The sculptor of the panel the story of jacob and esau, and donatello’s teacher, is:

Renaissance Florence

Florence and Venice were two principle cities during the beginning, but Rome became especially prominent during the High Renaissance largely due to Michelangelo

Florence was a city that was ruled by rich merchants, primarily the Medici family; they were responsible for commissioning large amounts of artwork and architecture

Artists during the early part of the Renaissance were part of guilds that competed against each other – as we will see, this changes significantly with how the artist views him/herself during the 16th century

Figure 16-5 DONATELLO, Saint Mark, Or San Michele, Florence, Italy, 1411–1413. Marble, approx. 7’ 9” high. Modern copy in exterior niche. Original sculpture in museum on second floor of Or San Michele.

Donatello's Saint Mark is a marble statue that stands in an exterior niche of the Or San Michele in Florence. Donatello was commissioned by the linen weaver’s guild to complete three pieces for the project. St. Mark was the first of his contributions. Today, a copy of the statue stands in the original's place, while the real St. Mark is housed inside the church's museum. The amount of detail in Donatello's sculpture hints at his ingenious skill. The realism of the sculpture is such that it looks as though the statue itself could come alive and walk the streets of Florence. Even the veins of St. Mark's left hand are visible as he rests a text upon his hip. The contrapposto pose, or natural pose, is used with Donatello's St. Mark. The saint has weight on his right leg, his left knee is bent, and his torso is slightly twisted. The style is unique compared to the symmetry and unrealistic nature of art from the dark ages. Also Donatello's sculpture differs from medieval works in the way that drapery is used, specifically in that St. Mark's figure is revealed by a realistic draping of linen. Thought was put into the setting in which the statue would be placed, as was the case with other pieces at the time, most notably Michelangelo's David. According to Vasari's text The Lives of the Artists, written 140 years after the completion of St. Mark, the linen workers' guild rejected the sculpture because it appeared unnatural when set at street level. This was due to proportion adjustments made for its final resting place in the niche, well above street level. The head and torso were made larger as they would be further away from the viewer. Donatello promised to make adjustments, so he covered the statue with cloth, set the statue in the niche above the street, and without touching the statue for 15 days, once again revealed it to the guild. With its location above the viewer, the proportions looked perfect and the linen weaver's guild accepted the statue.

Contrapposto: The disposition of the human figure in which one part is turned in opposition to another part (usually hips and legs one way, shoulders and chest another), creating a counterpositioning of the body. Sometimes called “weight shift” because the weight of the body tends to be thrown to one foot, creating tension on one side and relaxation on the other.

Figure 16-8 DONATELLO, Feast of Herod, from the baptismal font of Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italy, ca. 1425. Gilded bronze relief, approx. 1’ 11” x 1’ 11”.

The powerful expressivity of his art made him the greatest sculptor of the early Renaissance. Masterpieces from the first phases of his career include and his bronze relief of the Feast of Herod. Two of his characteristic formal contributions are encountered in the work for Siena. The relief is organized by a rigorous application of the rules of perspective that makes each figure emerge clearly and logically, even though the scene was modeled at a shallow depth; this is called flattened relief. This depicts the scene of John the Baptist’s head being presented to King Herod; it was requested by Salomé, the king’s stepdaughter who danced for him; she is depicted on the right hand side of the relief. What is most moving about Donatello’s work is that it is full of vitality and emotion. The king and his banqueters recoil in horror; it is an extremely detailed relief sculpture.

Linear perspective introduced by Filippo Brunelleschi in 1425:

His rules of this technique could reproduce the exact look of things to the eye

It gave the illusion of three dimensional space on a two dimensional surface

Linear perspective replaced the cosmic geometry of the Greeks and the sacred geometry of the Gothic period with an art whose basic realism was justified by human perception itself

Perspective focused attention on the subjective individual while emphasizing the objective world of nature

Perspective also increased interest in controlling the natural world by individuals as we will see in Leonardo’s work

Linear Perspective: A method of presenting an illusion of the three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional surface. All parallel lines or surface edges converge on one, two, or three vanishing points located with reference to the eye level of the viewer (the horizon line of the picture), and associated objects are rendered smaller the farther from the viewer they are intended to seem.

Please watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/beginners-renaissance-florence/v/linear-perspective-brunelleschi-s-experiement

And watch: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/early-renaissance1/sculpture-architecture-florence/v/brunelleschi-dome-of-the-cathedral-of-florence-1420-36

Figure 16-2 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401-1402

Figure 16-3 LORENZO GHIBERTI, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401-1402

These images are for SmartHistory HW #3.

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Figure 16-10 LORENZO GHIBERTI, east doors (“Gates of Paradise”), baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1425–1452. Gilded bronze relief, approx. 17’ high. Modern copy, ca. 1980. Original panels in Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence.

Both Filippo Brunelleschi and Ghiberti competed for the commission of the baptistery doors, but Ghiberti won out; Ghiberti was widely recognized as a celebrity and the top artist in this field. He was showered with commissions, even from the Pope.

In 1425 he got a second commission, this time for the East Doors of the baptistery, on which he and his workshop toiled for 27 years (1425-1452), excelling themselves. These had ten panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament, and were in turn installed on the east side. The panels are large rectangles and are no longer embedded in the traditional gothic quatrefoil, as in the previous doors. Ghiberti employed the recently discovered principles of perspective to give depth to his compositions. Each panel depicts more than one episode. The figures are distributed in very low relief in a perspectival space (a technique invented by Donatello and called flattened relief). Ghiberti uses different sculptural techniques, from incised lines to almost free-standing figure sculpture, within the panels, further accentuating the sense of space. The panels are included in a richly decorated gilt framework of foliage and fruit, many statuettes of prophets and 24 busts. The two central busts are portraits of the artist and of his father Bartolomeo Ghiberti.

Michelangelo referred to these doors as fit to be the "Gates of Paradise", and they are still invariably referred to by this name. Giorgio Vasari described them a century later as "undeniably perfect in every way and must rank as the finest masterpiece ever created". Ghiberti himself said they were "the most singular work that I have ever made". The "Gates of Paradise" now on the Baptistery are actually gilded bronze reproductions, placed there in 1990 after it was determined that the originals were deteriorating, and could only be saved if they were moved indoors. The originals are housed nearby in the Museo del Opera del Duomo, preserved in containers filled with nitrogen.

Figure 14-20 ANDREA PISANO, south doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, Florence, Italy, 1330-1336.

Figure 16-10 LORENZO GHIBERTI, east doors (“Gates of Paradise”), baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1425–1452.

Compare/contrast: Figure 14-20: The sponsors for this ambitious project was the guild of wool importers; they hired Andrea (unrelated to Nicola and Giovanni); each bronze panel was cast separately and 20 of them depict episodes from the life of St. John the Baptist, 8 depict personified Christian virtues; the quatrefoil frames are of the type used earlier for reliefs flanking Gothic cathedrals and suggests that French Gothic sculpture was one source of Andrea's style; the proportions and flowing robes of the figures, and the general composition also suggest the influence of Giotto.

Figure 16-9 LORENZO GHIBERTI, Isaac and His Sons (detail of FIG. 16-4), east doors, baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1425–1452. Gilded bronze relief, approx. 2’ 7 1/2” x 2’ 7 1/2”. Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence.

Ghiberti uses the same kind of flattened relief as Donatello in this piece. This story of Isaac and his sons is told in continuous narrative. Isaac was Abraham’s son, Isaac marries Rebecca and they, too, have a difficult time conceiving and it isn’t until Rebecca is older that they have twin sons, Esau and Jacob. The main thrust of this story is that it was prophesied that Jacob, even though he was the second born of the twins, must be blessed as the eldest before Isaac died. Isaac sent Esau (the oldest) out to hunt for dinner. While Esau was hunting, Rebecca sent Jacob to kill a goat for dinner, to wear the goat skin on his own flesh so Isaac couldn’t tell it was Jacob (Isaac was quite blind by this time and could tell the difference between his sons by touching them – Esau was hairy while Jacob was smooth-skinned). Jacob fooled his father into blessing him, but Esau returned catching Jacob coming out of the tent. Isaac was shaken and Esau was furious, causing Jacob to have to run for his life. Jacob was God’s chosen one to continue the Abrahamic patriarchy.

Figure 16-13 ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO, Hercules and Antaeus, ca. 1475. Bronze, approx. 1' 6” high with base. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence.

A painter and an engraver as well as a sculptor, he received a Medici commission in the 1470s for a small scale sculpture (18”). It is depicting the two men in violent action. It is the story of Hercules (son of Earth) and Antaeus (a giant) wrestling and it is in the point of the story where Hercules holds Antaeus aloft because every time Antaeus touched the ground, he would become invigorated for more battle. This also reflects the Medici preference for humanistic subject matter. Considering its size and subject matter, where do you think this was placed?

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Figure 16-15 DONATELLO, Gattamelata (equestrian statue of Erasmo da Narni), Piazza del Santo, Padua, Italy, ca. 1445–1450. Bronze, approx. 11’ x 13’.

Donatello received this commission from the Republic of Venice to honor Erasmo da Narni, an army official nicknamed Gattamelata (honeyed cat). This is the first time that a sculptor attempted to rival the grandeur of classical equestrian monuments. The sculpture is removed from its surroundings and is a stand alone sort of work. Donatello did not represent the commander as superhuman and over life-size. It is more about the psychology of who this commander was that gives him a commanding presence.

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Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, approx. 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome.

This is a Roman example of an equestrian statue. There were very few of these left when Christianity became the state-sponsored religion. Early Christians melted down bronze sculptures as they reminded them of the pagan past. They would repurpose the bronze for things like coins, armor, and weapons. The revival of equestrian statues in the Renaissance is related to this tradition.

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Figure 16-16 ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO, Bartolommeo Colleoni (equestrian statue), Campo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, Italy, ca. 1483–1488. Bronze, approx. 13’ high.

Teacher of Leonardo da Vinci, a gifted painter and sculptor in his own right; crowning achievement in this work of a Venetian army commander; the horse is realistically rendered, Colleoni resembles forceful dominance.

MASACCIO, Brancacci Chapel (overview for placement purposes), Florence, c. 1427

Inside the chapel there are two layers of frescoes commissioned in 1424 by Felice Brancacci, a wealthy Florentine merchant and statesman. The frescoes illustrate the life of St. Peter, who can be identified by his orange and blue robes.The frescoes were designed by Masolino da Panicale, who began painting them with his pupil Masaccio.

This is the overview of the left wall of the chapel. The next slide is the panel at the top.

Figure 16-18 MASACCIO, Tribute Money, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca. 1427. Fresco, 8’ 1” x 19’ 7”.

Illustrates continuous narration of the story in the book of Matthew: Christ is instructing Peter to catch a fish whose mouth will contain the tribute money for the tax collector: he catches the fish on the left and on the right, he’s giving it to the tax collector; the figures have the same kind of weight and volume as Giotto’s figures, but the drapery functions with the body in a more natural way. Notice the tax collector has his back to us as if he’s part of our space. He also wears clothing that is contemporary to the 15th century.

The Brancaccis chose this particular story to illustrate to others that they viewed paying taxes as part of one’s civic duty, for the greater good.

Figure 16-19 MASACCIO, Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca. 1425. Fresco, 7’ x 2’ 11”.

This displays the human body in motion and the figures convey realistic emotion as Adam and Eve have been kicked out of the Garden of Eden. Notice which parts of their bodies they are covering. Think about how they are feeling.

Figure 16-22 ANDREA DEL CASTAGNO, Last Supper, the Refectory, monastery of Sant’Apollonia, Florence, Italy, 1447. Fresco, approx. 15’ x 32’.

One of Andrea del Castagno's most famous works is the Last Supper he painted below the stories from Christ's Passion. Until quite recently the Last Supper appeared to be painted in much darker colors than the scenes directly above it; the fact had given rise to many animated debates between scholars concerning the dating of the fresco. But after the latest cleaning (1977-79) the color and tonal contrast between the two levels has disappeared, and the colors of the Last Supper have been restored to their original beauty. All scholars agree in praising the somber architectural structure of the room where the scene of the Last Supper is taking place: a room with the lavish colored marble panels functioning as a backdrop to the heavy and solemn scene of the banquet, very much related to a first century Roman home. Notice also the beauty of some of the minor details, such as the gold highlights in some of the characters' hair or the haloes depicted in perfect perspective. The other extraordinary element of this fresco is the remarkable balance of gestures and expressions, particularly in the group of figures in the center of the composition, where the emotional swooning of St. John to the left of Jesus is contrasted to the tense, rigid figure of Judas sitting opposite.

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Figure 16-24 FRA FILIPPO LIPPI, Madonna and Child with Angels, ca. 1455. Tempera on wood, approx. 3’ x 2’ 1”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

This is a devotional object made for the faithful to reflect upon and prayer; Fra (Italian for brother or monk) Filippo was a master with line; here we have an earthly mother of beauty with her child; this is a reflection of the fact that Fra Filippo used live models for his painting; the landscape in the background have recognizable features of the Arno River Valley. A great example of Early Renaissance humanism. Fra Filippo Lippi was the teacher of Sandro Botticelli, who will be discussed a little later in the lecture.

Compare and contrast Lippi’s work on the left and Giotto’s work on the right. Notice how much the image of the Virgin Mary has changed since 1310. She is earthly and beautiful

Figure 16-26 DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO, Birth of the Virgin, Cappella Maggiore, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, 1485–1490. Fresco.

A theme we have seen before in the last century. Here we have a more rich interior, a palace interior with wood inlay and sculptures. There is a procession of women led by a Tornabuoni family member (one of the wealthiest Florentine families), probably Giovanni’s daughter, Ludovica; the composition is clear with firmly constructed figures; there is a rational order and logical relations among figures and objects.

An overview of the Tournabouni family chapel in the Santa Maria Novella church in Florence.

Compare Ghirlandaio’s work with Lorenzetti’s work from the 14th century. What kinds of things do you notice as being similar between the pieces. What are the differences?

Figure 16-1 SANDRO BOTTICELLI, Birth of Venus, ca. 1482. Tempera on canvas, approx. 5’ 8” x 9’ 1”. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

Sandro Botticelli was an Italian painter and draughtsman. During his lifetime he was one of the most acclaimed painters in Italy, being summoned to take part in the decoration of the Sistine Chapel in Rome and earning the patronage of the leading families of Florence, including the Medici. Botticelli chose to center such works on what the Medici family requested, especially the younger generation.

This is the most famous work done by this artist. This work is inspired by a poem by Angelo Poliziano about the mythical birth of Venus. The west wind, Zephyrus blows Venus born of the sea foam and carried on a cockle shell to her sacred island of Cyprus. His figures lack three-dimensionality, they are quite flat as he makes use of outlining the figures. Despite its flatness, the nudes are rendered voluptuously.

Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos, ca. 350-340 BCE

This is one of the most famous statues of the goddess of love (Aphrodite in Greek, Venus in Latin). Praxiteles created the first nude female sculpture of Aphrodite and it became a staple in smaller scale Roman garden statuary. Botticelli’s Venus is based on the Praxitelean model.

Figure 16-29 ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO, Battle of the Ten Nudes, ca. 1465. Engraving, approx. 1 3” x 1’ 11”. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (bequest of Joseph Pulitzer, 1917).

An engraving designed to show the artist’s mastery of the nude figure in action. Pollaiuolo used this piece to secure more commissions from wealthy patrons. It’s what we consider a portfolio piece today.

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Figure 16-32 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, facade of the Pazzi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, begun ca. 1440.

Probably not Brunelleschi’s original design for this central-plan (based on the square rather than the rectangular basilica plan) chapel, it was designed for Santa Croce Cathedral’s chapter house (meeting place for the monks). It is truly Renaissance in design with rounded arches and Corinthian capitals, complete with a dome.

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Figure 16-34 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, interior of the Pazzi Chapel (view facing northeast), Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, begun ca. 1440.

The square space of the main area is enlarged laterally so that it becomes a rectangle. The dome is placed above the central square, while the two short lateral arms are barrel vaulted. The white plaster wall surfaces, contrasted with gray sandstone structures, are emphasized to the maximum so that the chapel seems to irradiate light from within. There are three axes in the chapel. One is the center axis from the entrance of the portico to the altar, one is the center axis of the rectangular room and another is the vertical axis of the dome.

Figure 16-35 MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO, Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, Florence, Italy, begun 1445.

After returning to Italy from being exiled, the Medici family attempted to maintain a lower profile and to wield power from behind the scenes. This building was not only a residence for the family, but the family also conducted its business from here. The heavy rustication (large rough stones) on the ground floor accentuates its strength. The architect uses long, unbroken stringcourses (horizontal bands) which give it coherence. Using dressed masonry and an even smoother surface on the top story make the building appear progressively lighter as the eye moves upward. However, the heavy cornice at the top reverses the lightness of the upper story, defining the building's proportions.

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Figure 16-36A LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca. 1458–1470.

One of the first architects to understand Roman architecture in depth. Alberti wrote about his theories in 1450 and argues for a system of ideal proportions and that the central plan was the ideal form for a church. Here he used the Romanesque model in the incorporation of the triangular pediment at the top. The façade is almost a square which allowed Alberti to work within a system of ratios. He emphasized that harmony was essential to designing beautiful buildings.

LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, diagrams of west facade, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy.

The height (to the tip of the pediment) equals the width so that the entire structure could fit into a square; the rest are just a system of ratios 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3 and so on. Mathematics and reason within the humanist philosophy became itself a kind of religion for architects like Alberti and Brunelleschi.

Nave of Santa Maria Novella. Notice how the patterned stone continues in the interior of the church.

16-40 GIOVANNI BELLINI, St. Francis in the Desert, ca. 1477-1479. Oil and tempera on wood, 4’1” x 4’ 7 7/8”. Frick Collection, New York (Henry Clay Frick Bequest).

Watch this SmartHistory video for more: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/giovanni-bellini-saint-francis-in-the-desert-circa-1480

Look how far we’ve come from the first Bonaventura St. Francis painting we saw!

Figure 16-41 PERUGINO, Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to Saint Peter, Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome, Italy, 1481–1483. Fresco, 11’ 5 1/2” x 18’ 8 1/2”.

This was commissioned by the Pope in Rome for the Sistine Chapel. The supreme authority of the Roman Catholic Church was based on this theme as Jesus hands the keys of heaven to St. Peter. This symbolizes there was no other way to heaven except through the Catholic Church. Here Perugino places his figures of apostles and contemporary Renaissance people in a great piazza. The arches in the background are reminiscent of the Arch of Constantine – this is to tie Constantine with Peter who had the first church built over Saint Peter’s tomb.

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Figure 16-45 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of Sant’Andrea, Mantua, Italy, designed ca. 1470.

This features a triumphal arch at the center of the façade. More reminiscent of a Roman temple than a church: the triangular pediment, the height of the façade is equal to the width (although you can see that the nave wall is higher than the pediment), and it has three stories reflecting the colossal order (where the pilasters [flat pillars] rise more than one story).

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Figure 16-49 ANDREA MANTEGNA, ceiling of the Camera Picta (Painted Chamber), Palazzo Ducale,Mantua, Italy, 1474. Fresco, 8’ 9” in diameter.

Watch the SmartHistory video here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/andrea-mantegna-camera-degli-sposi-frescos-in-the-ducal-palace-mantua-1465-74

Figure 16-50 ANDREA MANTEGNA, Foreshortened Christ (Lamentation over the Dead Christ), ca. 1500. Tempera on canvas, 2’ 2 3/4” x 2’ 7 7/8”. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.

Watch the SmartHistory video here: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/renaissance-venice/venice-early-ren/v/mantegna-dead-christ-c-1490