The organizational structure of cao dai is influenced strongly by

Alternative Paths

© Thomas Hilgers

First Encounter

After years of thinking about traveling to Asia, you finally take the plunge. Following a tour of

the major cities of China, you are now in Vietnam on your own. During your first days there, you

explore Hanoi, a beautiful city of two-story pink and yellow buildings, red-pillared temples,

lakes, and large old trees. You visit its Confucian Temple of Literature, where a genial statue of

Confucius seems to focus its glass eyes directly on you. Afterward, you fly south to Hué,a

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former royal city that sits beside the Song Huong River, whose slow-moving water is so thick

with brown silt that it looks like chocolate pudding. When you visit Hué’s square of old palaces,

you are amazed by the extent to which its royal enclosure was patterned after the Forbidden City

of Beijing. Clearly, you think, China has had a profound influence on Vietnam.

Eventually you arrive in Ho Chi Minh City, formerly Saigon. In your hotel lobby, you see a

poster advertising tours to the underground tunnels at Cu Chi that were used by the North

Vietnamese soldiers during the Vietnam War. You walk over to talk with the agent at the tour

desk, and she tries to interest you in additional tours. “Have you heard of Cao Dai?” she asks.

You hadn’t till now. “It is a big religion here in Vietnam,” she explains. “Its cathedral is not far

from the tunnels, and there is a Mass every day at noon. Why don’t you go there, too?” At 11:30

the next morning, you arrive at Tay Ninh, a quiet town of yellow stucco buildings, gravel roads,

and people dressed in white. You can’t miss the cathedral; it is an immense yellow building with

two tall towers that face the main road. Upon entering the building, you are directed up a long

flight of stairs to a narrow visitors’ gallery that runs along three sides of the interior. Looking

down from the observation gallery to the front of the church’s interior, you see a huge eye

painted on a large blue globe that seems to hover in the sanctuary. Around you, decorative green

dragons climb tall pillars to the sky-blue ceiling. Just before noon, people dressed in robes of red,

blue, yellow, and white take their places in groups on the shining marble floor below. Chanting

starts. The service begins.

What, you wonder, does the large eye represent? What are the people chanting, and what is the

significance of the variously colored robes? Why are there Chinese dragons on the pillars inside

a building that looks like a Christian cathedral? Why do they call their service a “Mass”?

Origins of New Religions

One of the most fascinating things about religions is that, like all forms of life and culture, they

are constantly changing. Change occurs for many reasons. Sometimes followers of one religion

move to another culture, and their religion mixes with a locally established religion, thereby

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producing a hybrid faith. Sometimes social problems lead to the emergence of a new religion,

one that helps people cope with the new social issues they face. Sometimes followers of an older

religion argue with each other and then separate, creating a new branch or, occasionally, an

entirely new religion. And sometimes individuals have life-changing insights, attract followers,

and create a new religion around themselves. We should recognize that many of the major

religions and denominations began in similar ways—as new, small, and sometimes persecuted

religious movements. In this chapter, we will look at some of the vital new religious movements

that are currently small but that might someday become venerable old religions, after growing

and changing for one or two thousand years. (The vitality of these new religious movements is

apparent from their many Web sites.)

In the religions that we examined in previous chapters, we sometimes saw the emergence of a

religious variant that was close enough to its origin to be considered a modern interpretation of

an older religion. As we learned, from Shinto emerged the New Religions of Tenrikyo and

Omoto; from Christianity, Mormonism and Christian Science; and from Buddhism, Soka

Gakkai.

Contemporary Issues: “Cults,” “Sects,” and “New Religious Movements”

Because they are small and unfamiliar, new religious movements are often looked at

suspiciously. Critics may accuse them of hurting society or endangering their followers. The

words sect and cult are sometimes applied to these movements. The word sect (Latin: “to cut”)

usually has no negative meaning. But the word cult (Latin: “to cultivate”) brings to mind a

charismatic, overly powerful leader, docile followers, and separation from society.

We might recall that early Christianity was once viewed as a dangerous import into Roman

society and that Buddhism was once viewed as a dangerous import from India into China.

Because of the emotional overtones of some words that are used to describe small and new

religious groups, scholars now try to use emotionally neutral terms. One of the most common is

“new religious movement,” often referred to by its abbreviation NRM.

There are, however, some movements that emerge from one religion and take on such

independent forms that they ultimately constitute new, even if small, religions: Baha’i, which in

the nineteenth century grew out of Shiite Islam, is a good example. And then there are other

movements that emerge independently of established religions and eventually are recognized as

distinct religions; Scientology is an example of such a religion.

Quite often, a new religious movement is syncretic—a blend of religions. The Vietnamese

religion of Cao Dai, for example, blends Christianity with Buddhism, Daoism, and

Confucianism. Santería and other related religions, prominent in the Caribbean, mix Christianity

with elements from West African religions. We also see syncretism in religious movements that

have grown out of Shinto, Buddhism, and Hinduism.

In this chapter we will consider some of the most significant new religious movements, along

with a few older alternatives that are generating new interest. We will begin with religious

movements that share features with indigenous religions (Contemporary Paganism and the

Yoruba-tradition religions) and then proceed to religions that appear to have elements of Indian

spirituality (such as Theosophy and Scientology). Next, we will take a look at religions that are

close to traditional Chinese religions (Falun Gong and Cao Dai) and then end with religions that

have some roots in Christianity and Islam (Rastafarianism and Baha’i).

Contemporary Paganism: Wicca and Druidism

The past hundred years have seen both a great growth in world population and a depletion of

natural resources. As a result, many people sense an urgent need to reestablish harmonious

relationships with the global environment. At the same time, developments in genetics,

anthropology, and psychology have brought human beings to a clearer understanding of their

closeness to the animal world. Perhaps for these reasons, new religious movements that reclaim

ancient nature-based religions or that promote new environmental sensitivity are attracting many

followers. Some of these followers are reacting against the insensitivity to native cultures and

values that some mainstream religions exhibit. Others find the philosophies of these old-yet-new

religious movements to be more compatible with their views on various social issues, including

gender equality and environmentalism.

Contemporary Paganism is a general name for religious movements that attempt to return to

earlier, nature-based religions, primarily religions associated with early cultures of Europe.

Followers point out that the term pagan, although often used in a demeaning way to mean

“uncivilized” and “debased,” more properly refers to early, nature-based religions; they note that

the term pagan actually comes from a Latin term for “countryside” (pagus) and that the term was

used simply because nature religions lived on longer in rural areas than they did in cities.

Followers of Contemporary Paganism claim that when Christianity spread throughout western

Europe, older pagan practices did not entirely die out. At least some of the practices went

underground or took on a Christian appearance in order to survive.

Although small movements exist that attempt to re-create early Scandinavian and Germanic

religions, the most common forms of Contemporary Paganism look back to Celtic mythology as

their foundation. The best-known manifestation of the Contemporary Pagan movement is

Wicca.Wicca is an Old English word that suggests association with magic, separation, and

holiness. Its modern practitioners focus on Wicca’s practical uses by calling it the Craft.

Sometimes they also call their path simply the Old Religion.

Several strands or traditions of Wicca exist, but they agree on many points. Like many of the

world’s religions, Wiccans worship both goddesses and gods whose sacred imagery is rooted in

nature. Some Wiccans speak of multiple deities, while others prefer to speak of a single divine

reality that has male and female aspects and images. Some groups personify the female aspect of

the divine as “the Goddess” and the male aspect as “the God.” Wicca teaches that the divine

manifests itself in opposites that are reminiscent of yin and yang—dark and light, female and

male, and so on. Yet, as in Daoism, some traditions of Wicca give special emphasis to the female

aspect of the cosmos—perhaps because it has been underemphasized by some other religious

traditions. In Wicca, women play a prominent role as bearers of knowledge and as leaders of

ritual.

For Wiccans both the moon and the sun are sacred symbols, and the Wiccan yearly calendar

receives its structure from their movement. Each year Wiccans celebrate the solar cycle by

keeping as many as eight seasonal turning points, called Sabbats, which include the solstices and

equinoxes. Wiccans celebrate the lunar cycle at the new and full moons. The times of the full

moon, called Esbats, are often marked by gatherings and ceremony. The seasonal festivals and

holidays indicate both turning points in the world of nature and changes in the inner world of the

practitioners. Regarding initiation and entry into higher levels of knowledge, Wiccan groups tend

to recognize three stages. The first stage is initiation, and at the second or third stage the

practitioner is considered competent to start an independent coven (worship group).

Contemporary Wiccans call themselves Witches, and they use this term for both females and

males.

Rituals and Celebrations: The Contemporary Pagan Year

The contemporary pagan year is a cycle of eight celebrations.

 Yule (December 2l)–midwinter solstice, when sunlight begins to grow stronger Imbolc

(about February l)–beginning of spring

 Ostara (about March 2l)–spring equinox, named after the goddess of dawn

 Beltane (May 1)–festival of fertility, probably named after the Celtic sun-god Bel

 Litha (June 2l)–summer solstice and beginning of harvest

 Lughnasad (about August 1)–celebration of the grain harvest, named “the games of

Lugh” after the Celtic god of music and play

 Mabon (about September 22)–final harvest festival at the time of the autumn equinox

 Samhain (about October 31)–end of old year, temporary return of the spirits of ancestors

Wicca has an ethical dimension. The primary commandment, called the Wiccan Rede (Middle

English: “advice,” “counsel”), is a gentle form of the Golden Rule. The Wiccan Rede is a rule of

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tolerance: “An [if] it harm none, do what you will.” In other words, the individual is free to do

anything except what harms others. This command, though, includes not harming animals, and

many Wiccans are therefore vegetarians. It also prohibits harming the earth; thus Wicca has a

strong moral interest in protecting the natural environment. Another Wiccan moral belief is

expressed as the Law of the Triple Return. It states, “Whatever you do, good or bad, will return

to you threefold.” Wiccans believe that the energy that an individual sends out will return triply

to the sender—that deeds bring their own punishment or reward.

It is possible that some of the beliefs and practices of contemporary Wicca are genuinely old,

such as the rituals of Halloween and May Day. The anthropologist Margaret Murray (1863–

1963) provided strong evidence for the view that earlier forms of Witchcraft existed in Europe

up to modern times. Her book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe quotes extensively from early

sources in Latin, French, and English, written during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, that

testify to the presence of earlier forms of a nature religion akin to Wicca. Her later book, The

God of the Witches,establishes the same points in more approachable style. In the United States,

the Wiccan writer and political activist Leo Martello (1931–2000), whose work helped open the

way for the practice of Wicca in North America, traced his own knowledge back to ancient

practices of his Sicilian ancestors. 1

The midsummer sunrise at Stonehenge attracts Druids, Wiccans, and other followers of pagan

beliefs.

© Gideon Mendel/Corbis

Some scholars, however, argue that Wicca is an artificial, quite new creation, a “mythic

reconstruction.” They point to the work of three people who did a great deal to establish

contemporary Wicca: Gerald Gardner (1884–1964), Alex Sanders (1926–1988), and Doreen

Valiente (1922–1999; see Timeline 11.1). In writings and practice, these three recommended—

and often created—rituals, phrases, and other elements that are now part of modern Wicca. Yet

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other commentators see these people as adapters of an older religious tradition who attempted to

bridge the gap between a rural culture and a modern, urban one.

Although Wicca is the best-known form of Contemporary Paganism, there are others.

Particularly popular in England is the Druid movement, which began in the eighteenth century as

an attempt to reintroduce the religion practiced in France and England by the Celts about two

thousand years ago. Early information on Druidic practice came from classical Roman literature,

mainly from the writings of the emperor-general Julius Caesar and the historian Tacitus.

Although Roman description of the Druids was undoubtedly colored by prejudice, its details

certainly portray some actual practices and events. In fact, archeological finds have confirmed

the truth of much early description.

Druids were an elite group of professionals who acted as judges, teachers, counselors, doctors,

and priests. Their preparation lasted up to twenty years before full initiation. They were

polytheists who worshiped about thirty major deities of nature and many lesser deities (about

three hundred names of deities are found in the remaining literature). The sun and fire were

important symbols of the divine. Druids conducted their services in groves of sacred oak trees; in

fact, although the exact origin of their name is uncertain, Druid is commonly thought to mean

“oak-tree wisdom.”

Because so little is known of the ancient Druids, the modern Druid movement has not only had

to borrow from the data of literature and archeology, it has also had to rely on imaginative re-

creations of organization and ritual. The Druids recognize three paths of practice, which may

also be seen by some as stages of knowledge: bards, ovates, and druids. Modern Druids generally

follow the same eight-part seasonal calendar as the Wiccans; they also celebrate the period of the

full moon. Although Stonehenge in England predates the Druids, it is commonly associated with

the modern Druids, who use the ancient circular stone complex for celebrations of the summer

solstice. 2

TimeLine 11.1

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Timeline of significant events of alternative paths.

Religions of the Yoruba Tradition: Santería, Voodoo, and

CandomblÉ

When people from one culture enter another culture, they bring their religion with them. It

sustains them and provides a bridge into their new lives. Sometimes elements of the two cultures

mix in interesting ways. This is the case with the new religions that have their roots in the

indigenous Yoruba tradition of Africa.

As the Americas were being colonized, a large slave trade arose. Enslaved Africans, largely from

West Africa, were subsequently carried to South America, the Caribbean, and North America.

Among the descendants of these slaves, new syncretic religions emerged that blended elements

from indigenous African religions and the colonizers’ Christianity.

Of the West African religions that were brought to the New World, those of the Yoruba people,

who live in what is today Nigeria and Benin, were the most influential. (Other peoples whose

religions were influential during the colonization of the Americas included the Fon, Nago,

Kongo, and Igbo.) While Santería is perhaps the best-known religious movement to result from

the mixture of Yoruba religions and Christianity, Voodoo (Voudun) and Candomblé are also

prominent. These three related religions are sometimes referred to as religions of the Yoruba

tradition.

These Yoruba-based religions are now several hundred years old, but for a variety of reasons

they are today the focus of renewed interest. One reason is that an influx of Cuban and Haitian

immigrants over the past thirty years has introduced these religious traditions to the United

States. Another reason is that many African Americans today are interested in exploring their

cultural and religious heritage. We should note, however, that there are significant historical

differences among the three religions. Santería was influenced by Spanish colonial Catholicism

and grew up in Cuba; Voodoo, influenced by French Catholicism, developed in Haiti; and

Candomblé, influenced by Portuguese Catholicism, developed in Brazil.

There is some disagreement about the names given to two of these religions. Although the term

Santería (“saint-thing” or “saint-way”) was originally a negative way of identifying the

movement, it is used here because most of the religion’s practitioners accept it and use it

themselves. However, the alternate name Lukumí or Lucumí (from the Yoruba language) is

gaining some acceptance. The word Voodoo comes from the Fon word vodun (“mysterious

power”), but because the word voodoo has taken on so many negative connotations, some

authorities prefer to use the word Voudun instead. In all three religions we find variations in

spellings of terms and of the names of gods.

A Cuban worshiper weeps over an image of BabalúAyé on the feast of Saint Lazarus.

© Reuters/Corbis

Although the three religions are a mixture of native African religions with Roman Catholicism,

describing how elements have mingled is far from easy. Sometimes the terms syncretism,

synthesis, and symbiosis are used to describe the mixture, suggesting a happy blend of

complements; the environment within which these religions emerged, however, was one of

coercion and fear. Slaves were often forcibly baptized into Roman Catholic Christianity, and

African religious practice was suppressed—sometimes harshly.

Among the slaves, however, were many committed practitioners and even priests of the Yoruba

religions; as a consequence, their religious beliefs did not die out. In order to survive, the African

religions took on an appearance of conformity to Catholic belief and practice. On the surface,

devotees were venerating Catholic saints, but in reality they were using the images of the saints

as representations of their native gods. Raúl Canizares, a priest of Santería, describes the result

not as syncretism but rather as dissimulation, a term he uses to emphasize that the practitioners

often deliberately hid their beliefs and practices behind “masks”—especially behind the

veneration of saints. 3

We should not, however, overstress the aspect of dissimulation. It is possible that apparent

similarities in belief and approach between the Yoruba religion and Roman Catholicism

permitted syncretism. Both systems believed in a single High God, in supernatural beings who

mediate between God and human beings, and in the existence of spirits of the dead. Both systems

trusted in the power of ritual and made frequent use of ritual elements. Moreover, it was easy to

adapt the Catholic calendar of saints’ days to the worship of native African deities.

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Women close their eyes and pray during a ceremony on Fet Ghédé, a Voodoo holiday

commemorating dead ancestors. Fet Ghédé is a national holiday in Haiti, where Voodoo, or

Voudun, has been actively practiced since French colonial rule.

© Les Stone/Sygma/Corbis

Although the new religions of the Yoruba tradition do believe in a single High God, they differ

from Catholicism in that the Yoruba God (as in many African religions) is in essence a neutral

energy that does not show personal interest in individual human affairs. Human beings must

approach the High God and can gain power only by contacting invisible supernatural beings,

called orishas. (In Santería, they are often called ochas; in Voodoo, they are called loa or lwa;

and in Candomblé they are called orixas.)

The orishas are sometimes called gods. They are appropriately likened to the gods of the Greeks

and the Romans because the orishas have individual humanlike characteristics. They may be

gentle, capricious, playful, or wise, and they like particular foods and colors. They are in charge

of certain aspects of nature (for example, oceans, plants, lightning), and they know specialized

crafts (such as metalworking). In order to make the orishas strong, to keep them happy, and to

extract favors from them, human beings have to keep them fed—and the orishas are not

vegetarian. When the orishas are interested in human contact, they may temporarily “mount” a

believer, who goes into a trance and magically “becomes” the god, often displaying his or her

personal characteristics. While there are hundreds of these gods in the Yoruba religion of Africa,

only about twenty are prominent in the Caribbean religions of the Yoruba tradition, and about a

dozen are particularly popular. We should also note the difference between orishas and Catholic

saints. Although both orishas and saints are prayed to in order to receive assistance with the

problems of life, it is clear that orishas are considered divine, whereas saints in traditional

Catholic piety are not.

Deeper Insights: Major Orishas of Santería

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Santería worships deities called orishas (orixás, ochas). The most important orishas and the

dates on which they are celebrated follow:

 Elegguá (Elegbara, Eshu)—god of beginnings, a messenger god; his colors are black and

red; his parallel saint is Saint Anthony (June 13).

 Oshún—goddess of love and marriage; her colors are yellow and white; her parallel saint

is Our Lady of Charity (September 8).

 Shangó (Changó)—god of lightning and storms; his colors are red and white; his parallel

saint is Saint Barbara (December 4).

 Babalú-Ayé—compassionate god of healing; his colors are white and blue; his parallel

saint is Saint Lazarus (December 17).

 Obatalá—god of intelligence; his color is white; his parallel saint is Our Lady of Mercy

(September 24).

 Ochosí—god of the forest, who knows plants and animals; his color is purple; his parallel

saint is Saint Norbert (June 6).

 Oggún—god of metalworking, patron of barbers and butchers, associated with war and

accidents; his colors are black and green; his parallel saint is Saint Peter (June 29).

 Yemayá—goddess of the sea and protector of women, associated with coral and seashells;

her colors are blue and white; her parallel saint is Our Lady of Regla (September 7).

 Oyá—goddess associated with high winds, who gives help to the dying; her colors are

burgundy and white; her parallel saint is Our Lady of Candelaria (February 2).

An individual is initiated under the protection of one of the orishas, who becomes the person’s

guardian deity. Priests perform initiations (a male priest is called a santero and a female priest a

santera). Above them are the high priests (in Santería called babalawos). Only men may become

high priests, although this tradition may be changing.

Services involve prayer, drumming, dance, offering of foods, and the descent of orishas. The

sacrifice of animals—mainly chickens, doves, and goats—is a part of some rituals. Although

many groups oppose Santería’s sacrificial practice, its legality has been upheld by the United

States Supreme Court (1993). In deference to the controversy, some Santería practitioners have

begun using alternative offerings (such as drink and dishes of food) as substitutes for animals.

In Brazil, Candomblé has been recognized as an official religion, with its headquarters in Bahía,

in northeastern Brazil. And because of widespread emigration from the Caribbean, Santería and

Voodoo are becoming known in some large cities of the United States, including Miami, New

York, and Los Angeles. Voodoo has long been a part of the history of New Orleans, and several

Voodoo museums exist in Louisiana. In addition to these three religions, related movements

have developed in Jamaica (Obeayisne) and in Trinidad (the cult of Shangó).

Theosophy

We turn now from movements rooted in indigenous religions to movements that draw upon the

traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. The first new religious movement of this type that we will

consider is Theosophy. The term Theosophy means “divine wisdom” in Greek. In general,

Theosophy refers to mystical movements of all types, but it also refers specifically to a

movement, beginning in the nineteenth century, that attempts a synthesis of esoteric (hidden)

religious knowledge. The movement of Theosophy is eclectic. It shows particularly strong

interest in mystically oriented teachings from all sources—among them, Hindu Vedanta, the

Jewish Kabbalah, and Gnosticism.

The principal founder of Theosophy was the Russian writer Madame Helena Blavatsky (1831–

1891), who with several associates began the Theosophical Society in 1875. Two of her books,

Isis Unveiled(1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888), were among the first works to popularize

among westerners significant elements from Indian thought, such as karma, reincarnation, yoga,

and meditation.

Blavatsky learned of these topics from her reading and travel, but she also claimed that she was

taught by “ascended masters”—highly evolved teachers. After time spent in the United States,

Blavatsky moved to southern India in 1878, where at Adyar, on the outskirts of Madras

(Chennai), she established her world center of Theosophy. She was ably assisted by Colonel

Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907). Olcott was one of the earliest westerners to formally adopt

Buddhism, which he did in 1880. He wrote a Buddhist Catechism and worked in Sri Lanka to

revive and purify Buddhism there. Olcott stayed on in India while Blavatsky guided European

Theosophy from her center in London. After Blavatsky’s death in 1891, her work was continued

by Annie Besant (1847–1933) and Charles Leadbeater (1854–1934).

Madame Helena Blavatsky was assisted in her work by Colonel Henry Steel Olcott. Together

they established the Theosophical Society in India.

Theosophical Library Center

Theosophists have a wide range of interests but generally share a similar view of reality. One

premise, similar to Vedantist thought, is that all reality is basically spiritual in nature—that

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visible matter is “condensed spirit.” Theosophists hold that the spiritual nature of reality can be

experienced and that training—especially in meditation techniques and in achieving trance

states—can make possible and can deepen that experience. Sometimes Theosophists say that

there are several increasingly spiritual levels of the human being (such as the astral body) and

spiritual aspects of all physical realities (such as auras) that can be seen at times. Theosophists

are interested in exploring what they believe are the little-known powers that lie hidden both in

the nonhuman world and in human beings, such as levitation and clairvoyance.

Blavatsky had prophesied that a “world teacher” would arise to lead the world to a new stage of

evolution. Leadbeater and Besant identified this person as a young man, Jiddu Krishnamurti

(1895–1986), whom they discovered in Madras. At first Krishnamurti accepted the role imposed

on him by the Theosophical Society and was trained to take over as its leader. However, he

eventually abandoned that role and began to teach that each person must be his or her own guru.

Despite his disavowals of spiritual leadership, Krishnamurti attracted a large following of

disciples. He created a center on a hilltop in Ojai, California, north of Los Angeles, where he

wrote and taught for many years. Today, the Krishnamurti Foundation runs a retreat center there

and continues his teachings through videos, books, and seminars.

Theosophy has undergone a series of splits. There has long been a rift between American groups

and the international society headquartered in India. Consequently, there are several branches of

Theosophy. The type of Theosophy that has been centered in India is naturally closer to Hindu

and Buddhist sources and interests. In contrast, Western Theosophy has a greater interest in

European and American thinkers and in scientific experimentation into claims of telepathy,

clairvoyance, and similar special powers.

In a photo from early in his career, philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti lectures to a crowd.

© Corbis

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One influential branch of Theosophy is Anthroposophy (“human wisdom”). Its founder, Rudolf

Steiner (1861–1925), was a thinker who was born and trained in central Europe. Steiner began as

a Theosophist but broke away in 1909 and founded Anthroposophy in 1913. Influenced by the

works of German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, English naturalist Charles Darwin, and

German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, Steiner developed his own theories of spiritual

evolution. Desiring to focus on practical means to achieve human wholeness and spirituality, he

began the first Waldorf school for the training of young people. Its curriculum encompassed not

only traditional academic matters but also agriculture, art, and interpretive dance, called

eurhythmy. Waldorf schools around the world still promote Steiner’s interest in the complete

development of the individual. Among Steiner’s many books are Philosophy of Spiritual Activity,

The Course of My Life, and The New Art of Education. 5

Contemporary Issues: Ecology and the New Religious Movements

Principles of ecology include restraint, recycling, respect for nature, ending pollution, protection

of species, and forestation. We find many of the same principles in some religious movements

that have emerged in modern times.

 Among the most obviously connected with nature are Wicca and Druidism. They

envision the divine as the energy of the universe and see that everything has a right to

existence. These religions follow a calendar that respects the seasons. Primary to them

are the seasonal turning points that include Yule, May Day, and Samhain.

 Theosophy emphasizes the interdependence of everything in the universe and holds that

all things share a divine nature.

 The religions that came from Africa pray to gods of nature, such as Shangó, who is

associated with storms and lightning, Ochosí, god of the forest, and Yemayá, goddess of

the sea.

 Baha’i (discussed later in this chapter) teaches ideals that fit well with environmentalism.

Among them are a love of biodiversity; the belief that science and technology should

bring harmony between human beings and nature; a sense of nature as an expression of

God; sustainability; and a recognition that all is interconnected.

Shades of blue appear during moments of devotion.

Rudolf Steiner, speaking about human auras 4

A more recent offshoot of Theosophy is the Church Universal and Triumphant, begun by

Elizabeth Clare Prophet (1939–2009). Followers believe that the Church gains assistance from

the spirits of great people who help human beings from a realm beyond the earth. The Church

Universal and Triumphant blends elements from Catholic Christianity with Asian beliefs. For

example, it encourages the use of the Bible and the rosary, as well as devotion to the saints. But

it also teaches reincarnation and includes the Buddha, Jesus, and his mother Mary among its

saints.