom feature allows you to magnify selected portions of an image for more detailed display in class, or you can display images side-by-side for comparison.

Google EarthTM

Take your students on a virtual tour of art through the ages! Resources for the 15th edition include Google Earth coordinates for all works, monuments, and sites featured in the text, enabling students to make geographical connections between places and sites. Use these coordinates to start your lectures with a virtual journey to locations all over the globe, or take aerial screenshots of important sites to incorporate in your lecture materials.

Resources

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I-1a Among the questions art historians ask is why artists chose the subjects they represented. Why would a 17th-century French painter set a biblical story in a contemporary harbor with a Roman ruin?

I-1b Why is the small boat in the foreground much larger than the sailing ship in the distance? What devices did Western artists develop to produce the illusion of deep space in a two-dimensional painting?

I-1c Why does the large port building at the right edge of this painting seem normal to the eye when the top and bottom of the structure are not parallel horizontal lines, as they are in a real building?

Claude Lorrain, Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba, 1648. Oil on canvas, 4' 10" × 6' 4". National Gallery, London.I-1

1 ft.

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11

FR A

M IN

G T

H E

ER A

What is art history? Except when referring to the modern academic discipline, people do not often jux- tapose the words art and history. They tend to think of history as the record and interpretation of past human events, particularly social and political events. In contrast, most think of art, quite correctly, as part of the present—as something people can see and touch. Of course, people cannot see or touch his- tory’s vanished human events, but a visible, tangible artwork is a kind of persisting event. One or more artists made it at a certain time and in a specific place, even if no one now knows who, when, where, or why. Although created in the past, an artwork continues to exist in the present, long surviving its times. The first painters and sculptors died 30,000 years ago, but their works remain, some of them exhibited in glass cases in museums built only a few years ago.

Modern museum visitors can admire these objects from the remote past and countless others pro- duced over the millennia—whether a large painting on canvas by a 17th-century French artist (fig. I-1), a wood portrait from an ancient Egyptian tomb (fig. I-14), an illustrated book by a medieval German monk (fig. I-8), or an 18th-century bronze altar glorifying an African king (fig. I-15)—without any knowledge of the circumstances leading to the creation of those works. The beauty or sheer size of an object can impress people, the artist’s virtuosity in the handling of ordinary or costly materials can dazzle them, or the subject depicted can move them emotionally. Viewers can react to what they see, interpret the work in the light of their own experience, and judge it a success or a failure. These are all valid responses to a work of art. But the enjoyment and appreciation of artworks in museum settings are relatively recent phenomena, as is the creation of artworks solely for museum-going audiences to view.

Today, it is common for artists to work in private studios and to create paintings, sculptures, and other objects to be offered for sale by commercial art galleries. This is what American artist Clyfford Still (1904–1980) did when he created his series of paintings (fig. I-2) of pure color titled simply with the year of their creation. Usually, someone the artist has never met will purchase the artwork and dis- play it in a setting that the artist has never seen. This practice is not a new phenomenon in the history of art—an ancient potter decorating a vase for sale at a village market stall probably did not know who would buy the pot or where it would be housed—but it is not at all typical. In fact, it is exceptional. Throughout history, most artists created paintings, sculptures, and other objects for specific patrons and settings and to fulfill a specific purpose, even if today no one knows the original contexts of those artworks. Museum visitors can appreciate the visual and tactile qualities of these objects, but they can- not understand why they were made or why they appear as they do without knowing the circumstances of their creation. Art appreciation does not require knowledge of the historical context of an artwork (or a building). Art history does.

What Is Art History?

1

INTRODUCTION

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2! I N T RO D U C T I O N!What Is Art History?

ART HISTORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY Art historians study the visual and tangible objects that humans make and the structures that they build. Scholars traditionally have classified these works as architecture, sculpture, the pictorial arts (painting, drawing, printmaking, and photography), and the craft arts, or arts of design. The craft arts comprise utilitarian objects, such as ceramics, metalwork, textiles, jewelry, and similar acces- sories of ordinary living—but the fact that these objects were used does not mean that they are not works of art. In fact, in some times and places, these so-called minor arts were the most prestigious art- works of all. Artists of every age have blurred the boundaries among these categories, but this is especially true today, when multimedia works abound.

Beginning with the earliest Greco-Roman art critics, scholars have studied objects that their makers consciously manufactured as “art” and to which the artists assigned formal titles. But today’s art historians also study a multitude of objects that their creators and owners almost certainly did not consider to be “works of art.” Few ancient Romans, for example, would have regarded a coin bearing their emperor’s portrait as anything but money. Today, an art museum may exhibit that coin in a locked case in a climate- controlled room, and scholars may subject it to the same kind of art historical analysis as a portrait by an acclaimed Renaissance or modern sculptor or painter.

The range of objects that art historians study is constantly expanding and now includes, for example, computer-generated images, whereas in the past almost anything produced using a machine would not have been regarded as art. Most people still con- sider the performing arts—music, drama, and dance—as outside art history’s realm because these arts are fleeting, impermanent media. But during the past few decades, even this distinction between “fine art” and “performance art” has become blurred. Art historians, how- ever, generally ask the same kinds of questions about what they study, whether they employ a restrictive or expansive definition of art.