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Writing Arguments A Rhetoric with Readings

Tenth Edition

John D. Ramage Arizona State University

John C. Bean Seattle University

June Johnson Seattle University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ramage, John D. Writing arguments: a rhetoric with readings / John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, June Johnson. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-321-90673-1 (student edition) 1. English language—Rhetoric. 2. Persuasion (Rhetoric) 3. College readers. 4. Report writing. I. Bean, John C. II. Johnson, June III. Title. PE1431.R33 2014 808’.0427—dc23 2014018668

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Brief Contents Part One Overview of Argument 1 1 Argument: An Introduction 2 2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring 17 Part Two Writing an Argument 51 3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 52 4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 67 5 Using Evidence Effectively 88 6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 104 7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 121 Part Three Analyzing Arguments 153 8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 154 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 175 Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims 209 10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims 210 11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments 220 12 Causal Arguments 248 13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments 278 14 Proposal Arguments 304 Part Five The Researched Argument 339 15 Finding and Evaluating Sources 340 16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 359 17 Citing and Documenting Sources 375 Appendix Informal Fallacies 397

Part Six An Anthology of Arguments 405 The Future of Food and Farming 406 Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters 432 Immigration in the Twenty-First Century 460 Millennials Entering Adulthood 477 Choices for a Sustainable World 499 Digital Literacies 519 Argument Classics 542

iv

Detailed Contents

Preface xxii Acknowledgments xxviii

Part One Overview of Argument 1

1 Argument: An Introduction 2 What Do We Mean by Argument? 2

Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel 2 Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate 3 Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit 3

JUAN LUCAS (STUDENT), “An Argument Against Banning Phthalates” 5 A student opposes a ban on a chemical that makes toys soft and flexible.

The Defining Features of Argument 7 Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims 8 Argument Is Both a Process and a Product 10 Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion 10

Argument and the Problem of Truth 12 Conclusion 16

2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring 17 Finding Issues to Explore 18

Do Some Initial Brainstorming 18 Be Open to the Issues All around You 18 Explore Ideas by Freewriting 22 Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping 23 Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game 24

Reading Texts Rhetorically 25 Genres of Argument 25 Authorial Purpose and Audience 29 Determining Degree of Advocacy 31

Reading to Believe an Argument’s Claims 32

JAMES SUROWIECKI, “The Pay Is Too Damn Low” 33 An American journalist argues for an increased federally mandated minimum wage combined with government policies to promote job growth and ensure a stable safety net for the poor.

Detailed Contents v

Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe 34 Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer’s Views 37

Reading to Doubt 37 Thinking Dialectically 38

MICHAEL SALTSMAN, “To Help the Poor, Move Beyond ‘Minimum’ Gestures” 40 The chief economist for the Employment Policy Institute opposes an increased minimum wage, arguing that it does nothing for the jobless poor and will in fact lead to increased joblessness.

Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking 41 Conclusion 42

Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay 42

Reading 44

TRUDIE MAKENS (STUDENT), “Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?” 44 Examining articles by Surowiecki, Saltsman, and others, a student narrates the evolution of her thinking as she researches the issue of minimum wage.

Part Two Writing an Argument 51

3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons 52 The Classical Structure of Argument 52 Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle 54 Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument 56

Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question 56 How to Identify an Issue Question 57 Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument 58 Pseudo-Arguments: Committed Believers and Fanatical Skeptics 58 A Closer Look at Pseudo-Arguments: The Lack of Shared Assumptions 59

Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons 60 What Is a Reason? 60 Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses 62

Conclusion 65

Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements 65

4 The Logical Structure of Arguments 67 An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an

Argument? 67 Formal Logic versus Real-World Logic 67 The Role of Assumptions 68

vi Detailed Contents

The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme 68 The Power of Audience-Based Reasons 70

Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System 71 Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument 76

Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes 76 Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games 80

CARMEN TIEU (STUDENT), “Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls” 82 A student argues that playing violent video games helps girls gain insight into male culture.

The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument 85 Conclusion 86 A Note on the Informal Fallacies 86

Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details 87

5 Using Evidence Effectively 88 Kinds of Evidence 88 The Persuasive Use of Evidence 92

Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence 92 Establish a Trustworthy Ethos 93 Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data 94

Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence 95 Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence 95

Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision 98 Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence 99 Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence 101 Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence 102

Conclusion 103

Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument 103

6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 104 Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview 104 How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility 106 How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions 107

Use Concrete Language 108 Use Specific Examples and Illustrations 109 Use Narratives 110 Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations 110

Detailed Contents vii

Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments 111 Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 113

Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 115

How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos 116 Conclusion 119

Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons 120

7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views 121 One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments 121 Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views 122 Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument 124 Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument 125

Summarizing Opposing Views 125 Refuting Opposing Views 126 Strategies for Rebutting Evidence 127 Conceding to Opposing Views 128 Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy 129

TRUDIE MAKENS (STUDENT), “Bringing Dignity To Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a Living Wage” 129 A student writer refutes three arguments against increasing the minimum wage.

Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument 131 Creating a Dialogic Argument with a Delayed Thesis 132

ROSS DOUTHAT, “Islam in Two Americas” 133 A conservative columnist asks readers to explore aspects of American identity that suggest that Muslims should not build a community center near Ground Zero.

Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument 135 A More Open-Ended Approach: Rogerian Communication 136

Rogerian Communication as Growth for the Writer 137 Rogerian Communication as Collaborative Negotiation 138 Writing Rogerian Communication 138

COLLEEN FONTANA (STUDENT), “An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article ‘They Never Learn’ ” 140 Using the strategies of Rogerian argument, a student writes an open letter about the problem of gun violence on college campuses to an advocate of minimal gun control laws and more guns.

Conclusion 144

Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Rogerian Letter 145

viii Detailed Contents

Readings 145

LAUREN SHINOZUKA (STUDENT), “The Dangers of Digital Distractedness” (A Classical Argument) 145 Using the classical argument form, a student writer argues that being a skilled digital native also “harms us by promoting an unproductive habit of multitasking, by dehumanizing our relationships, and by encouraging a distorted self-image.”

MONICA ALLEN (STUDENT), “An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article ‘High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap’ ” (Rogerian Communication) 149 Using the strategies of Rogerian communication, a student writer skeptical about charter schools initiates dialogue with a charter school advocate on ways to improve education for low-income and minority students.

Part Three Analyzing Arguments 153

8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically 154 Thinking Rhetorically about a Text 154

Questions for Rhetorical Analysis 155 Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis 159

KATHRYN JEAN LOPEZ, “Egg Heads” 159 Writing in 1998 for the conservative magazine National Review, Kathryn Jean Lopez argues against the emerging practice of egg donation enabled by new reproductive technology.

Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads” 162 Conclusion 166

Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis 166 Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis 167 Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis 168

Readings 169

ELLEN GOODMAN, “Womb for Rent” 169 Columnist Ellen Goodman explores the ethical dilemmas created when first-world couples “outsource” motherhood to third-world women.

ZACHARY STUMPS (STUDENT), “A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman’s ‘Womb for Rent’ ” 171 A student analyzes Ellen Goodman’s rhetorical strategies in “Womb for Rent,” emphasizing her delayed-thesis structure and her use of language with double meanings.

9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 175 Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument 176

Use of Type 176 Use of Space or Layout 177

Detailed Contents ix

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements 178 Use of Color 180 Use of Images and Graphics 180 An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components 180

The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings 184 An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images 188

The Genres of Visual Argument 191 Posters and Fliers 192 Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements 194 Cartoons 197 Web Pages 198

Constructing Your Own Visual Argument 198 Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments 199

Using Information Graphics in Arguments 200 How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories 200 Using a Graph to Tell a Story 202 Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument 205

Conclusion 206

Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Data 207

Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims 209

10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims 210 The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development 210 Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas:

An Example 213 Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes 213 Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to

Real Cigarettes 214 Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes 215

Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments 215 Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments 216 An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument 217

ALEX HUTCHINSON, “Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You” 217 Writing for an outdoor sports magazine targeting health and fitness enthusiasts, a journalist reviews the scientific literature against daily multivitamins and other supplements.

x Detailed Contents

11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments 220 What Is at Stake in a Categorical Argument? 221

Consequences Resulting from Categorical Claims 222 The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the

Same Way 222 Types of Categorical Arguments 224

Simple Categorical Arguments 224 Definition Arguments 225 Resemblance Argument Using Analogy 225 Resemblance Arguments Using Precedent 227

Examining Visual Arguments: Claim about Category (Definition) 228

The Criteria-Match Structure of Definition Arguments 229

Overview of Criteria-Match Structure 229 Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument 230 Creating Criteria Using Aristotelian Definition 231 Creating Criteria Using an Operational Definition 233 Conducting the Match Part of a Definition Argument 233

Idea-Generating Strategies for Creating Your Own Criteria-Match Argument 234

Strategy 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term 234 Strategy 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition 235

Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument 238 Exploring Ideas 238 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 239 Organizing a Definition Argument 240 Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument 240

Readings 242

ARTHUR KNOPF (STUDENT), “Is Milk a Health Food?” 242 A student argues that milk, despite its reputation for promoting calcium-rich bones, may not be a health food.

ALEX MULLEN (STUDENT), “A Pirate But Not a Thief: What Does ‘Stealing’ Mean in a Digital Environment?” 244 A student argues that his act of piracy—downloading a film from a file- sharing torrent site—is not stealing because it deprives no one of property or profit.

LOS ANGELES TIMES EDITORIAL BOARD, “College Football—Yes, It’s a Job” 247 The Editorial Board of the Los Angeles Times supports a court decision that scholarship football players at Northwestern University are “paid employees” of the university and therefore have the right to unionize.

Detailed Contents xi

12 Causal Arguments 248 An Overview of Causal Arguments 249

Kinds of Causal Arguments 250 Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument 252

Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another 254 First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly 255 Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning 256

Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim 257

Key Terms and Inductive Fallacies in Causal Arguments 258

Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument 260 Exploring Ideas 260 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 261 Organizing a Causal Argument 262 Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument 262

Readings 265

JULEE CHRISTIANSON (STUDENT), “Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong: Culture Rather Than Biology Explains the Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Mathematics” (APA-format research paper) 266 A student writer disagrees with Harvard president Lawrence Summers’s claim that genetic factors may account for fewer women than men holding professorships in math and science at prestige universities.

DEBORAH FALLOWS, “Papa, Don’t Text: The Perils of Distracted Parenting” 272 Linguist Deborah Fallows argues in The Atlantic that by texting and talking on cell phones instead of interacting with their young children adults are jeopardizing their children’s language learning.

CARLOS MACIAS (STUDENT), “ ‘The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!’—The Credit Card Industry’s Role in Causing Student Debt” 274 A student writer examines the causes of college students’ credit card debt and puts the blame on the exploitive practices of the credit card industry.

13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments 278 An Overview of Categorical Ethical Evaluation Arguments 280 Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument 280

Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations 280 Developing Your Criteria 281 Making Your Match Argument 283

Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim 284

Constructing an Ethical Evaluation Argument 286 Consequences as the Base of Ethics 286

xii Detailed Contents

Principles as the Base of Ethics 287 Example Ethical Arguments Examining Capital Punishment 287

Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments 289

Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument 290 Exploring Ideas 290 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 291 Organizing an Evaluation Argument 291 Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument 291 Critiquing an Ethical Argument 293

Readings 294

LORENA MENDOZA-FLORES (STUDENT), “Silenced and Invisible: Problems of Hispanic Students at Valley High School” 294 A physics major critiques her former high school for marginalizing its growing numbers of Hispanic students.

CHRISTOPHER MOORE (STUDENT), “Information Plus Satire: Why The Daily Show and The Colbert Report Are Good Sources of News for Young People” 297 A student favorably evaluates The Daily Show and The Colbert Report as news sources by arguing that they keep us up to date on major world events and teach us to read the news rhetorically.

JUDITH DAAR AND EREZ ALONI, “Three Genetic Parents—For One Healthy Baby” 300 Lawyers specializing in medical research argue that mitochondrial replacement (which enables a child to inherit DNA from three parents) “might be a way to prevent hundreds of mitochondrial-linked diseases, which affect about one in 5,000 people.”

SAMUEL AQUILA, “The ‘Therapeutic Cloning’ of Human Embryos” 302 A Catholic archbishop finds therapeutic cloning “heinous,” despite its potential health benefits, “because the process is intended to create life, exploit it, and then destroy it.”

14 Proposal Arguments 304 The Special Features and Concerns of Proposal Arguments 306

Practical Proposals versus Policy Proposals 306 Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument 306 Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments 308

Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim 309

Developing a Proposal Argument 309 Convincing Your Readers that a Problem Exists 309 Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal 310 Convincing Your Readers that the Benefits of Your Proposal Outweigh the Costs 311

Using Heuristic Strategies to Develop Supporting Reasons for Your Proposal 311 The “Claim Types” Strategy 312 The “Stock Issues” Strategy 314

Detailed Contents xiii

Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements 316

Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument 316 Exploring Ideas 318 Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake 319 Organizing a Proposal Argument 319 Designing a One-Page Advocacy Poster or Advertisement 319 Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech 320 Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument 321

Readings 322

MEGAN JOHNSON (STUDENT), “A Proposal to Allow Off-Campus Purchases with a University Meal Card” 322 A student writes a practical proposal urging her university’s administration to allow off-campus use of meal cards as a way of increasing gender equity and achieving other benefits.

IVAN SNOOK (STUDENT), “Flirting with Disaster: An Argument Against Integrating Women into the Combat Arms” (MLA-format research paper) 326 A student writer and Marine veteran returned from combat duty in Iraq argues that women should not serve in combat units because the inevitable sexual friction un- dermines morale and endangers soldiers’ lives.

SAVE-BEES.ORG, “SAVE THE BEES ADVOCACY AD” 331 An organization devoted to saving bees calls for support for a moratorium on the use of certain chemical pesticides that are deadly to bees.

SANDY WAINSCOTT (STUDENT), “Why McDonald’s Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies: A Proposal to End Subsidies for Cheap Meat” (speech with PowerPoint slides) 333 A student proposes the end of subsidies for cheap meat for the benefit of both people’s health and the environment.

MARCEL DICKE AND ARNOLD VAN HUIS, “The Six-Legged Meat of the Future” 335 Two Dutch entomologists argue that insects are a nutritious and tasty form of protein and less environmentally harmful than cattle, pigs, or chickens.

Part Five The Researched Argument 339

15 Finding and Evaluating Sources 340 Formulating a Research Question Instead of a “Topic” 341 Thinking Rhetorically about Kinds of Sources 341

Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question 341 Approaching Sources Rhetorically 342

Finding Sources 347 Conducting Interviews 347 Gathering Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires 348

xiv Detailed Contents

Finding Books and Reference Sources 348 Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines,

and News Sources 349 Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web 350

Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources 350 Reading with Rhetorical Awareness 350 Evaluating Sources 352 Taking Purposeful Notes 356

Conclusion 358

16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument 359 Using Sources for Your Own Purposes 359

Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to Reducing Risk of Alcoholism 360

Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism 360 Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism 361

Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation 362 Summarizing 362 Paraphrasing 363 Quoting 364

Punctuating Quotations Correctly 365 Quoting a Complete Sentence 365 Quoting Words and Phrases 365 Modifying a Quotation 366 Omitting Something from a Quoted Passage 367 Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation 367 Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage 368

Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags 368 Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations 369 Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response 369

Avoiding Plagiarism 370 Why Some Kinds of Plagiarism May Occur Unwittingly 371 Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism 372

Conclusion 374

17 Citing and Documenting Sources 375 The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited

Works 375 MLA Style 377

In-Text Citations in MLA Style 377 Works Cited List in MLA Style 379

Detailed Contents xv

Works Cited Citation Models 379 MLA-Style Research Paper 389

APA Style 389 In-Text Citations in APA Style 390 References List in APA Style 391 References Citation Models 391 APA-Style Research Paper 396

Conclusion 396

Appendix Informal Fallacies 397 The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument 397 An Overview of Informal Fallacies 398

Fallacies of Pathos 399 Fallacies of Ethos 400 Fallacies of Logos 401

Part Six An Anthology of Arguments 405

The Future of Food and Farming 406 ARTHUR L. CAPLAN, “Genetically Modified Food: Good, Bad, Ugly” 407

A professor of bioethics defends genetic engineering but takes the biotech companies to task for their mismanagement of the technology.

ROBIN MATHER, “The Threats from Genetically Modified Foods” 410 A food columnist outlines the concerns about and consequences of using GMOs.

MICHAEL LE PAGE, “Wrong-Headed Victory” 415 A writer argues that when biotech companies fight labelling efforts they only fuel consumer suspicion and delay promising research.

JOHN HAMBROCK, “Harley, I’m Worried About Gene Transfer” (editorial cartoon) 417 A cartoonist imagines how GMO plants might cross-pollinate with unmodified strains.

JOE MOHR, “Monsanto’s Reasons for Fighting GMO Labeling? It Loves You” 417 A cartoonist satirizes the biotech companies’ arguments against labelling of GM foods.

CAITLIN FLANAGAN, “Cultivating Failure” 418 A journalist questions the value of school gardens as an educational tool, focusing particularly on the effects for Hispanic and low-income students.

BONNIE HULKOWER, “A Defense of School Gardens and Response to Caitlin Flanagan’s ‘Cultivating Failure’ in The Atlantic” 424 A marine scientist and environmental planner performs a rhetorical analysis of Flanagan and refutes her claims.

TOM PHILPOTT, “Thoughts on The Atlantic’s Attack on School Gardens” 426 A food and agriculture columnist reflects on school gardens as a teaching tool, and disagrees with Flanagan’s conclusions.

xvi Detailed Contents

JESSE KURTZ-NICHOLL, “Atlantic Gets It Wrong!: School Gardens Cultivate Minds Not Failure” 428 A former high school teacher with a Master’s in Public Health disputes Flanagan’s claims about access to healthy food and the need for food education.

Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters 432 REBECCA MEAD, “Learning by Degrees” 433