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W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. • www.NortonEbooks.com

SEVENTH EDITION

AMERICA

George Brown Tindall and David Emory Shi

A NARRATIVE HISTORY

Volume Two

� AMERICA

D E TA I L O F E N G R AV I N G B A S E D O N

T H E C H A S M O F T H E C O LO R A D O

B Y T H O M A S M O R A N

AMERICA

Seventh Edition Volume Iwo

G E O R G E B R OW N T I N DA L L

DAV I D E M O R Y S H I

W . W . N O R T O N & C O M P A N Y . N E W Y O R K . L O N D O N

A N A R R A T I V E H I S T O R Y

Copyright © 2007, 2004, 1999, 1996, 1992, 1988, 1984 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

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Cartographer: CARTO-GRAPHICS/Alice Thiede and William Thiede

Acknowledgments and copyrights continue on page A104, which serves as a continuation of the copyright page.

The Library of Congress has cataloged the one-volume edition as follows:

Tindall, George Brown. America : a narrative history / George Brown Tindall,

David E. Shi.—7th ed. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 13: 978-0-393-92820-4 ISBN 10: 0-393-11091-5 1. United States—History. I. Shi, David E. II. Title.

E178.1 .T55 2006 2006047300 973—dc22

ISBN 13: 978-0-393-92733-7 ISBN 10: 0-393-11091-5

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�CONTENTS

List of Maps • xix

Preface • xxi

18 | RECONSTRUCTION: NORTH AND SOUTH 659

THE WAR’S AFTERMATH 659 • THE BATTLE OVER RECONSTRUCTION 664

• RECONSTRUCTING THE SOUTH 673 • THE RECONSTRUCTED SOUTH 679

• THE GRANT YEARS 686 • FURTHER READING 698

Part Five / G R O W I N G P A I N S 19 | THE SOUTH AND THE WEST TRANSFORMED 705 THE NEW SOUTH 706 • THE NEW WEST 721 • FURTHER READING 742

20 | BIG BUSINESS AND ORGANIZED LABOR 743 THE RISE OF BIG BUSINESS 743 • ENTREPRENEURS 753 • LABOR

CONDITIONS AND ORGANIZATION 760 • FURTHER READING 777

xiii

21 | THE EMERGENCE OF URBAN AMERICA 779 AMERICA’S MOVE TO TOWN 780 • THE NEW IMMIGRATION 786

• POPULAR CULTURE 793 • EDUCATION AND THE PROFESSIONS 801

• THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE 804 • THE SOCIAL GOSPEL 810

• EARLY EFFORTS AT URBAN REFORM 812 • FURTHER READING 818

22 | GILDED AGE POLITICS AND AGRARIAN REVOLT 819 PARADOXICAL POLITICS 820 • CORRUPTION AND REFORM 822 • THE FARM

PROBLEM AND AGRARIAN PROTEST MOVEMENTS 838 • THE ECONOMY

AND THE SILVER SOLUTION 846 • FURTHER READING 853

Part Six / M O D E R N A M E R I C A 23 | AN AMERICAN EMPIRE 859 TOWARD THE NEW IMPERIALISM 860 • EXPANSION IN THE PACIFIC 862

• THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 865 • IMPERIAL RIVALRIES IN EAST ASIA 878

• BIG STICK-DIPLOMACY 880 • FURTHER READING 889

24 | THE PROGRESSIVE ERA 890 ELEMENTS OF REFORM 891 • FEATURES OF PROGRESSIVISM 893

• ROOSEVELT’S PROGRESSIVISM 898 • ROOSEVELT’S SECOND TERM 902

• FROM ROOSEVELT TO TAFT 910 • WILSON’S PROGRESSIVISM 916

• LIMITS OF PROGRESSIVISM 927 • FURTHER READING 928

25 | AMERICA AND THE GREAT WAR 930 WILSON AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS 931 • AN UNEASY NEUTRALITY 934

• AMERICA’S ENTRY INTO THE WAR 944 • “THE DECISIVE POWER” 950

• THE FIGHT FOR THE PEACE 955 • LURCHING FROM WAR TO PEACE 962

• FURTHER READING 967

xiv • Contents

Contents • xv

26 | THE MODERN TEMPER 968 REACTION IN THE TWENTIES 969 • THE ROARING TWENTIES 975

• THE CULTURE OF MODERNISM 984 • FURTHER READING 990

27 | REPUBLICAN RESURGENCE AND DECLINE 991 “NORMALCY” 992 • THE NEW ERA 1000 • PRESIDENT HOOVER,

THE ENGINEER 1010 • FURTHER READING 1021

28 | NEW DEAL AMERICA 1022 FROM HOOVERISM TO THE NEW DEAL 1023 • RECOVERY THROUGH

REGULATION 1032 • THE HUMAN COST OF THE DEPRESSION 1038

• CULTURE IN THE THIRTIES 1043 • THE SECOND NEW DEAL 1046

• ROOSEVELT’S SECOND TERM 1052 • THE LEGACY OF THE NEW DEAL 1059

• FURTHER READING 1062

29 | FROM ISOLATION TO GLOBAL WAR 1063 POSTWAR ISOLATIONISM 1063 • WAR CLOUDS 1069 • THE STORM IN

EUROPE 1078 • THE STORM IN THE PACIFIC 1084

• FURTHER READING 1090

30 | THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1091 AMERICA’S EARLY BATTLES 1092 • MOBILIZATION AT HOME 1094

• SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR 1096 • THE ALLIED DRIVE TOWARD BERLIN 1102

• LEAPFROGGING TO TOKYO 1114 • A NEW AGE IS BORN 1118

• THE FINAL LEDGER 1129 • FURTHER READING 1130

Part Seven / T H E A M E R I C A N A G E 31 | THE FAIR DEAL AND CONTAINMENT 1137 DEMOBILIZATION UNDER TRUMAN 1138 • THE COLD WAR 1143 • CIVIL

RIGHTS DURING THE 1940S 1152 • THE COLD WAR HEATS UP 1160

• FURTHER READING 1170

xvi • Contents

32 | THROUGH THE PICTURE WINDOW: SOCIETY AND CULTURE, 1945–1960 1171

PEOPLE OF PLENTY 1172 • A CONFORMING CULTURE 1179 • CRACKS IN THE

PICTURE WINDOW 1184 • ALIENATION AND LIBERATION 1187

• A PARADOXICAL ERA 1193 • FURTHER READING 1194

33 | CONFLICT AND DEADLOCK: THE EISENHOWER YEARS 1195 “TIME FOR A CHANGE” 1196 • EISENHOWER’S HIDDEN-HAND PRESIDENCY 1198

• FOREIGN INTERVENTION 1203 • REELECTION AND FOREIGN CRISES 1209

• FESTERING PROBLEMS ABROAD 1215 • THE EARLY YEARS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS

MOVEMENT 1218 • ASSESSING THE EISENHOWER YEARS 1223

• FURTHER READING 1225

34 | NEW FRONTIERS: POLITICS AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN THE 1960S 1226

THE NEW FRONTIER 1227 • EXPANSION OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1232

• FOREIGN FRONTIERS 1238 • LYNDON JOHNSON AND THE GREAT SOCIETY 1244

• FROM CIVIL RIGHTS TO BLACK POWER 1251 • THE TRAGEDY OF VIETNAM 1254

• SIXTIES CRESCENDO 1260 • FURTHER READING 1264

35 | REBELLION AND REACTION IN THE 1960S AND 1970S 1266 THE ROOTS OF REBELLION 1267 • NIXON AND VIETNAM 1283 • NIXON AND

MIDDLE AMERICA 1290 • NIXON TRIUMPHANT 1295 • WATERGATE 1299 •

AN UNELECTED PRESIDENT 1303 • THE CARTER INTERREGNUM 1306

• FURTHER READING 1311

36 | A CONSERVATIVE INSURGENCY 1313 THE REAGAN REVOLUTION 1314 • REAGAN’S FIRST TERM 1319

• REAGAN’S SECOND TERM 1324 • THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION 1334

• FURTHER READING 1341

Contents • xvii

37 | TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY: AMERICA AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY 1342

AMERICA’S CHANGING MOSAIC 1343 • CULTURAL CONSERVATISM 1347

• BUSH TO CLINTON 1349 • DOMESTIC POLICY IN CLINTON’S FIRST TERM 1353

• REPUBLICAN INSURGENCY 1356 • ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL TRENDS OF

THE 1990S 1360 • FOREIGN-POLICY CHALLENGES 1365 • THE ELECTION

OF 2000 1369 • COMPASSIONATE CONSERVATISM 1372 • GLOBAL

TERRORISM 1374 • A STALLED PRESIDENCY 1389 • FURTHER READING 1390

GLOSSARY A1

APPENDIX A43

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE A45 • ARTICLES OF

CONFEDERATION A50 • THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES A58

• PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS A80 • ADMISSION OF STATES A88

• POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES A89 • IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED

STATES, FISCAL YEARS 1820–2005 A90 • IMMIGRATION BY REGION AND

SELECTED COUNTRY OF LAST RESIDENCE, FISCAL YEARS 1820–2004 A92

• PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND SECRETARIES OF STATE A99

CREDITS A104

INDEX A108

�M A P S

The Election of 1876 696

Sharecropping and Tenancy, 1880–1900 709

The New West 726–727

Indian Wars, 1864–1890 731

Transcontinental Railroad Lines, 1880s 749

The Emergence of Cities, 1880 781

The Emergence of Cities, 1920 782

Women’s Suffrage, 1869–1914 815

The Election of 1896 851

The Spanish-American War in the Pacific, 1898 870

The Spanish-American War in the Caribbean, 1898 872

U.S. Interests in the Pacific 875

U.S. Interests in the Caribbean 885

The Election of 1912 920

World War I in Europe, 1914 937

World War I, the Western Front, 1918 952

Europe after the Treaty of Versailles, 1918 960

The Election of 1932 1026

The Tennessee Valley Authority 1037

Aggression in Europe, 1935–1939 1074

Japanese Expansion before Pearl Harbor 1086

World War II Military Alliances, 1942 1104

World War II in Europe and Africa, 1942–1945 1106–1107

World War II in the Pacific, 1942–1945 1116–1117

The Occupation of Germany and Austria 1151

The Election of 1948 1159

xix

xx • Maps

The Korean War, 1950 1163

The Korean War, 1950–1953 1163

The Election of 1952 1197

Postwar Alliances: The Far East 1208

Postwar Alliances: Europe, North Africa, the Middle East 1211

The Election of 1960 1230

Vietnam, 1966 1256

The Election of 1968 1262

The Election of 1980 1318

The Election of 1988 1333

The Election of 2000 1370

The Election of 2004 1385

�P R E F A C E

Just as history is never complete, neither is a historical textbook. We have

learned much from the responses of readers and instructors to the first six

editions of America: A Narrative History. Perhaps the most important and

reassuring lesson is that our original intention has proved valid: to provide a

compelling narrative history of the American experience, a narrative ani-

mated by human characters, informed by analysis and social texture, and

guided by the unfolding of events. Readers have also endorsed the book’s

distinctive size and format. America is designed to be read and to carry a

moderate price. While the book retains its classic look, America sports a new

color design for the Seventh Edition. We have added new eye-catching maps

and included new art in full color. Despite these changes, we have not raised

the price between the Sixth and the Seventh Editions.

As in previous revisions of America, we have adopted an overarching theme

that informs many of the new sections we introduce throughout the Seventh

Edition. In previous editions we have traced such broad-ranging themes as

immigration, the frontier and the West, popular culture, and work. In each

case we blend our discussions of the selected theme into the narrative, where

they reside through succeeding editions.

The Seventh Edition of America highlights environmental history, a rela-

tively new field that examines how people have shaped—and been shaped

by—the natural world. Geographic features, weather, plants, animals, and

diseases are important elements of environmental history. Environmental

historians study how environments have changed as a result of natural

processes such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, hurricanes, wildfires,

droughts, floods, and climatic changes. They also study how societies have

used and abused their natural environment through economic activities such

as hunting, farming, logging and mining, manufacturing, building dams, and

xxi

irrigation. Equally interesting is how different societies over time have per-

ceived nature, as reflected in their religion, art, literature, and popular cul-

ture, and how they have reshaped nature according to those perceptions

through the creation of parks, preserves, and designed landscapes. Finally,

another major area of inquiry among environmental historians centers on

the development of laws and regulations to govern the use of nature and

maintain the quality of the natural environment.

Some of the new additions to the Seventh Edition related to environmen-

tal history are listed below.

• Chapter 1 includes discussions of the transmission of deadly infectious

diseases from Europe to the New World and the ecological and social im-

pact of the arrival of horses on the Great Plains.

• Chapter 3 examines the ways in which European livestock reshaped

the New World environment and complicated relations with Native

Americans.

• Chapters 5 and 6 describe the effects of smallpox on the American armies

during the Revolution.

• Chapter 12 details the impact of early industrialization on the environment.

• Chapter 17 describes the impact of the Civil War on the southern land-

scape.

• Chapter 19 includes new material related to the environmental impact of

the sharecrop-tenant farm system in the South after the Civil War, indus-

trial mining in the Far West, and the demise of the buffalo on the Great

Plains.

• Chapter 21 describes the dramatic rise of large cities after the Civil War

and the distinctive aspects of the urban environment.

• Chapter 24 surveys the key role played by sportsmen in the emergence of

the conservation movement during the late nineteenth century and de-

tails Theodore Roosevelt’s efforts to preserve the nation’s natural re-

sources.

• Chapter 28 surveys the environmental and human effects of the “dust

bowl” during the Great Depression.

• Chapter 37 discusses President George W. Bush’s controversial environ-

mental policies and describes the devastation in Mississippi and

Louisiana wrought by Hurricane Katrina.

xxii • Preface

Beyond these explorations of environmental history we have introduced

other new material throughout the Seventh Edition. Fresh insights from im-

portant new scholarly works have been incorporated, and we feel confident

that the book provides students with an excellent introduction to the Amer-

ican experience.

To enhance the pedagogical features of the text, we have added Focus

Questions at the beginning of each chapter. Students can use these review

tools to remind themselves of the key themes and central issues in the chap-

ters. These questions are also available online as quizzes, the results of which

students can e-mail to their instructors. In addition, the maps feature new

Enhanced Captions designed to encourage students to think analytically

about the relationship between geography and American history.

We have also revised the outstanding ancillary package that supplements

the text. For the Record: A Documentary History of America, Third Edition, by

David E. Shi and Holly A. Mayer (Duquesne University), is a rich resource

with over 300 primary source readings from diaries, journals, newspaper ar-

ticles, speeches, government documents, and novels. The Study Guide, by

Charles Eagles (University of Mississippi), is another valuable resource. This

edition contains chapter outlines, learning objectives, timelines, expanded

vocabulary exercises, and many new short-answer and essay questions.

America: A Narrative History Study Space is an online collection of tools for

review and research. It includes chapter summaries, review questions and

quizzes, interactive map exercises, timelines, and research modules, many

new to this edition. Norton Media Library is a CD-ROM slide and text re-

source that includes images from the text, four-color maps, additional

images from the Library of Congress archives, and audio files of significant

historical speeches. Finally, the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank, by Mark

Goldman (Tallahassee Community College) and Steven Davis (Kingwood

College) includes a test bank of short-answer and essay questions, as well as

detailed chapter outlines, lecture suggestions, and bibliographies.

In preparing the Seventh Edition, we have benefited from the insights and

suggestions of many people. Some of these insights have come from student

readers of the text and we encourage such feedback. Among the scholars and

survey instructors who offered us their comments and suggestions are: James

Lindgren (SUNY Plattsburgh), Joe Kudless (Raritan Valley Community Col-

lege), Anthony Quiroz (Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi), Steve Davis

(Kingwood College), Mark Fiege (Colorado State University), David Head

(John Tyler Community College), Hutch Johnson (Gordon College), Charles

Preface • xxiii

Eagles (University of Mississippi), Christina White and Eddie Weller at the

South campus of San Jacinto College, Blanche Brick, Cathy Lively, Stephen

Kirkpatrick, Patrick Johnson, Thomas Stephens, and others at the Bryan

Campus of Blinn College, Evelyn Mangie (University of South Florida),

Michael McConnell (University of Alabama – Birmingham), Alan Lessoff

(Illinois State University), Joseph Cullon (Dartmouth University), Keith Bo-

hannon (University of West Georgia), Tim Heinrichs (Bellevue Community

College), Mary Ann Heiss (Kent State University), Edmund Wehrle (Eastern

Illinois University), Adam Howard (University of Florida), David Parker

(Kennesaw State University), Barrett Esworthy (Jamestown Community Col-

lege), Samantha Barbas (Chapman University), Jason Newman (Cosumnes

River College), Paul Cimbala (Fordham University), Dean Fafoutis (Salisbury

University), Thomas Schilz (Miramar Community College), Richard Frucht

(Northwest Missouri State University), James Vlasich (Southern Utah Uni-

versity), Michael Egan (Washington State University), Robert Goldberg (Uni-

versity of Utah), Jason Lantzer (Indiana University), and Beth Kreydatus

(College of William & Mary). Our special thanks go Tom Pearcy (Slippery

Rock University) for all of his work on the timelines. Once again, we thank

our friends at W. W. Norton, especially Steve Forman, Steve Hoge, Karl Bake-

man, Neil Hoos, Lory Frenkel, Roy Tedoff, Dan Jost, Rebecca Arata, and Matt

Arnold, for their care and attention along the way.

—George B. Tindall —David E. Shi

xxiv • Preface

�

In the spring of 1865, the Civil War was over. At a frightful cost of620,000 lives and the destruction of the southern economy andmuch of its landscape, American nationalism had emerged tri- umphant, and some 4 million enslaved Americans had seized their freedom. Ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865 abolished slavery throughout the Union. Now the nation faced the task of reuniting, coming to terms with the abolition of slavery, and “reconstructing” a rav- aged and resentful South.

T H E WA R’ S A F T E R M AT H

In the war’s aftermath important questions faced the victors: Should the Confederate leaders be tried for treason? How should new governments be formed? How and at whose expense was the South’s economy to be rebuilt?

R E C O N S T R U C T I O N : N O R T H

A N D S O U T H

18

F O C U S Q U E S T I O N S

• What were the different approaches to Reconstruction?

• How did Congress try to reshape southern society?

• What was the role of African Americans in the postwar South?

• What were the main issues in national politics in the 1870s?

To answer these questions and access additional review material, please visit www.wwnorton.com/studyspace.

http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/america7/content/ch18/study.htm

Should debts incurred by the Confederate state governments be honored? Who should pay to rebuild the South’s railroads and public buildings, dredge the clogged southern harbors, and restore damaged levees? What was to be done for the freed slaves? Were they to be given land? social equal- ity? education? voting rights? Such complex questions required sober reflection and careful planning, but policy makers did not have the luxury of time or the benefits of consensus. Some wanted the former Confederate states returned to the Union with little or no changes in the region’s social, political, and economic life. Others wanted southern society punished and transformed. The editors of the nation’s foremost magazine, Harper’s Weekly, expressed the vengeful attitude when they declared at the end of 1865 that “the forgive-and-forget policy . . . is mere political insanity and suicide.”

D E V E L O P M E N T I N T H E N O RT H To some Americans the Civil War had been more truly a social revolution than the War of Independence, for it reduced the once-dominant power of the South’s planter elite in national politics and elevated the power of the northern “captains of industry.” Government, both federal, and state, became more friendly to business leaders and more unfriendly to those who would probe into their activities. The wartime Republican Congress had delivered on the major platform promises of 1860, which had cemented the allegiance of northeastern businessmen and western farmers to the party of free labor.

In the absence of southern members, Congress during the war had cen- tralized national power and enacted the Republican economic agenda. It passed the Morrill tariff, which doubled the average level of import du- ties. The National Banking Act created a uniform system of banking and bank-note currency and helped finance the war. Congress also passed legislation guaranteeing that the first transcontinental railroad would run along a north-central route, from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento, California, and it donated public land and public bonds to ensure its fi- nancing. In the Homestead Act of 1862, moreover, Congress voted free federal homesteads of 160 acres to settlers, who had only to occupy the land for five years to gain title. No cash was needed. The Morrill Land Grant Act of the same year conveyed to each state 30,000 acres of federal land per member of Congress from the state. The sale of some of the land provided funds to create colleges of “agriculture and mechanic arts.” Such measures helped stimulate the North’s economy in the years after the Civil War.

660 • RECONSTRUCTION: NORTH AND SOUTH (CH. 18)

D E VA S TAT I O N I N T H E S O U T H The postwar South offered a sharp contrast to the victorious North. Along the path of General William T. Sherman’s army, one observer reported in 1866, the countryside “looked for many miles like a broad black streak of ruin and desolation.” Columbia, South Carolina, said another witness, was “a wilderness of ruins,” Charleston a place of “vacant houses, of widowed women, of rotting wharves, of de- serted warehouses, of weed-wild gardens, of miles of grass-grown streets, of acres of pitiful and voiceless barrenness.”

Throughout the South, property values had collapsed. Confederate bonds and paper money were worthless; most railroads were damaged or de- stroyed. Cotton that had escaped destruction was seized by federal troops. Emancipation wiped out $4 billion invested in human flesh and left the la- bor system in disarray. The great age of expansion in the cotton market was over. Not until 1879 would the cotton crop again equal the record harvest of 1860; tobacco production did not regain its prewar level until 1880; the sugar crop of Louisiana not until 1893; and the old rice industry of the Tide- water and the hemp industry of the Kentucky Bluegrass never regained their prewar status.

The War’s Aftermath • 661

A Street in the “Burned District”

Ruins of Richmond, Virginia, spring 1865.

A T R A N S F O R M E D S O U T H The defeat of the Confederacy trans- formed much of southern society. The freeing of slaves, the destruction of property, and the collapse of land values left many planters destitute and homeless. Amanda Worthington, a planter’s wife from Mississippi, saw her whole world destroyed. In the fall of 1865, she assessed the damage: “None of us can realize that we are no longer wealthy—yet thanks to the yankees, the cause of all unhappiness, such is the case.”

After the Civil War many former Confederates were so embittered that they abandoned their native region rather than submit to “Yankee rule.” Some migrated to Canada, Europe, Mexico, South America, or Asia. Others preferred the western territories and states. Still others settled in northern and midwestern cities on the assumption that educational and economic opportunities would be better among the victors.

Those who remained in the South found old social roles reversed. One Confederate army captain reported that on his father’s plantation “our negroes are living in great comfort. They were delighted to see me with overflowing affection. They waited on me as before, gave me breakfast, splendid dinners, etc. But they firmly and respectfully informed me: ‘We own this land now. Put it out of your head that it will ever be yours again.’ ”

Union troops who fanned out across the defeated South to impose order were cursed and spat upon. A Virginia woman expressed a spirited defiance common among her circle of friends: “Every day, every hour, that I live increases my hatred and detestation, and loathing of that race. They [Yankees] disgrace our common humanity. As a people I consider them vastly inferior to the better classes of our slaves.” Fervent southern nationalists, both men and women, implanted in their children a similar hatred of Yankees and a defiance of northern rule. One mother said that she trained her children to “fear God, love the South, and live to avenge her.”