The psychology of women margaret matlin pdf

Cognition

Cognition TENTH

EDITION

Thomas A. Farmer California State University, Fullerton

and

Margaret W. Matlin SUNY Geneseo

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v

Preface xv

1 An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1 Chapter Introduction, 1 What Is Cognitive Psychology?, 2 Historical Perspective on the Field, 4

Origins of Cognitive Psychology, 4 Wilhelm Wundt, 4 Early Memory Researchers, 5 William James, 5 Behaviorism, 5 The Gestalt Approach, 6 Frederic Bartlett, 7

Cognitive Revolution, 7 Cognitive Psychology in Present Times, 8

Mind, Brain, and Behavior, 9 Cognitive Science, 9

Artificial Intelligence, 9 Computer Metaphor of the Mind, 10

The Connectionist Approach, 11 Cognitive Neuroscience, 12

Brain Lesions, 13 Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan), 13 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 14 Event-Related Potential Technique, 14 Magnetoencephalography (MEG), 15

Textbook Overview, 15 Chapter Preview, 16 Themes in the Book, 17

Theme 1: Cognitive processes are active, rather than passive, 17 Theme 2: Cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate, 17 Theme 3: Cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information, 18 Theme 4: Cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation, 18 Theme 5: Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing, 18

How to Use Your Book Effectively, 18 Chapter Outline, 18 Chapter Introductions, 18 Demonstrations, 19 Individual Differences Focus, 19 Application, 20 Section Summaries, 20

Contents

CONTENTSvi

End of Chapter Review Questions, 20 Keywords, 20 Keywords List & Glossary, 20 Recommended Readings, 20

Section Summary Points, 21 Chapter Review Questions, 21 Keywords, 22 Recommended Readings, 22 Answer to Demonstration 1.4, 22

2 Visual and Auditory Recognition 23 Chapter Introduction, 23 Overview of Visual Object Recognition, 24

The Visual System, 24 Organization in Visual Perception, 26 Theories of Visual Object Recognition, 27

Feature-Analysis Theory, 27 The Recognition-by-Components Theory, 29

Top-Down Processing and Visual Object Recognition, 30 Bottom-Up versus Top-Down Processing, 31 Top-Down Processing and Reading, 32 “Smart Mistakes” in Object Recognition, 33

Change Blindness, 33 Inattentional Blindness, 35

Specialized Visual Recognition Processes, 36 Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition, 36 Applied Research on Face Recognition, 37

Speech Perception, 39 Characteristics of Speech Perception, 40

Word Boundaries, 40 Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation, 40 Context and Speech Perception, 41 Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception, 41

Theories of Speech Perception, 42 The Special Mechanism Approach, 42 The General Mechanism Approaches, 43

Section Summary Points, 43 Chapter Review Questions, 44 Keywords, 45 Recommended Readings, 45

3 Attention and Consciousness 46 Chapter Introduction, 46 Overview of Attention, 47

Divided Attention, 47 Selective Attention, 48

Dichotic Listening, 48 The Stroop Effect, 49 Visual Search, 51

Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Overview of Eye Movements in Reading, 53 Selective Attention in Reading, 54

Contents vii

Neuroscience of Attention, 55 The Orienting Attention Network, 56 The Executive Attention Network, 56

Theories of Attention, 57 Early Theories of Attention, 57 Feature-Integration Theory, 57

Consciousness, 59 Thought Suppression, 61 Blindsight, 61

Section Summary Points, 62 Chapter Review Questions, 63 Keywords, 64 Recommended Readings, 64

4 Working Memory 65 Chapter Introduction, 65 Classical Research on Short-Term Memory, 66

Short-Term Memory Capacity Limits, 67 The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique, 67 Serial Position Effect, 68 Semantic Similarity of the Items in Short-Term Memory, 69

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Information Processing, 70 The Turn to Working Memory, 71

Evidence for Components with Independent Capacities, 73 Phonological Loop, 74

Neuroscience Research on the Phonological Loop, 75 Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76

Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 76 Neuroscience Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad, 77

Central Executive, 77 Characteristics of the Central Executive, 77 The Central Executive and Daydreaming, 78 Neuroscience Research on the Central Executive, 78 Recent Views of the Central Executive, 78

Episodic Buffer, 79 Applications of Working Memory, 80

Working Memory and Academic Performance, 80 Working Memory Abilities in Clinical Populations, 80

Working Memory and Major Depression, 80 Working Memory and ADHD, 81 Working memory and Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 82 Summary, 82

Section Summary Points, 82 Chapter Review Questions, 83 Keywords, 84 Recommended Readings, 84

5 Long-Term Memory 85 Chapter Introduction, 85 Overview of Long-Term Memory, 86 Encoding in Long-Term Memory, 87

Levels of Processing, 87

CONTENTSviii

Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material, 88 Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference Effect, 88

Encoding-Specificity Principle, 90 Research on Encoding Specificity, 90 Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity, 91

Retrieval in Long-Term Memory, 92 Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks, 92

Anxiety Disorders and Explicit and Implicit Memory Tasks, 93 Individuals with Amnesia, 94

Autobiographical Memory, 95 Schemas and Autobiographical Memory, 96 Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring, 96 Flashbulb Memories, 97 Eyewitness Testimony, 99

Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony, 99 The Post-Event Misinformation Effect, 99 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony, 101 The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy, 101

Special Topics in Long-Term Memory, 102 Expertise, 102

The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise, 102 How Do Experts and Novices Differ?, 102 Own-Ethnicity Bias, 103

Emotions and Memory, 104 The Recovered-Memory/False-Memory Controversy, 107

The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy, 107 The Potential for Memory Errors, 108 Arguments for False Memory, 108 Arguments for Recovered Memory, 109 Both Perspectives Are At Least Partially Correct, 109

Section Summary Points, 109 Chapter Review Questions, 110 Keywords, 111 Recommended Readings, 111

6 Memory Strategies and Metacognition 112 Chapter Introduction, 112 Memory Strategies I: Memory Strategies Informed by Memory Concepts, 113

Divided Attention, 113 Working Memory, 113 Levels of Processing, 114

Elaboration, 114 Distinctiveness, 114

Encoding Specificity, 115 Memory Strategies II: Practice and Mnemonics, 116

Memory Strategies Emphasizing Practice, 116 Distributed Practice Effect, 116 Testing Effect, 116 Test Anxiety, 117

Mnemonics Using Imagery and Organization, 118 Imagery, 118

Contents ix

Organization, 119 Prospective Memory, 121

Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory, 121 Absentmindedness and Prospective Memory Failures, 122 Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory, 122

Metamemory, 123 Accuracy of Metamemory, 124

Metamemory: Estimating the Accuracy for Total Score Versus the Accuracy for Individual Items, 124 Metamemory: Estimating the Score Immediately Versus After a Delay, 125

Metamemory About Factors Affecting Memory Accuracy, 126 Metamemory and the Regulation of Study Strategies, 126

Allocating Time When the Task Is Easy, 126 Allocating Time When the Task Is Difficult, 127 Conclusions About the Regulation of Study Strategies, 127

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Effects, 127 Tip-of-the-Tongue Effect, 127 Feeling of Knowing, 129

Metacomprehension, 129 Metacomprehension Accuracy, 129 Improving Metacomprehension, 130

Section Summary Points, 131 Chapter Review Questions, 132 Keywords, 132 Recommended Readings, 133 Answer to Demonstration 6.4, 133

7 Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps 134 Chapter Introduction, 134 Classical Research on Visual Imagery, 135

Overview of Mental Imagery, 135 Mental Rotation, 136

Subsequent Research on Mental Rotation, 138 Cognitive Neuroscience Research on Mental Rotation Tasks, 139

The Imagery Debate, 139 Visual Imagery and Ambiguous Figures, 140

Individual differences in mental imagery, 142 Summary, 143

Factors That Influence Visual Imagery, 143 Distance and Shape Effects on Visual Imagery, 143 Visual Imagery and Interference, 144 Visual Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes, 145 Gender Comparisons in Spatial Ability, 145

Auditory Imagery, 146 Auditory Imagery and Pitch, 147 Auditory Imagery and Timbre, 147

Cognitive Maps, 148 Distance and Shape Effects on Cognitive Maps, 150

Distance Estimates and Number of Intervening Cities, 150 Distance Estimates and Category Membership, 150 Distance Estimates and Landmarks, 151 Cognitive Maps and Shape, 151

CONTENTSx

Relative Position Effects on Cognitive Maps, 152 The Rotation Heuristic, 152 The Alignment Heuristic, 153

Creating a Cognitive Map, 154 The Spatial Framework Model, 154 The Situated Cognition Approach, 155

Section Summary Points, 155 Chapter Review Questions, 156 Keywords, 157 Recommended Readings, 157

8 General Knowledge 158 Chapter Introduction, 158 Background and Approaches to Semantic Memory, 159

Background Information, 159 The Prototype Approach, 161

Characteristics of Prototypes, 162 Levels of Categorization, 163 Conclusions About the Prototype Approach, 164

The Exemplar Approach and Semantic Memory, 164 Comparing the Prototsype and Exemplar Approaches, 166

Network Models of Semantic Memory, 167 Anderson’s ACT-R Approach, 167 The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach, 169

Schemas and Scripts, 172 Background on Schemas and Scripts, 173

Schemas and Scripts, 173 Identifying the Script in Advance, 174

Schemas and Memory Selection, 174 Schemas and Boundary Extension, 176 Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 178

The Constructive Approach, 178 The Pragmatic Approach, 179 The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction, 179

Schemas and Memory Integration, 179 The Classic Research on Memory Integration, 180 Research About Memory Integration Based on Gender Stereotypes, 180

Section Summary Points, 184 Chapter Review Questions, 184 Keywords, 185 Recommended Readings, 185 Answer to Demonstration 8.1, 186

9 Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension 187

Chapter Introduction, 187 Overview of Psycholinguistics, 188

Relevant Terminology and Background on Language, 188 Basic Facts About Human Language, 189

A Brief History of Psycholinguistics, 190 Chomsky’s Approach, 190 Reactions to Chomsky’s Theory, 191

Contents xi

Psycholinguistic Theories that Emphasize Meaning, 191 On-line Sentence Comprehension, 192

Negation and the Passive Voice, 192 Syntactic Complexity, 193

Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Lexical Ambiguity, 195 Syntactic Ambiguity, 195 Good-Enough Processing, 197

Brain and Language, 198 General Considerations, 198 Aphasia, 199 Revisiting Broca’s Area, 200 Hemispheric Specialization, 201 The Mirror System, 203

Reading, 203 Comparing Written and Spoken Language, 204 Reading Words: Theoretical Approaches, 205

The Direct-Access Route, 205 The Indirect-Access Route, 205

Implications for Teaching Reading to Children, 206 Discourse Comprehension, 207

Forming an Integrated Representation of the Text, 208 Drawing Inferences During Reading, 209

The Constructionist View of Inferences, 209 Factors That Encourage Inferences, 210 Higher-Level Inferences, 211

Teaching Metacomprehension Skills, 211 Section Summary Points, 212 Chapter Review Questions, 213 Keywords, 213 Recommended Readings, 213 Answer to Demonstration 9.1, 214

10 Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism 215 Chapter Introduction, 215 Speaking I: Overview of Production Processes, 216

Producing a Word, 216 Speech Errors, 217

Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors, 217 Explanations for Speech Errors, 217

Producing a Sentence, 218 Producing Discourse, 219

Speaking II: Language Production and Naturalistic Communication, 219 Using Gestures: Embodied Cognition, 219 The Social Context of Language Production, 222

Common Ground, 222 Directives, 224 Framing, 224

Language Production and Writing, 225 The Role of Working Memory in Writing, 225 Planning a Formal Writing Assignment, 226 Sentence Generation during Writing, 226

CONTENTSxii

The Revision Phase of Writing, 227 Bilingualism, 227

Background on Bilingualism, 228 The Social Context of Bilingualism, 229 Advantages (and Minor Disadvantages) of Bilingualism, 230

Proficiency and Second Language Acquisition, 231 Second Language Proficiency, 232 Vocabulary, 232 Phonology, 232 Grammar, 232 Simultaneous Interpreters, 234

Section Summary Points, 235 Chapter Review Questions, 236 Keywords, 236 Recommended Readings, 237

11 Problem Solving and Creativity 238 Chapter Introduction, 238 Understanding the Problem, 239

Methods of Representing the Problem, 240 Symbols, 240 Matrices, 241 Diagrams, 241 Visual Images, 242

Situated and Embodied Cognition Perspectives on Problem Solving, 243 Situated Cognition, 243 Embodied Cognition, 244

Problem-Solving Strategies, 244 The Analogy Approach, 245

The Structure of the Analogy Approach, 245 The Means-Ends Heuristic, 246

Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic, 246 Computer Simulation, 247

The Hill-Climbing Heuristic, 247 Factors That Influence Problem Solving, 248

Expertise, 248 Knowledge Base, 248 Memory, 248 Problem-Solving Strategies, 249 Speed and Accuracy, 249 Metacognitive Skills, 249

Mental Set, 249 Functional Fixedness, 250 Gender Stereotypes and Math Problem Solving, 251

Research with Asian American Females, 251 Potential Explanations, 252

Insight versus Noninsight Problems, 253 The Nature of Insight, 253 Metacognition during Problem Solving, 254 Advice about Problem Solving, 254

Creativity, 255

Contents xiii

The Nature of Creativity, 255 Motivation and Creativity, 256

Section Summary Points, 257 Chapter Review Questions, 258 Keywords, 259 Recommended Readings, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.3, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.5, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.6B, 259 Answer to Demonstration 11.7A, 260 Answer to Demonstration 11.7B, 260

12 Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making 261 Chapter Introduction, 261 Deductive Reasoning, 262

Overview of Conditional Reasoning, 263 Factors That Cause Difficulty in Reasoning, 264 Belief-Bias Effect, 265 Confirmation Bias, 266

The Standard Wason Selection Task, 266 Concrete Versions of the Wason Selection Task, 267 Applications in Medicine, 267 Further Perspectives, 267

Decision Making I: Overview of Heuristics, 268 Representativeness Heuristic, 268

Sample Size and Representativeness, 269 Base Rate and Representativeness, 270 The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness, 271

Availability Heuristic, 272 Recency and Availability, 273 Familiarity and Availability, 273 The Recognition Heuristic, 274 Illusory Correlation and Availability, 274

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic, 275 Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic, 276 Estimating Confidence Intervals, 276

Current Status of Heuristics and Decision Making, 277 Decision Making II: Applications of Decision Making Research, 278

Framing Effect, 278 The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect, 279

Overconfidence about Decisions, 280 General Studies on Overconfidence, 280 Overconfidence about Completing Projects on Time, 281 Overconfidence in Political Decision Making, 281 Reasons for Overconfidence, 282

Hindsight Bias, 282 Explanations for the Hindsight Bias, 283

Decision-Making Style and Psychological Well-Being, 283 Section Summary Points, 284 Chapter Review Questions, 285 Keywords, 286

CONTENTSxiv

Recommended Readings, 286 Answer to Demonstration 12.1, 286 Answer to Demonstration 12.6, 286

13 Cognitive Development throughout the Lifespan 287 Chapter Introduction, 287 The Lifespan Development of Memory, 288

Memory in Infants, 288 Recognizing Mother, 289 Conjugate Reinforcement, 289

Memory in Children, 291 Children’s Working Memory, 291 Children’s Long-Term Memory, 292 Children’s Memory Strategies, 294 Children’s Eyewitness Testimony, 295 Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony, 297

Memory in Elderly People, 297 Working Memory in Elderly People, 298 Long-Term Memory in Elderly People, 298 Explanations for Age Differences in Memory, 300

The Lifespan Development of Metamemory, 301 Metamemory in Children, 301

Children’s Understanding of How Memory Works, 301 Children’s Awareness That Effort Is Necessary, 302 Children’s Judgments about Their Memory Performance, 302 Children’s Metamemory: The Relationship between Metamemory and Memory Performance, 302

Metamemory in Elderly People, 304 Beliefs about Memory, 304 Memory Monitoring, 304 Awareness of Memory Problems, 304

The Development of Language, 305 Language in Infants, 305

Speech Perception during Infancy, 305 Language Comprehension during Infancy, 306 Language Production during Infancy, 307 Adults’ Language to Infants, 307 Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD?, 308

Language in Children, 308 Words, 309 Morphology, 310 Syntax, 310 Pragmatics, 311

Section Summary Points, 312 Chapter Review Questions, 313 Keywords, 313 Recommended Readings, 314

Glossary 315 References 333

Index 404

xv

The 1st edition of this textbook was published in 1983, and was followed by eight more editions published over the course of roughly three decades. Margaret W. Matlin was the sole author of the 1st through 8th editions. After 30 years of dedication to this and other textbooks, Margaret has retired from the text- book writing enterprise. In the wake of her retirement, Thomas A. Farmer, Lecturer in Psychology at California State University—Fullerton, was contracted by Wiley to carry out the revision and updating process starting with the 9th edition of the textbook (2015). Margaret Matlin and Thomas Farmer thus share authorship for this 10th edition of Cognition.

Message from Author Thomas Farmer

I took Cognitive Psychology during the Spring Semester, 1999, as an undergraduate Psychology major at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia. Margaret Matlin’s Cognition was the assigned textbook, and at that point in time, it was in its 4th edition. I remember the textbook as engaging, thought provoking, and highly accessible. In hindsight, I think that Cognition helped ignite my interests in topics related to the mind–body–environment relationship, and certainly contributed to my decision to pursue research opportunities in the cognitive sciences. I am thus immensely grateful for the opportunity to carry this textbook into its 10th edition.

The revisions and updates that I instituted in this edition of Cognition are additive in nature. For the most part, I did not remove discussions of key concepts, debates, theoretical topics, or methodological consid- erations. Instead, I supplemented the existing text with additional explanation, examples, and up-to-date citations. I expanded more heavily in certain places, aiming to provide readers with an overview of both classical and more contemporary treatments of a concept or theoretical framework. Additionally, I have increased the number of experiments discussed, the amount of detail embedded in their discussion, and have made a concerted effort to highlight basic components of experimental design and behavioral testing methodologies. My hope is that these additions will facilitate a greater appreciation for the rigorous experi- mental research so characteristic of the field. I think that these additions will aid students in the development of their ability to critically assess links between experimental design and the conclusions drawn from their results.

In the preface to the 8th edition of Cognition, Margaret noted that the field of cognitive psychology has changed in many ways over the past decade. She then discussed three of these changes: (1) an increase in reliance on neuroscience and neuroscientific testing methods in the scientific study of human cognition, (2) an increase in the interdisciplinary nature of research on cognitive processes, and (3) a sharp increase in the application of research in the cognitive sciences to real-world problems. I strongly agree with her observations, and have continued her mission to integrate these recent advances into this textbook. Indeed, cognitive neuroscience, interdisciplinary collaboration, and real-world application were three of the fac- tors that motivated my decisions about how to revise and update material in this edition of the book.

In her textbooks, Margaret repeatedly demonstrates a keen ability to provide comprehensive treatments of complex research topics while writing in a style that makes them understandable to a wide range of undergraduate audiences. Although I could never perfectly mirror Margaret’s elegant writing style, I tried my best to imitate it. Thus, I strived to maintain the clarity and accessibility so characteristic of Margaret’s work.

In the remainder of this preface, I (1) provide an overview of the more substantial content-based addi- tions to this edition, (2) highlight the features and organization of the book, and (3) acknowledge the many individuals who have contributed to this and previous editions.

Preface

PREFACExvi

Content-Based Additions to the 10th Edition

As noted above, very few topics were eliminated in my updating and revision of this textbook. Instead, most content-based revisions and updates involve the addition of information detailing more recent con- ceptualizations of key concepts and principles. Some of the more substantial changes include the follow- ing:

Chapter 1 now includes a discussion of the magnetoencephalography (MEG) cognitive neuroscientific testing method, along with a more comprehensive historical overview of individuals who have contributed to the emergence of the field of experimental psychology.

Chapter 2 includes an enhanced explanation of the speech recognition process and an extended discus- sion of deficits in face recognition (prosopagnosia).

Chapter 3 includes an updated discussion of research involving the Stroop task. Chapter 4 was modified to include a more in-depth overview of the manner in which individual differ-

ences in working-memory capacity map onto variability in performance on an array of cognitive tasks. Additionally, the section on working-memory abilities in clinical populations has been extended to include a discussion of the relationship between working memory and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

Chapter 5 now details recent research on the effects of different amnesias on cognitive processing, as well as an extended discussion of expertise effects.

Chapter 6 now includes a discussion of test anxiety. Chapter 7 now discusses research on individual differences in cognitive style, and provides a corre-

sponding overview of cognitive neuroscientific research supporting these style differences. Chapter 8 contains an updated overview of research involving the implicit attitude test, along with a

discussion of more recent methodological extensions of the paradigm. Chapter 9 includes the reintroduction of “good enough processing,” along with a more integrative dis-

cussion of the cognitive neuroscience of language. Chapter 10 now provides an overview of research supporting a compelling role for gesture in learning,

as well as a more up-to-date overview of controversy regarding the bilingual advantage. Chapters 11 and 12 contain updated references to the classical problem solving and decision-making

effects detailed in these chapters, along with a discussion of more recent research involving these effects. Chapter 13 continues to provide an overview of research on lifespan developmental questions as they

pertain to memory, language, and metacognitive abilities.

Features of This Textbook

I genuinely believe that cognitive psychology can have practical applications that stretch far beyond the classroom. Therefore, students must be able to understand and remember the material. Here are some of the ways in which I consider this textbook to be student-oriented:

1. The writing style is clear and interesting, with frequent examples to make the information more concrete. Indeed, over the years, Margaret has received letters and comments from hundreds of students and professors expressing enthusiasm for the accessibility and clarity of the writing. This edition of the textbook has been line-edited in order to ensure precision and clarity.

2. The text demonstrates how our cognitive processes are relevant in our everyday, real-world experiences.

3. The book frequently examines how cognition can be applied to other disciplines, such as clinical psychology, social psychology, consumer psychology, education, communication, business, medicine, and law.

4. The 1st chapter introduces five major themes that are repeatedly emphasized throughout the book. Because the current research in cognitive psychology is so extensive, students need a sense of continuity that helps them appreciate the connections among many diverse topics.

5. An outline appears before each chapter, providing a helpful framework for understanding the new material.

6. Each new term is presented in boldface print. Every term is also accompanied by a concise definition that appears in the same sentence. In addition, pronunciation guides are provided for new

Preface xvii

terms with potentially ambiguous pronunciation. If students are hesitant about pronouncing terms such as schema and saccadic, they will be reluctant to use these words or ask questions about them.

7. Many easy-to-perform demonstrations illustrate important research in cognition, and they clarify central concepts in the discipline. These demonstrations were designed so that they would require equipment that undergraduate students typically have on hand.

8. Each chapter concludes with point-by-point summaries for each section of a chapter, followed by comprehensive review questions and a list of new terms. These features provide students with additional opportunities to review material and to identify knowledge gaps.

9. Each chapter concludes with a list of recommended readings, along with a brief description of each resource. This feature should be useful if students are searching for a topic for a literature-review paper. Furthermore, professors can consult these resources when they want to update a specific lecture.

10. A glossary at the end of the book provides a definition of every keyword. I tried to include additional contextual information wherever it might be useful, in order to clarify the terms as much as possible. For example, the word antecedent can be used in many contexts.