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ABOUT THE COVER IMAGE

African Americans on the Move, 1940 Migration and mobility are major themes in American history. Immigration to and migration within the United States have been constants of the nation’s past and remain so in the present. One of the most breathtaking relocation stories in this long history is that of African Americans in the twentieth century. Between 1910 and 1970, between 5 and 6 million African Americans left the South for the North and West, transforming the nation in the process. Here a family prepares for the journey from Florida to New Jersey in 1940.

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ABBREVIATIONS

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ALBANIA AUSTRIA BELGIUM BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA CROATIA CZECH REPUBLIC DENMARK GERMANY HUNGARY KOSOVO LUXEMBOURG MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO NETHERLANDS SERBIA SLOVAKIA SLOVENIA SWITZERLAND

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N. KOREA JAPAN

S. KOREA

TAIWAN

KYRGYZSTAN

SRI LANKA

SINGAPORE

BRUNEI

EAST TIMOR

IRAN

MONGOLIA KAZAKHSTAN

R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N

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M A L A Y S I A

I N D O N E S I A

A U S T R A L I A

ETHIOPIA

SUDAN

EGYPTLIBYA

NIGER

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SYRIA

ARMENIA

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UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

FINLAND

MALTA CYPRUS ISRAEL

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CENTRAL AFRICAN REP.

SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE

MYANMAR (BURMA)

PHILIPPINES

Mariana Is. (U.S.)

Guam (U.S.)

KIRIBATINAURU

PALAU

TUVALU

FIJIVANUATU

New Caledonia (Fr.)

SOLOMON IS.

MARSHALL IS.

FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA

PAPUA NEW

GUINEA

NEW ZEALAND

Tasmania (Aust.)

ITALY

NORWAY

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America A C O N C I S E H I S T O R Y

V O L U M E 2 : S I N C E 1 8 6 5

this page left intentionally blank

James A. Henretta University of Maryland

Eric Hinderaker University of Utah

Rebecca Edwards Vassar College

Robert O. Self Brown University

America A C O N C I S E H I S T O R Y

Bedford / St. Martin’s Boston • New York

S I X T H E D I T I O N

V O L U M E 2 : S I N C E 1 8 6 5

For Bedford/St. Martin’s Publisher for History: Mary V. Dougherty Senior Executive Editor for History and Technology: William J. Lombardo Director of Development for History: Jane Knetzger Senior Developmental Editor: Laura Arcari Production Editor: Annette Pagliaro Sweeney Senior Production Supervisor: Jennifer Peterson Executive Marketing Manager: Sandra McGuire Editorial Assistants: Victoria Royal, Emily DiPietro Production Assistant: Erica Zhang Copy Editor: Susan Zorn Indexer: Leoni McVey, McVey & Associates, Inc. Cartography: Mapping Specialists, Ltd. Photo Researcher: Pembroke Herbert and Sandi Rygiel, Picture Research Consultants, Inc. Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik Text Design: Maureen McCutcheon Cover Design: Marine Miller Cover Photo: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, FSA/OWI Collection [LC-USF34-040820-D] Composition: Jouve Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley and Sons

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Acknowledgments Acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the text and art selections they cover; these acknowledgments and copyrights constitute an extension of the copyright page. It is a violation of the law to reproduce these selections by any means whatsoever without the written permission of the copyright holder.

xi

Preface Why This Book This Way

History classrooms present a unique dilemma. How do we off er our students a basic understanding of key events and facts, while inviting them to see the past not as a rote list of names and dates, but as the fascinating, confl icted prelude to their lives today? How do we teach our students to think like historians? As scholars and teachers who go into the classroom every day, we know these challenges well and have composed the sixth edition of America: A Concise History to help instructors meet them.

Of course the contents of this book are only helpful if students read and assimilate the material before coming to class, so for the sixth edition we are rolling out a suite of digital tools designed to save you time and help students gain confi dence and learn historical thinking skills. So that students will come to class prepared, they now receive access to LearningCurve — an adaptive learning tool that garners over a 90% student satisfaction rate that helps them master content — when they purchase a new copy of America: A Concise History. And because we know that your classroom needs are chang- ing rapidly, we are excited to announce that America is available with LaunchPad, a new, robust interactive e-book and course space with a wealth of additional content and learning aids that makes customizing and assigning the book and its resources easy and effi cient. LaunchPad can be used on its own or in conjunction with this printed text, giving instructors and students the best of both worlds — the narrative text in an inexpensive, easy-to-read printed format as well as our highly acclaimed digital resources and tools, where their use and combination are limited only by the imagination of the instructor. To learn more about the benefi ts of LearningCurve and LaunchPad, see bedfordstmartins.com/henrettaconcise/catalog.

America has long been known for its breadth, balance, and ability to explain to students not just what happened, but why. Th e latest edition both preserves and sub- stantially builds upon those strengths. Th e foundation of our approach lies in our commitment to an integrated history. America: A Concise History combines traditional “top-down” narratives of political and economic aff airs with “bottom-up” narratives of the lived experiences of ordinary people. Our goal is to help students achieve a richer understanding of politics, diplomacy, war, economics, intellectual and cultural life, and gender, class, and race relations, by exploring how developments in all these areas were interconnected. Our analysis is fueled by a passion for exploring big, consequen- tial questions. How did a colonial slave society settled by people from four continents become a pluralist democracy? How have liberty and equality informed the American experience? Questions like these help students understand what’s at stake as we study the past. In America: A Concise History, we provide an integrated historical approach and a dedication to why history matters to bear on the full sweep of America’s past.

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xii Preface

One of the most exciting developments in this edition is the arrival of a new author, Eric Hinderaker. An expert in native and early American history, Eric brings a fresh interpretation of native and colonial European societies and the revolutionary Atlantic world of the eighteenth century that enlivens and enriches our narrative. Eric joins James Henretta, long the intellectual anchor of the book, whose scholarly work now focuses on law, citizenship, and the state in early America; Rebecca Edwards, an expert in women’s and gender history and nineteenth-century electoral politics; and Robert Self, whose work explores the relationship between urban and suburban poli- tics, social movements, and the state. Together, we strive to ensure that energy and creativity, as well as our wide experience in the study of history, infuse every page that follows.

Th e core of a textbook is its narrative, and we have endeavored to make ours clear, accessible, and lively. In it, we focus not only on the marvelous diversity of peoples who came to call themselves Americans, but also on the institutions that have forged a common national identity. More than ever, we daily confront the collision of our past with the demands of the future and the shrinking distance between Americans and others around the globe. To help students meet these challenges, we call attention to connections with the histories of Canada, Latin America, Europe, Africa, and Asia, drawing links between events in the United States and those elsewhere. In our contem- porary digital world, facts and data are everywhere. What students crave is analysis. As it has since its inception, America: A Concise History provides students with a compre- hensive explanation and interpretation of events, a guide to why history unfolded as it did, and a roadmap for understanding the world in which we live.

A Nine-Part Framework Highlights Key Developments One of the greatest strengths of America: A Concise History is its part structure, which helps students identify the key forces and major developments that shaped each era. A four-page Part Opener introduces each part, using analysis, striking images, and a detailed thematic timeline to orient students to the major developments and themes of the period covered. New “Th ematic Understanding” questions ask students to consider periodization and make connections among chapters. By organizing U.S. his- tory into nine distinct periods, rather than just 31 successive chapters, we encourage students to trace changes and continuities over time and to grasp connections between political, economic, social, and cultural events.

In this edition, we have reengineered the part structure to refl ect the most up-to- date scholarship. Pre-contact native societies and European colonization are now cov- ered in two distinct parts, allowing us to devote comprehensive attention to the whole of North America before the 1760s. We have also added an additional part bridging the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, bringing fresh perspectives on industrializa- tion, the “long progressive era,” and the growth of American global power. Together, the nine parts organize the complex history of North America and the United States into comprehensible sections with distinct themes.

Part 1, “Transformations of North America, 1450–1700,” highlights the diver- sity and complexity of Native Americans prior to European contact, examines the

Preface xiii

transformative impact of European intrusions and the Columbian Exchange, and emphasizes the experimental quality of colonial ventures. Part 2, “British North America and the Atlantic World, 1660–1763,” explains the diversifi cation of British North America and the rise of the British Atlantic World and emphasizes the impor- tance of contact between colonists and Native Americans and imperial rivalries among European powers. Part 3, “Revolution and Republican Culture, 1763–1820,” traces the rise of colonial protest against British imperial reform, outlines the ways that the American Revolution challenged the social order, and explores the processes of con- quest, competition, and consolidation that followed from it.

Part 4, “Overlapping Revolutions, 1800–1860” traces the transformation of the economy, society, and culture of the new nation; the creation of a democratic polity; and growing sectional divisions. Part 5, “Creating and Preserving a Continental Nation, 1844–1877,” covers the confl icts generated by America’s empire-building in the West, including sectional political struggles that led to the Civil War, and during and aft er Reconstruction, national consolidation of power. Part 6, “Industrializing America: Upheavals and Experiments, 1877–1917,” examines the transformations brought about by the rise of corporations and a powerhouse industrial economy, including immigration; a diverse, urbanizing society; and movements for progressive reform.

Part 7, “Domestic and Global Challenges, 1890–1945,” explores America’s rise to world power, the cultural transformations and political confl icts of the 1920s, the Great Depression, and the creation of the welfare state. Part 8, “Th e Modern State and the Age of Liberalism, 1945–1980,” addresses the postwar period, including America’s new global leadership role during the Cold War; the expansion of federal responsibility during a new “age of liberalism”; and the growth of mass consumption and the middle class. Finally, Part 9, “Global Capitalism and the End of the Ameri- can Century, 1980 to the Present,” discusses the conservative political ascendancy of the 1980s; the end of the Cold War and rising confl ict in the Middle East; and global- ization and increasing social inequality.

Hundreds of Sources Encourage Students to Think Comparatively and Critically America: A Concise History has long emphasized primary sources. In addition to weav- ing lively quotations throughout the narrative, we off er students substantial excerpts from historical documents — letters, diaries, autobiographies, public testimony, and more — and numerous fi gures that give students practice working with data. Th ese documents allow students to experience the past through the words and perspectives of those who lived it, to understand how historians make sense of the past using data, and to gain skill in interpreting historical evidence.

Each chapter of the book includes two types of primary source features. Ameri- can Voices features in every chapter help students to understand how important events and phenomena were viewed domestically. New America Compared features use primary sources and data to situate U.S. history in global context, while giving

xiv Preface

students practice in comparison and data analysis. Retooled from the Voices from America feature from the last edition to include data in addition to primary sources, these features appear in every chapter on topics as diverse as the fi ght for women’s rights in France and the United States, an examination of labor laws aft er emancipa- tion in Haiti and the United States, the loss of human life in World War I, and an analy- sis of the worldwide economic malaise of the 1970s.

In LaunchPad, students have access to hundreds of additional primary sources, including a brand-new feature to aid you in teaching historical thinking skills. Th ink- ing Like a Historian features in every LaunchPad chapter include 5–8 brief sources organized around a central theme, such as “Beyond the Proclamation Line,” “Making Modern Presidents,” and “Th e Suburban Landscape of Cold War America.” Students are asked to analyze the documents and complete a “Putting It All Together” assign- ment that asks them to synthesize and use the evidence to create an argument. Because we understand how important primary sources are to the study of history, we are also pleased to off er in LaunchPad the all-new companion reader, Sources of America’s History.

As in past editions, an outstanding visual program engages students’ attention and gives them practice in working with visual sources. Th e book’s illustration program is greatly expanded in LaunchPad, which features more than twice as many images as the print book: over 425 paintings, cartoons, illustrations, photographs, and charts. Infor- mative captions set the illustrations in context and provide students with background for making their own analysis of the images in the book. Keenly aware that students lack geographic literacy, we have included dozens of maps that show major develop- ments in the narrative, each with captions to help students interpret what they see.

Taken together, these documents, fi gures, maps, and illustrations provide instruc- tors with a trove of teaching materials, such that America: A Concise History off ers not only a compelling narrative, but also — right in the text — the rich documentary mate- rials that instructors need to bring the past alive and introduce students to historical analysis.

Study Aids Support Student Understanding and Teach Historical Thinking Skills Each chapter in the book provides aids to student comprehension and study. New “Big Idea” questions at the start of every chapter guide student reading and focus their attention on identifying not just what happened, but why. Focus questions at the end of each major section help guide students in their reading. At the end of each chapter, we use a timeline to remind students of important events and reiterate the themes in an analytic summary.

To better support students in their understanding of the material and in their development of historical thinking skills, users of LaunchPad for America: A Concise History will fi nd a wealth of additional learning tools. Author preview videos that speak to the “big idea” of the chapter and guided reading activities for each chapter focus student learning and encourage active engagement with the text. Users of the

Preface xv

interactive e-book will also gain profi ciency in historical thinking skills via marginal review questions that ask students to “Identify Causes,” “Trace Change over Time,” and “Understand Points of View,” among other skills. Where students are likely to stumble over a key concept, we boldface it in the text wherever it is fi rst mentioned and provide a pop-up glossary defi nition for each term. In the Chapter Review section, we include a set of review questions for the chapter as a whole, along with “Making Connections” and “Th ematic Understanding” questions that ask students to con- sider broader historical issues, developments, and continuities and changes over time. Lastly, the chapter timelines in LaunchPad are accompanied by “Key Turning Points” questions that remind students of important events and ask them to consider peri- odization. Th e diff erent types of formative and summative assessment in LaunchPad, including short answer, essay questions, multiple-choice quizzing, and Learning- Curve, are designed to get students reading before class and can be edited, customized with your own material, and assigned in seconds.

New Scholarship Introduces Students to the Latest Research and Interpretations In the new edition, we continue to off er instructors a bold account of U.S. history that refl ects the latest, most exciting scholarship in the fi eld. Th roughout the book, we have given increased attention to political culture and political economy, including the his- tory of capitalism, using this analysis to help students understand how society, culture, politics, and the economy informed one another.

With new author Eric Hinderaker aboard we have taken the opportunity to recon- ceptualize much of the pre-1800 material. Th is edition opens with two dramatically revised chapters marked by closer and more sustained attention to the way Native Americans shaped, and were shaped by, the contact experience and highlighting the tenuous and varied nature of colonial experimentation. Th ese changes carry through the edition in a sharpened continental perspective and expanded coverage of Native Americans, the environment, and the West in every era. We have also brought closer attention to the patterns and varieties of colonial enterprise and new attention to the Atlantic world and the many revolutions — in print, consumption, and politics — that transformed the eighteenth century.

In our coverage of the nineteenth century, the discussion of slavery now includes material on African American childhood and the impact of hired-out slaves on black identity. Th e spiritual life of Joseph Smith also receives greater attention, as do the complex attitudes of Mormons toward slavery. New fi ndings have also deepened the analysis of the War with Mexico and its impact on domestic politics. But the really new feature of these chapters is their heightened international, indeed global, perspective.

In the post–Civil War chapters, enhanced coverage of gender, ethnicity, and race includes greater emphasis on gay and lesbian history and Asian and Latino immigra- tion, alongside the entire chapter devoted to the Civil Rights Movement, a major addi- tion to the last edition. Finally, we have kept up with recent developments with an expanded section on the Obama presidency and the elections of 2008 and 2012.

xvi Preface

Acknowledgments We are grateful to the following scholars and teachers who reported on their experi- ences with the last edition or reviewed features of the new edition. Th eir comments oft en challenged us to rethink or justify our interpretations and always provided a check on accuracy down to the smallest detail.

Jeff rey S. Adler, University of Florida Jennifer L. Bertolet, Th e George Washington University Vicki Black, Blinn College Stefan Bosworth, Hostos Community College Tammy K. Byron, Dalton State College Jessica Cannon, University of Central Missouri Rose Darrough, Palomar College Petra DeWitt, Missouri University of Science & Technology Nancy J. Duke, Daytona State College Richard M. Filipink, Western Illinois University Matthew Garrett, Bakersfi eld College Benjamin H. Hampton, Manchester Community College and Great Bay

Community College Isadora Helfgott, University of Wyoming Stephanie Jannenga, Muskegon Community College Antoine Joseph, Bryant University Lorraine M. Lees, Old Dominion University John S. Leiby, Paradise Valley Community College Karen Ward Mahar, Siena College Timothy R. Mahoney, University of Nebraska — Lincoln Eric Mayer, Victor Valley College Glenn Melancon, Southeastern Oklahoma State University Frances Mitilineos, Oakton Community College James Mills, University of Texas, Brownsville Anne Paulet, Humboldt State University Th omas Ratliff , Central Connecticut State University LeeAnn Reynolds, Samford University Jenny Shaw, University of Alabama Courtney Smith, Cabrini College Timothy Th urber, Virginia Commonwealth University Julio Vasquez, University of Kansas Sarah E. Vandament, North Lake College of the Dallas County Community

College District Louis Williams, St. Louis Community College — Forest Park

As the authors of America: A Concise History, we know better than anyone else how much this book is the work of other hands and minds. We are indebted to Mary Dougherty, William J. Lombardo, and Jane Knetzger, who oversaw this edition, and Laura Arcari, who asked the right questions, suggested a multitude of improvements, and expertly guided the manuscript to completion. As usual, Denise B. Wydra and

Preface xvii

Joan E. Feinberg generously provided the resources we needed to produce an out- standing volume. Annette Pagliaro Sweeney did a masterful job consulting with the authors and seeing the book through the production process. Sandi McGuire in the marketing department understood how to communicate our vision to teachers, and the sales force did wonderful work in helping this edition reach the classroom. We also thank the rest of our editorial and production team for their dedicated eff orts: Associ- ate Editors Robin Soule and Jen Jovin; Editorial Assistant Victoria Royal; Susan Zorn, who copyedited the manuscript; proofreaders Linda McLatchie and Barbara Price; art researchers Pembroke Herbert and Sandi Rygiel at Picture Research Consultants and Archives; text permissions researcher Eve Lehmann; and Kalina Ingham and Hilary Newman, who oversaw permissions. Finally, we want to express our appreciation for the invaluable assistance of Patricia Deveneau, who expertly suggested topics and sources for the Th inking Like A Historian feature in Chapters 8–14; Kendra Kennedy, for crucial research aid; and Eliza Blanchard and Erin Boss, for research assistance at Vassar. Many thanks to all of you for your contributions to this new edition of America: A Concise History.

James A. Henretta Eric Hinderaker Rebecca Edwards Robert O. Self

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xix

Versions and Supplements

Adopters of America: A Concise History and their students have access to abundant extra resources, including documents, presentation and testing materials, the acclaimed Bedford Series in History and Culture volumes, and much more. See below for more information, visit the book’s catalog site at bedfordstmartins.com/henrettaconcise /catalog, or contact your local Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative.

Get the Right Version for Your Class To accommodate diff erent course lengths and course budgets, America: A Concise His- tory is available in several diff erent formats, including e-books, which are available at a substantial discount.

• Volume 1, To 1877 (Chapters 1–16): available in paperback and e-book formats

• Volume 2, Since 1865 (Chapters 15–31): available in paperback and e-book formats

Any of these volumes can be packaged with additional books for a discount. To get ISBNs for discount packages, see the online catalog at bedfordstmartins.com /henrettaconcise/catalog or contact your Bedford/St. Martin’s representative.

NEW Take the Leap with LaunchPad — a Content-Rich and Assessment-Ready Interactive e-Book and Course Space. Intuitive and easy-to-use for students and instructors alike, LaunchPad is ready to use as is, and can be edited, customized with your own material, and assigned in seconds. LaunchPad for America: A Concise History includes Bedford/St. Martin’s high-quality content all in one place, including the full interactive e-book and the Sources for Amer- ica’s History documents collection plus LearningCurve, short author video chapter previews, guided reading activities designed to help students read actively for key con- cepts, additional primary sources, images, videos, chapter summative quizzes, and more. A wealth of formative and summative assessments, including short answer, essay questions, multiple-choice quizzing, and LearningCurve, an adaptive learning program, help students gain confi dence and get them reading before class. LaunchPad easily integrates with course management systems, and with fast ways to build assign- ments, rearrange chapters, and add new pages, sections, or links, it lets teachers build

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xx Versions and Supplements

the course materials they need and hold students accountable. For more information, visit bedfordstmartins.com/launchpad, or to arrange a demo, contact us at history@ bedfordstmartins.com.

Let Students Choose Th eir e-Book Format. In addition to the LaunchPad interac- tive e-book, students can purchase the downloadable Bedford e-Book to Go for Amer- ica: A Concise History from our Web site or fi nd other PDF versions of the e-book at our publishing partners’ sites: Amazon, CourseSmart, Chegg, KNO, VitalSource, GooglePlay, B&N NOOKStudy, Follett CafeScribe, Copia, and eCampus.

NEW Assign LearningCurve So You Know What Your Students Know and They Come to Class Prepared.

As described in the preface and on the inside front cover, students purchasing new books receive access to LearningCurve for America: A Concise History. Assigning LearningCurve in place of reading quizzes is easy for instructors, and the reporting features help instructors track overall class trends and spot topics that are giving stu- dents trouble so they can adjust their lectures and class activities. Th is online learning tool is popular with students because it was designed to help them rehearse content at their own pace in a nonthreatening, game-like environment. Th e feedback for wrong answers provides instructional coaching and sends students back to the book for review. Students answer as many questions as necessary to reach a target score, with repeated chances to revisit material they haven’t mastered. When LearningCurve is assigned, students come to class better prepared.

Take Advantage of Instructor Resources Bedford/St. Martin’s has developed a rich array of teaching resources for this book and for this course. Th ey range from lecture and presentation materials and assess- ment tools to course management options. Most can be downloaded or ordered at bedfordstmartins.com/henrettaconcise/catalog.

Instructor’s Resource Manual. Th e instructor’s manual off ers both experienced and fi rst-time instructors tools for preparing lectures and running discussions. It includes chapter-review material, teaching strategies, and a guide to chapter-specifi c supple- ments available for the text, plus suggestions on how to get the most out of Learning- Curve and a survival guide for fi rst-time teaching assistants.

Guide to Changing Editions. Designed to facilitate an instructor’s transition from the previous edition of America: A Concise History to the current edition, this guide presents an overview of major changes as well as of changes in each chapter.

Computerized Test Bank. Th e test bank includes a mix of fresh, carefully craft ed multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay questions for each chapter. It also contains brand new source-based multiple-choice questions and volume-wide essay questions. All questions appear in Microsoft Word format and in easy-to-use test bank soft ware

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Versions and Supplements xxi

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Th e Bedford Lecture Kit: PowerPoint Maps, Images, Lecture Outlines, and i>clicker Content. Look good and save time with Th e Bedford Lecture Kit. Th ese presenta- tion materials are downloadable individually from the Instructor Resources tab at bedfordstmartins.com/henrettaconcise/catalog and are available on Th e Bedford Lecture Kit Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. Th ey provide ready-made and fully cus- tomizable PowerPoint multimedia presentations that include lecture outlines with embedded maps, fi gures, and selected images from the textbook and extra background for instructors. Also available are maps and selected images in JPEG and PowerPoint formats; content for i>clicker, a classroom response system, in Microsoft Word and PowerPoint formats; the Instructor’s Resource Manual in Microsoft Word format; and outline maps in PDF format for quizzing or handing out. All fi les are suitable for copy- ing onto transparency acetates.

America in Motion: Video Clips for U.S. History. Set history in motion with Amer- ica in Motion, an instructor DVD containing dozens of short digital movie fi les of events in twentieth-century American history. From the wreckage of the battleship Maine to FDR’s fi reside chats to Oliver North testifying before Congress, America in Motion engages students with dynamic scenes from key events and challenges them to think critically. All fi les are classroom-ready, edited for brevity, and easily integrated with PowerPoint or other presentation soft ware for electronic lectures or assignments. An accompanying guide provides each clip’s historical context, ideas for use, and sug- gested questions.

Videos and Multimedia. A wide assortment of videos and multimedia CD-ROMs on various topics in U.S. history is available to qualifi ed adopters through your Bedford/ St. Martin’s sales representative.

Package and Save Your Students Money For information on free packages and discounts up to 50%, visit bedfordstmartins .com/henretta/catalog, or contact your local Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative. Th e products that follow all qualify for discount packaging.

NEW Sources for America’s History. Th is primary source collection by Kevin B. Sheets of State University of New York, College at Cortland is designed to complement the textbook. Sources for America’s History provides a broad selection of over 225 primary- source documents as well as editorial apparatus to help students understand the sources. To support the structure of the parent text, unique part document sets at the end of each part present sources that illustrate the major themes of each section. Available free when packaged with the print text and included in the LaunchPad e-book. Also available on its own as a downloadable PDF e-book or with the main text’s e-Book to Go.

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NEW Bedford Digital Collections @ bedfordstmartins.com/bdc/catalog. Th is source collection provides a fl exible and aff ordable online repository of discovery-oriented primary-source projects and single primary sources that you can easily customize and link to from your course management system or Web site. Package discounts are available.

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Rand McNally Atlas of American History. Th is collection of over eighty full-color maps illustrates key events and eras from early exploration, settlement, expansion, and immigration to U.S. involvement in wars abroad and on U.S. soil. Introductory pages for each section include a brief overview, timelines, graphs, and photos to quickly establish a historical context. Available for $5.00 when packaged with the print text.

Maps in Context: A Workbook for American History. Written by historical cartog- raphy expert Gerald A. Danzer (University of Illinois at Chicago), this skill-building workbook helps students comprehend essential connections between geographic lit- eracy and historical understanding. Organized to correspond to the typical U.S. his- tory survey course, Maps in Context presents a wealth of map-centered projects and convenient pop quizzes that give students hands-on experience working with maps. Available free when packaged with the print text.

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in all history courses. Concise yet comprehensive advice on approaching typical his- tory assignments, developing critical reading skills, writing eff ective history papers, conducting research, using and documenting sources, and avoiding plagiarism — enhanced with practical tips and examples throughout — have made this slim refer- ence a best-seller. Package discounts are available.

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xxiv

Brief Contents

PA R T 5

Creating and Preserving a Continental Nation, 1844–1877 (continued) 15 Reconstruction, 1865–1877 438 16 Conquering a Continent, 1854–1890 467

PA R T 6

Industrializing America: Upheavals and Experiments, 1877–1917 494 17 Industrial America: Corporations and Confl icts, 1877–1911 498 18 Th e Victorians Make the Modern, 1880–1917 524 19 “Civilization’s Inferno”: Th e Rise and Reform of Industrial Cities,

1880–1917 552 20 Whose Government? Politics, Populists, and Progressives, 1880–1917 579

PA R T 7

Domestic and Global Challenges, 1890–1945 608 21 An Emerging World Power, 1890–1918 612 22 Cultural Confl ict, Bubble, and Bust, 1919–1932 639 23 Managing the Great Depression, Forging the New Deal, 1929–1939 665 24 Th e World at War, 1937–1945 694

PA R T 8

The Modern State and the Age of Liberalism, 1945–1980 726 25 Cold War America, 1945–1963 730 26 Triumph of the Middle Class, 1945–1963 760 27 Walking into Freedom Land: Th e Civil Rights Movement, 1941–1973 788 28 Uncivil Wars: Liberal Crisis and Conservative Rebirth, 1961–1972 819 29 Th e Search for Order in an Era of Limits, 1973–1980 849

Brief Contents xxv

PA R T 9

Global Capitalism and the End of the American Century, 1980 to the Present 878 30 Conservative America in the Ascent, 1980–1991 882 31 Confronting Global and National Dilemmas, 1989 to the Present 911

xxvi

Contents

About the Cover Art i Preface: Why Th is Book Th is Way? xi Versions and Supplements xix Brief Contents xxiv Maps, Figures, and Tables xxxviii

PA R T 5

Creating and Preserving a Continental Nation, 1844–1877 (continued)

CHAPTER 15 Reconstruction, 1865–1877 438

Th e Struggle for National Reconstruction 439 Presidential Approaches: From Lincoln to Johnson 439 Congress Versus the President 440 Radical Reconstruction 442 Woman Suff rage Denied 445

Th e Meaning of Freedom 447 Th e Quest for Land 448 Republican Governments in the South 453 Building Black Communities 455

Th e Undoing of Reconstruction 457 Th e Republicans Unravel 458 Counterrevolution in the South 460 Reconstruction Rolled Back 462 Lasting Legacies 463

Summary 465 For Further Exploration 465 Timeline 466 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Labor Laws After Emancipation: Haiti and the United States 441

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Jourdon Anderson: Relishing Freedom 449

Contents xxvii

CHAPTER 16 Conquering a Continent, 1854–1890 467

Th e Republican Vision 468 Th e New Union and the World 468 Integrating the National Economy 471

Incorporating the West 475 Mining Empires 475 Cattlemen on the Plains 477 Homesteaders 478 Th e First National Park 481

A Harvest of Blood: Native Peoples Dispossessed 482 Th e Civil War and Indians on the Plains 483 Grant’s Peace Policy 485 Th e End of Armed Resistance 488 Strategies of Survival 490 Western Myths and Realities 490

Summary 492 For Further Exploration 493 Timeline 493 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D The Santa Fe Railroad in Mexico and the United States 472

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Zitkala-S̈a (Gertrude Simmons Bonnin): Becoming White 486

PA R T 6

Industrializing America: Upheavals and Experiments, 1877–1917 494

CHAPTER 17 Industrial America: Corporations and Confl icts, 1877–1911 498

Th e Rise of Big Business 499 Innovators in Enterprise 500 Th e Corporate Workplace 503 On the Shop Floor 505

Immigrants, East and West 508 Newcomers from Europe 509 Asian Americans and Exclusion 511

Labor Gets Organized 514 Th e Emergence of a Labor Movement 515 Th e Knights of Labor 516 Farmers and Workers: Th e Cooperative Alliance 518 Another Path: Th e American Federation of Labor 520

xxviii Contents

Summary 522 For Further Exploration 522 Timeline 523 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Emigrants and Destinations, 1881–1915 510

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Suey Hin: Sold into Sexual Slavery 512

CHAPTER 18 The Victorians Make the Modern, 1880–1917 524

Commerce and Culture 525 Consumer Spaces 526 Masculinity and the Rise of Sports 528 Th e Great Outdoors 530

Women, Men, and the Solitude of Self 533 Changes in Family Life 534 Education 534 From Domesticity to Women’s Rights 537

Science and Faith 541 Darwinism and Its Critics 542 Realism in the Arts 544 Religion: Diversity and Innovation 546

Summary 550 For Further Exploration 551 Timeline 551 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Theodore Dreiser: Social Darwinism 543

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Christianity in the United States and Japan 548

CHAPTER 19 “Civilization’s Inferno”: The Rise and Reform of Industrial Cities, 1880–1917 552

Th e New Metropolis 553 Th e Shape of the Industrial City 553 Newcomers and Neighborhoods 556 City Cultures 561

Governing the Great City 565 Urban Machines 565 Th e Limits of Machine Government 567

Contents xxix

Crucibles of Progressive Reform 569 Fighting Dirt and Vice 569 Th e Movement for Social Settlements 571 Cities and National Politics 573

Summary 577 For Further Exploration 577 Timeline 578 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D The World’s Biggest Cities, 1800–2000 554

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S William G. Shepherd and Rose Schneiderman: “These Dead Bodies Were the Answer”: The Triangle Fire 576

CHAPTER 20 Whose Government? Politics, Populists, and Progressives, 1880–1917 579

Reform Visions, 1880–1892 580 Electoral Politics Aft er Reconstruction 580 Th e Populist Program 583

Th e Political Earthquakes of the 1890s 585 Depression and Reaction 585 Democrats and the “Solid South” 587 New National Realities 590

Reform Reshaped, 1901–1912 593 Th eodore Roosevelt as President 593 Diverse Progressive Goals 596 Th e Election of 1912 601

Wilson and the New Freedom, 1913–1917 603 Economic Reforms 603 Progressive Legacies 605

Summary 606 For Further Exploration 607 Timeline 607 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Ida B. Wells: The Cause of Lynching 589

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D A Progressive Reports from New Zealand 597

xxx Contents

PA R T 7

Domestic and Global Challenges, 1890–1945 608

CHAPTER 21 An Emerging World Power, 1890–1918 612

From Expansion to Imperialism 613 Foundations of Empire 613 Th e War of 1898 614 Spoils of War 616

A Power Among Powers 620 Th e Open Door in Asia 620 Th e United States and Latin America 621

Th e United States in World War I 624 From Neutrality to War 624 “Over Th ere” 626 War on the Home Front 629

Catastrophe at Versailles 635 Th e Fate of Wilson’s Ideas 635 Congress Rejects the Treaty 636

Summary 637 For Further Exploration 638 Timeline 638 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S General Arthur MacArthur: Making the Philippines Safe for Democracy 619

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D The Human Cost of World War I 629

CHAPTER 22 Cultural Confl ict, Bubble, and Bust, 1919–1932 639

Confl icted Legacies of World War I 640 Racial Strife 640 Erosion of Labor Rights 641 Th e Red Scare 642

Politics in the 1920s 643 Women in Politics 644 Republicans and Business 645 Dollar Diplomacy 646 Culture Wars 647

Intellectual Modernism 653 Harlem in Vogue 653 Critiquing American Life 656

From Boom to Bust 657 Th e Postwar Economy 657

Contents xxxi

Consumer Culture 657 Th e Coming of the Great Depression 660

Summary 663 For Further Exploration 663 Timeline 664 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Hiram Wesley Evans: The Fight for Americanism 651

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Hollywood in Europe 661

CHAPTER 23 Managing the Great Depression, Forging the New Deal, 1929–1939 665

Early Responses to the Depression, 1929–1932 666 Enter Herbert Hoover 666 Rising Discontent 668 Th e 1932 Election 670

Th e New Deal Arrives, 1933–1935 670 Roosevelt and the First Hundred Days 672 Th e New Deal Under Attack 676

Th e Second New Deal and the Redefi ning of Liberalism, 1935–1938 678 Th e Welfare State Comes into Being 678 From Reform to Stalemate 680

Th e New Deal’s Impact on Society 682 A People’s Democracy 682 Reshaping the Environment 687 Th e New Deal and the Arts 690 Th e Legacies of the New Deal 691

Summary 692 For Further Exploration 692 Timeline 693 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D The Great Depression in England and the United States 667

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Ordinary People Respond to the New Deal 673

CHAPTER 24 The World at War, 1937–1945 694

Th e Road to War 695 Th e Rise of Fascism 695 War Approaches 696 Th e Attack on Pearl Harbor 701

xxxii Contents

Organizing for Victory 702 Financing the War 702 Mobilizing the American Fighting Force 704 Workers and the War Eff ort 706 Politics in Wartime 710

Life on the Home Front 710 “For the Duration” 710 Migration and the Wartime City 711 Japanese Removal 713

Fighting and Winning the War 715 Wartime Aims and Tensions 715 Th e War in Europe 715 Th e War in the Pacifi c 718 Th e Atomic Bomb and the End of the War 719 Th e Toll of the War 723

Summary 724 For Further Exploration 724 Timeline 725 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D The Scales of War: Losses and Gains During World War II 703

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Donna Jean Harvey: Women in the Wartime Workplace 707

PA R T 8

The Modern State and the Age of Liberalism, 1945–1980 726

CHAPTER 25 Cold War America, 1945–1963 730

Containment and a Divided Global Order 731 Origins of the Cold War 731 Th e Containment Strategy 734 Containment in Asia 739

Cold War Liberalism 743 Truman and the End of Reform 743 Red Scare: Th e Hunt for Communists 745 Th e Politics of Cold War Liberalism 748

Containment in the Postcolonial World 751 Th e Cold War and Colonial Independence 752 John F. Kennedy and the Cold War 755 Making a Commitment in Vietnam 757

Summary 758 For Further Exploration 758 Timeline 759

Contents xxxiii

C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Arming for the Cold War 739

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Mark Goodson: Red Hunting on the Quiz Shows 747

CHAPTER 26 Triumph of the Middle Class, 1945–1963 760

Postwar Prosperity and the Affl uent Society 761 Economy: From Recovery to Dominance 762 A Nation of Consumers 765 Youth Culture 769 Religion and the Middle Class 771

Th e American Family in the Era of Containment 771 Th e Baby Boom 772 Women, Work, and Family 773 Challenging Middle-Class Morality 776

A Suburban Nation 778 Th e Postwar Housing Boom 778 Rise of the Sunbelt 782 Two Societies: Urban and Suburban 783

Summary 786 For Further Exploration 787 Timeline 787 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Coming of Age in the Postwar Years 775

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Hanoch Bartov: Everyone Has a Car 781

CHAPTER 27 Walking into Freedom Land: The Civil Rights Movement, 1941–1973 788

Th e Emerging Civil Rights Struggle, 1941–1957 789 Life Under Jim Crow 789 Origins of the Civil Rights Movement 791 World War II: Th e Beginnings 792 Cold War Civil Rights 793 Mexican Americans and Japanese Americans 795 Fighting for Equality Before the Law 798

Forging a Protest Movement, 1955–1965 801 Nonviolent Direct Action 801 Legislating Civil Rights, 1963–1965 805

xxxiv Contents

Beyond Civil Rights, 1966–1973 810 Black Nationalism 810 Poverty and Urban Violence 813 Rise of the Chicano Movement 814 Th e American Indian Movement 815

Summary 817 For Further Exploration 817 Timeline 818 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Freedom in the United States and Africa 796

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Franklin McCain: Desegregating Lunch Counters 803

CHAPTER 28 Uncivil Wars: Liberal Crisis and Conservative Rebirth, 1961–1972 819

Liberalism at High Tide 820 John F. Kennedy’s Promise 820 Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society 821 Rebirth of the Women’s Movement 824

Th e Vietnam War Begins 826 Escalation Under Johnson 827 Public Opinion and the War 829 Rise of the Student Movement 829

Days of Rage, 1968–1972 833 War Abroad, Tragedy at Home 833 Th e Antiwar Movement and the 1968 Election 836 Th e Nationalist Turn 837 Women’s Liberation 838 Stonewall and Gay Liberation 840

Richard Nixon and the Politics of the Silent Majority 840 Nixon in Vietnam 841 Th e Silent Majority Speaks Out 844 Th e 1972 Election 846

Summary 847 For Further Exploration 847 Timeline 848 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Letters to Dr. Spock 830

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D The Global Protests of 1968 835

Contents xxxv

CHAPTER 29 The Search for Order in an Era of Limits, 1973–1980 849

An Era of Limits 850 Energy Crisis 850 Environmentalism 852 Economic Transformation 853 Urban Crisis and Suburban Revolt 856

Politics in Flux, 1973–1980 859 Watergate and the Fall of a President 859 Jimmy Carter: Th e Outsider as President 861

Reform and Reaction in the 1970s 863 Civil Rights in a New Era 863 Th e Women’s Movement and Gay Rights 864 Aft er the Warren Court 869

Th e American Family on Trial 869 Working Families in the Age of Deindustrialization 870 Navigating the Sexual Revolution 872 Religion in the 1970s: Th e Fourth Great Awakening 874

Summary 876 For Further Exploration 877 Timeline 877 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Economic Malaise in the Seventies 857

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Debating the Equal Rights Amendment 867

PA R T 9

Global Capitalism and the End of the American Century, 1980 to the Present 878

CHAPTER 30 Conservative America in the Ascent, 1980–1991 882

Th e Rise of the New Right 883 Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan: Champions of the Right 883 Free-Market Economics and Religious Conservatism 886 Th e Carter Presidency 887

Th e Dawning of the Conservative Age 890 Th e Reagan Coalition 891 Conservatives in Power 892 Morning in America 896

Th e End of the Cold War 901 U.S.-Soviet Relations in a New Era 901 A New Political Order at Home and Abroad 906

xxxvi Contents

Summary 909 For Further Exploration 910 Timeline 910 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Christianity and Public Life 888

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Yoichi Funabashi: “Japan and America: Global Partners” 899

CHAPTER 31 Confronting Global and National Dilemmas, 1989 to the Present 911

America in the Global Economy 912 Th e Rise of the European Union and China 913 An Era of Globalization 915 Revolutions in Technology 917

Politics and Partisanship in a New Era 918 An Increasingly Plural Society 918 Clashes over “Family Values” 924 Th e Clinton Presidency, 1993–2001 926 Post–Cold War Foreign Policy 929

Into a New Century 931 Th e Ascendance of George W. Bush 931 Violence Abroad and Economic Collapse at Home 936 Th e Obama Presidency 937

Summary 941 For Further Exploration 941 Timeline 942 C h a p t e r R e v i e w LearningCurve

A M E R I C A CO M PA R E D Global Trade, 1960–2009 914

A M E R I C A N V O I C E S Cheap Labor: Immigration and Globalization 919

D O C U M E N T S

Th e Declaration of Independence D-1 Th e Constitution of the United States of America D-5 Amendments to the Constitution (Including the Six Unratifi ed Amendments) D-14

Appendix A-1 Index I-1

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xxxviii

Maps, Figures, and Tables

CHAPTER 15 Map 15.1 Reconstruction 443 Map 15.2 The Barrow Plantation, 1860 and 1881 452 Table 15.1 Primary Reconstruction Laws and Constitutional Amendments 444

CHAPTER 16 Map 16.1 The Santa Fe Railroad System, 1885 472 Map 16.2 Mining Frontiers, 1848–1890 476 Map 16.3 Indian Country in the West, to 1890 483

CHAPTER 17 Map 17.1 The New South, 1900 508 Map 17.2 Sources of European Immigration to the United States, 1871–1910 509 Figure 17.1 Business Activity and Wholesale Prices, 1869–1900 499 Figure 17.2 Major Destinations for Emigrants, 1881–1915 510

CHAPTER 18 Map 18.1 National Parks and Forests, 1872–1980 532 Map 18.2 Women’s Suff rage, 1890–1919 540

CHAPTER 19 Map 19.1 The Lower East Side, New York City, 1900 558 Map 19.2 The Expansion of Chicago, 1865–1902 560 Table 19.1 The World’s Biggest Cities, 1800–2000 554

CHAPTER 20 Map 20.1 The Presidential Elections of 1880, 1884, and 1888 581 Map 20.2 Disenfranchisement in the New South 588 Map 20.3 The Presidential Elections of 1892 and 1896 592 Map 20.4 The Presidential Election of 1912 602 Table 20.1 Major Federal Progressive Measures, 1883–1921 604

CHAPTER 21 Map 21.1 Policeman of the Caribbean 623 Map 21.2 U.S. Participation on the Western Front, 1918 628 Table 21.1 World War I Casualties 629

CHAPTER 22 Map 22.1 Ku Klux Klan Politics and Violence in the 1920s 652 Map 22.2 The Presidential Election of 1928 653

CHAPTER 23 Map 23.1 Civilian Conservation Corps Camps 675 Map 23.2 The Tennessee Valley Authority, 1933–1952 689

CHAPTER 24 Map 24.1 World War II in Europe, 1941–1943 716 Map 24.2 World War II in Europe, 1944–1945 717

Maps, Figures, and Tables xxxix

Map 24.3 World War II in the Pacifi c, 1941–1942 720 Map 24.4 World War II in the Pacifi c, 1943–1945 721 Figure 24.1 World War II Military and Civilian Deaths, 1939–1945 703 Figure 24.2 Gross Domestic Product Rates Worldwide, 1938–1945 703

CHAPTER 25 Map 25.1 Cold War in Europe, 1955 734 Map 25.2 The Korean War, 1950–1953 742 Map 25.3 American Global Defense Treaties in the Cold War Era 752 Table 25.1 Worldwide Nuclear Stockpiles, 1945–1975 739

CHAPTER 26 Map 26.1 Connecting the Nation: The Interstate Highway System, 1930 and 1970 780 Map 26.2 Shifting Population Patterns, 1950–1980 783

CHAPTER 27 Map 27.1 Internal Migrations 794 Map 27.2 Desegregation Court Cases 800 Map 27.3 Black Voter Registration in the South, 1964 and 1975 809 Table 27.1 African American College Enrollment 792

CHAPTER 28 Map 28.1 The Vietnam War, 1968 828

CHAPTER 29 Map 29.1 From Rust Belt to Sunbelt, 1940–2000 855 Map 29.2 States Ratifying the Equal Rights Amendment, 1972–1977 865 Figure 29.1 U.S. Energy Consumption, 1900–2000 851 Figure 29.2 Falling Gross Domestic Product 857 Figure 29.3 Rising Unemployment 857

CHAPTER 30 Map 30.1 U.S. Involvement in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1954–2000 903 Map 30.2 The Collapse of the Soviet Union and the Creation of Independent States, 1989–1991 906 Figure 30.1 The Annual Federal Budget Defi cit (or Surplus), 1940–2009 894

CHAPTER 31 Map 31.1 Growth of the European Community, 1951–2005 915 Map 31.2 Hispanic and Asian Populations, 2000 921 Map 31.3 U.S. Involvement in the Middle East, 1979–2010 935 Figure 31.1 Imports, 1960–2009 914 Figure 31.2 Exports, 1960–2009 914 Figure 31.3 American Immigration, 1920–2000 920 Figure 31.4 Gross Federal Debt as a Percentage of Gross Domestic Product 933 Table 31.1 Impact of the Bush Tax Cuts, 2001–2003 932

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15 Reconstruction1865–1877 On the last day of April 1866, black soldiers in Memphis, Tennessee, turned in their weapons as they mustered out of the Union army. Th e next day, whites who resented the soldiers’ pres- ence provoked a clash. At a street celebra- tion where African Americans shouted “Hurrah for Abe Lincoln,” a white police- man responded, “Your old father, Abe Lincoln, is dead and damned.” Th e scuffl e that followed precipitated three days of

white violence and rape that left forty-eight African Americans dead and dozens more wounded. Mobs burned black homes and churches and destroyed all twelve of the city’s black schools.

Unionists were appalled. Th ey had won the Civil War, but where was the peace? Ex-Confederates murdered freedmen and fl agrantly resisted federal control. Aft er the Memphis attacks, Republicans in Congress proposed a new measure that would pro- tect African Americans by defi ning and enforcing U.S. citizenship rights. Eventually this bill became the most signifi cant law to emerge from Reconstruction, the Four- teenth Amendment to the Constitution.

Andrew Johnson, however — the Unionist Democrat who became president aft er Abraham Lincoln’s assassination — refused to sign the bill. In May 1865, while Con- gress was adjourned, Johnson had implemented his own Reconstruction plan. It extended amnesty to all southerners who took a loyalty oath, except for a few high- ranking Confederates. It also allowed states to reenter the Union as soon as they revoked secession, abolished slavery, and relieved their new state governments of fi nancial burdens by repudiating Confederate debts. A year later, at the time of the Memphis carnage, all ex-Confederate states had met Johnson’s terms. Th e president rejected any further intervention.

Johnson’s vetoes, combined with ongoing violence in the South, angered Unionist voters. In the political struggle that ensued, congressional Republicans seized the ini- tiative from the president and enacted a sweeping program that became known as Radical Reconstruction. One of its key achievements would have been unthinkable a few years earlier: voting rights for African American men.

IDENTIFY THE BIG IDEA What goals did Republican policymakers, ex-Confederates, and freedpeople pursue during Reconstruction? To what degree did each succeed?

C H A P T E R 1 5 Reconstruction, 1865–1877 439

Southern blacks, however, had additional, urgent priorities. “We have toiled nearly all our lives as slaves [and] have made these lands what they are,” a group of South Caro- lina petitioners declared. Th ey pleaded for “some provision by which we as Freedmen can obtain a Homestead.” Th ough northern Republicans and freedpeople agreed that black southerners must have physical safety and the right to vote, former slaves also wanted economic independence. Northerners sought, instead, to revive cash-crop plantations with wage labor. Reconstruction’s eventual failure stemmed from the con- fl icting goals of lawmakers, freedpeople, and relentlessly hostile ex-Confederates.

The Struggle for National Reconstruction Congress clashed with President Johnson, in part, because the framers of the Constitu- tion did not anticipate a civil war or provide for its aft ermath. Had Confederate states legally left the Union when they seceded? If so, then their reentry required action by Congress. If not — if even during secession they had retained U.S. statehood — then restoring them might be an administrative matter, best left to the president. Lack of clarity on this fundamental question made for explosive politics.

Presidential Approaches: From Lincoln to Johnson As wartime president, Lincoln had off ered a plan similar to Johnson’s. It granted amnesty to most ex-Confederates and allowed each rebellious state to return to the Union as soon as 10 percent of its voters had taken a loyalty oath and the state had approved the Th irteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery. But even amid defeat, Con- federate states rejected this Ten Percent Plan — an ominous sign for the future. In July 1864, Congress proposed a tougher substitute, the Wade-Davis Bill, that required an oath of allegiance by a majority of each state’s adult white men, new governments formed only by those who had never taken up arms against the Union, and permanent disenfranchisement of Confederate leaders. Lincoln defeated the Wade-Davis Bill with a pocket veto, leaving it unsigned when Congress adjourned. At the same time, he opened talks with key congressmen, aiming for a compromise.

We will never know what would have happened had Lincoln lived. His assassina- tion in April 1865 plunged the nation into political uncertainty. As a special train bore the president’s fl ag-draped coffi n home to Illinois, thousands of Americans lined the railroad tracks in mourning. Furious and grief-stricken, many Unionists blamed all Confederates for the acts of southern sympathizer John Wilkes Booth and his accom- plices in the murder. At the same time, Lincoln’s death left the presidency in the hands of Andrew Johnson, a man utterly lacking in Lincoln’s moral sense and political judgment.

Johnson was a self-styled “common man” from the hills of eastern Tennessee. Trained as a tailor, he built his political career on the support of farmers and laborers. Loyal to the Union, Johnson had refused to leave the U.S. Senate when Tennessee seceded. Aft er federal forces captured Nashville in 1862, Lincoln appointed Johnson as Tennessee’s military governor. In the election of 1864, placing Lincoln and this War Democrat on the ticket together had seemed a smart move, designed to promote unity.

440 PA R T F I V E Creating and Preserving a Continental Nation, 1844–1877

But aft er Lincoln’s death, Johnson’s disagreement with Republicans, combined with his belligerent and contradictory actions, wreaked political havoc.

Th e new president and Congress confronted a set of problems that would have challenged even Lincoln. During the war, Unionists had insisted that rebel leaders were a small minority and most white southerners wanted to rejoin the Union. With even greater optimism, Republicans hoped the defeated South would accept postwar reforms. Ex-Confederates, however, contested that plan through both violence and political action. New southern state legislatures, created under Johnson’s limited Reconstruction plan, moved to restore slavery in all but name. In 1865, they enacted Black Codes, designed to force former slaves back to plantation labor. Like similar laws passed in other places aft er slavery ended, the codes refl ected plantation owners’ eco- nomic interests (America Compared, p. 441). Th ey imposed severe penalties on blacks who did not hold full-year labor contracts and also set up procedures for taking black children from their parents and apprenticing them to former slave masters.

Faced with these developments, Johnson gave all the wrong signals. He had long talked tough against southern planters. But in practice, Johnson allied himself with ex-Confederate leaders, forgiving them when they appealed for pardons. White south- ern leaders were delighted. “By this wise and noble statesmanship,” wrote a Confeder- ate legislator, “you have become the benefactor of the Southern people.” Northerners and freedmen were disgusted. Th e president had left Reconstruction “to the tender mercies of the rebels,” wrote one Republican. An angry Union veteran in Missouri called Johnson “a traitor to the loyal people of the Union.” Emboldened by Johnson’s indulgence, ex-Confederates began to fi lter back into the halls of power. When Geor- gians elected Alexander Stephens, former vice president of the Confederacy, to repre- sent them in Congress, many outraged Republicans saw this as the last straw.

Congress Versus the President Under the Constitution, Congress is “the judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifi - cations of its own Members” (Article 1, Section 5). Using this power, Republican majorities in both houses had refused to admit southern delegations when Congress convened in December 1865, eff ectively blocking Johnson’s program. Hoping to mol- lify Congress, some southern states dropped the most objectionable provisions from their Black Codes. But at the same time, antiblack violence erupted in various parts of the South.

Congressional Republicans concluded that the federal government had to inter- vene. Back in March 1865, Congress had established the Freedmen’s Bureau to aid displaced blacks and other war refugees. In early 1866, Congress voted to extend the bureau, gave it direct funding for the fi rst time, and authorized its agents to investigate southern abuses. Even more extraordinary was the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which declared formerly enslaved people to be citizens and granted them equal protection and rights of contract, with full access to the courts.

Th ese bills provoked bitter confl ict with Johnson, who vetoed them both. Johnson’s racism, hitherto publicly muted, now blazed forth: “Th is is a country for white men, and by God, as long as I am president, it shall be a government for white men.” Galva- nized, Republicans in Congress gathered two-thirds majorities and overrode both

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L a b o r L a w s A f t e r E m a n c i p a t i o n : H a i t i a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Many government offi cials agreed with former masters on the need to control rural workers. Oft en planters themselves or allied with the planter class, they believed that economic strength and public revenue depended on plantation export crops and that workers would not produce those without legal coercion.

Th is was true in the British Caribbean and also Haiti, which eventually, aft er a success- ful slave revolt ending in 1803, became an independent republic led by former slaves and, in particular, by propertied free men of color. In the passage below, a British observer describes a rural labor code adopted by Haiti’s government in 1826. Despite the law, Haiti’s large plantations did not revive; the island’s economy, even more than that of the U.S. South, came to be dominated by small-scale, impoverished farmers.

Th e Code of Laws before us is one that could only have been framed by a legislature composed of proprietors of land, having at their command a considerable military power, of which they themselves were the leaders; for a population whom it was necessary to compel to labour. . . .

Th e choice of a master, altho’ expressly reserved to the labourer, is greatly modifi ed by the clauses which restrain the labourer from quitting the section of country to which he belongs; and from the absence of any clause compelling proprietors to engage him; so that the cultivator must consent to bind himself to whomsoever may be willing to engage him, or remain in prison, to be employed among convicts. . . .

Th e Code begins (Article 1) by declar- ing Agriculture to be the foundation of national prosperity; and then decrees (Article 3), Th at all persons, excepting soldiers, and civil servants of the State, professional persons, artizans, and domestic servants, shall cultivate the soil. Th e next clause (Article 4), forbids the inhabitants of the country quitting it to dwell in towns or villages; and every kind of wholesale or retail trade is forbidden (Article 7) to be

exercised by persons dwelling in the country.