The tendency to revert to a fixed (or modal) action pattern is called instinctive drift.

Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Guy R. Lefrançois University of Alberta

Guy R. Lefrançois Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Associate Vice President, Editor in Chief: Erik Evans

Sponsoring Editor: Steven Wainwright

Development Editor: Dan Moneypenny

Assistant Editor: Nick Devine

Editorial Assistant: Rebecca Paynter

Media Editor: Kim Purcell

Printing Services: Bordeaux

Composition/Illustration: Lachina Publishing Services

Illustration: Maury Aaseng

Cover Image: Dana Sigall/Index Stock Imagery/Photolibrary

ISBN-10: 1-9359662-4-3

ISBN-13: 978-1-9359662-4-1

Copyright © 2011 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: Bridgepoint Education Inc., the copyright owner of this material, hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction, or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

To Elizabeth, Liam, Zachary, Nathan, and Michael, who are still finding new pieces of the puzzle for me.

Brief Contents

Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Chapter 2: The Brain and Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Chapter 4: Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

Chapter 5: Memory and Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

Chapter 6: Motivation and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169

Chapter 7: Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207

Chapter 8: Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

Chapter 9: Psychological Disorders and Therapies . . . . . . .279

Chapter 10: Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373

Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409

Contents

About the Author xix Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxiii

chapter 1 The Science of Psychology 1

1.1 What Is Psychology? 3 What Psychologists Do 3

Clinical Psychologists 4 Counseling Psychologists 4 Industrial/Organizational Psychologists 4 School Psychologists 4 Educational Psychologists 5 Developmental Psychologists 5 Experimental Psychologists 5 Other Divisions 5

1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology 6 Recent Origins of Psychology 7

Structuralism 8 Functionalism 8 Behaviorism 8 Psychodynamic Theory 9 Cognitivism 9 Humanism 9 Other Orientations 10

1.3 Principles of Science 10 The Scientific Method 11

CONTENTS

1.4 Sources of Psychological Information 12 Descriptive Research 12

Naturalistic and Nonnaturalistic Observation 12 Case Studies 13 Surveys 14 Correlational Research 15

Experiments 17 Experimental and Control Groups 17

Ex Post Facto Studies 19 1.5 Cautions in Interpreting Psychological Research 20

Experimenter Bias 20 Subject Bias 22 Sampling Bias 22 Other Problems of Psychological Research 24

Research Ethics 24 Avoiding the Pitfalls 25

1.6 Philosophical Issues and Psychological Controversy 25

1.7 Psychology’s Relevance 26

1.8 This Book 27

Main Points 28 Study Terms 29

chapter 2 The Brain and Consciousness 31

2.1 Evolution 33 Early Homo Sapiens 33

Brains, Language, and Thinking 35 Evolution and the Nervous System 36

2.2 The Neuron 38 Neural Transmission 39

Dopamine 41 Norepinephrine 41 Acetylcholine 42 Serotonin 42

2.3 Organization of the Nervous System 42 The Endocrine System 44

2.4 The Brain 44 Studying Brain Functions 44

Brain Ablations 45 Brain Stimulation 45 Brain Imaging 46

CONTENTS

Structures of the Brain 46 Hindbrain 48 The Midbrain 49 The Forebrain 49 The Hemispheres 50

2.5 Biology and Behavior 51 Consciousness 53

2.6 Sleep 54 Circadian Rhythms 54 Stages of Sleep 54 Why We Sleep 56 Dreams 58

Why We Dream 58 2.7 Hypnosis 59

Some Facts 60 Is Hypnosis a Different State of Consciousness? 60 Applications of Hypnosis 61

2.8 Drugs and Consciousness 61

Main Points 62 Study Terms 63

chapter 3 Sensation and Perception 65

3.1 Sensation and Perception 67 Functions of the Senses 67

3.2 Vision 69 Structure of the Eye 69 Eye and Brain 71 Light Waves and Vision 72

Wavelength 73 Amplitude 74 Complexity and Color Purity 74

Color Vision 74 Trichromatic Theory: Young-Helmholtz 75 Opponent Process Theory: Hering 76

Vision in Low Light 76 Characteristics of Visual Perception 78

The Visual Constancies 78 Perception of Depth and Distance 81 Perception of Movement 84

Illusions 84

CONTENTS

3.3 Attention and Perception 86

3.4 Hearing 88 Three Functions of the Auditory System 88 Perception of Sound Waves 89

Pitch 89 Loudness 90 Timbre 91

The Auditory Apparatus 92 How the Ear Works 93

3.5 The Body Senses 94 The Vestibular Sense 94 The Skin Senses 94 The Kinesthetic Senses 96

3.6 The Chemical Senses 96 Olfaction 96

The Olfactory Organ 97 Taste 99

3.7 Adding Pieces of the Puzzle 99

Main Points 100 Study Terms 101

chapter 4 Learning 103

4.1 What Is Learning? 105 Approaches to Learning 105

4.2 Behavioristic Approaches 107 Classical Conditioning 107

Pavlov’s Experiments 107 Acquisition 109 Generalization and Discrimination 111 Extinction and Recovery 111 Contiguity 112 Blocking 112 Consequences 114

Operant Conditioning 114 The Skinner Box 114 The Basic Operant Conditioning Model 115 Shaping 116

Schedules of Reinforcement 117 Effects of Different Schedules 117 Types of Reinforcement 119

CONTENTS

Punishment 121 The Ethics of Punishment 121 Operant Conditioning and Human Behavior 122

4.3 A Transition to Cognitivism 123 Problems for Traditional Behaviorism 123 Insight 124

4.4 Cognitive Approaches 126 The Main Beliefs of Cognitive Psychology 127

Learning Involves Mental Representation 127 Learners Are Not Identical 127 New Learning Builds on Previous Learning 127

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 127 Models 128 Reciprocal Determinism 128 Effects of Imitation 130 Humans as Agents of Their Own Behaviors 130

4.5 Practical Applications of Learning Principles 131 Applications of Behaviorism 131 Applications of Cognitivism 132

Main Points 133 Study Terms 133

chapter 5 Memory and Intelligence 135

5.1 What Is Memory? 137 The Filing-Cabinet Analogy 138

5.2 Stages of Memory 138 Sensory Memory 139 Short-Term Memory 140

Studying Short-Term Memory 140 Characteristics of Short-Term Recall 140 What Happens in Short-Term Memory: Baddeley’s Model 141

Long-Term Memory 142 Long-Term Memory Is Relatively Stable 143 Long-Term Memory Is Constructive 144 Understanding and Emotion Influence Memory 144 Rehearsal and Intention Influence Long-Term Memory 145 Two Kinds of Long-Term Memory: Explicit and Implicit 145 Two Kinds of Explicit Memory: Semantic and Autobiographical 146

Physiology of Memory 147 Neuroscience 148

Processes in Long-Term Memory 149

CONTENTS

5.3 Forgetting 150 Fading Theory 150 Repression 150 Distortion Theory 151 Interference Theory 151 Retrieval-Cue Failure 152

5.4 Improving Memory 153 Mnemonic Aids 153

Rhymes and Sayings 154 The Link System 154 The Loci System 155 The Phonetic System 155

5.5 What Is Intelligence? 156 Myths about IQ 156

Myth 1 156 Myth 2 156 Myth 3 156 Myth 4 157 Not a Myth 157

Views of Intelligence 158 Successful Intelligence: Sternberg 158 Multiple Intelligences: Gardner 159

5.6 Measuring Intelligence 161 The IQ 161 IQ Tests 161 Misuses and Abuses of Tests 162

5.7 Influences on Intelligence 164 Heredity and Environment 164

The Rubber-Band Hypothesis 165 Main Points 166

Study Terms 167

chapter 6 Motivation and Emotion 169

6.1 What Is Motivation? 171 A Definition 171

6.2 Physiological and Behavioristic Approaches 171 Instincts 171 Psychological Hedonism 173 Needs and Drives 173

CONTENTS

Physiological Needs 173 Psychological Needs 174

6.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy 176

6.4 Cognitive Views 176 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 178 Achievement Motivation 180 Attribution Theory 181

Locus of Control 181 Attributions and Need for Achievement 182

Self-Efficacy 183 Sources of Self-Efficacy Judgments 184 Efficacy and Expectancy-Value Theory 185

6.5 Emotions 187 Arousal 187

The Yerkes-Dodson Law 187 Need for Stimulation 188 Arousal Theory 189 Sources of Arousal 190

What Is an Emotion? 190 Emotional Expression 191

Theories of Emotion 192 The James-Lange Theory 192 The Cannon-Bard Theory 192 Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory 193 Recent Theories 194 The Dual-Pathway Model for Fear 196

Emotional Control 196 The Brain and Emotions 197 Cognitive Control of Emotions 198

6.6 Hunger and Sex Drive 199 Hunger Stimuli 199

Stomach Contractions 199 The Role of the Brain 200 Taste and Smell 200 Metabolic Factors 201

Obesity 201 Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge Eating Disorder 202

Causes 203 Sexual Motivation 203

Hormonal Factors 204 Cultural and Other Factors 204

Main Points 204 Study Terms 205

CONTENTS

chapter 7 Human Development 207

7.1 The Beginning: Genetics and Prenatal Development 209 Chromosomes and Genes 210

Male or Female 211 The Genetic Code 211 Dominance and Recessiveness 213

Genetic Defects 216 Sex-Linked Defects 216 Non-Sex-Linked Defects 216 Chromosomal Disorders 216 Modifying Genetic Defects 217

Heredity and Environment 218 Prenatal Development 218

7.2 Infants 219 Physical and Motor Development in Infancy 219 Perception in the Newborn 220 Cognitive Development in Infancy 221

Cognition and Language Development 222 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy 223

Erikson’s Stages 223 Infant States 224 Infant-Caregiver Interaction 225 Infant Temperament 225

7.3 Children 227 Cognitive Development in Childhood: Piaget’s Theory 228

Mechanisms of Adaptation 228 Schemas 228 The Stage Theory 229 Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory 234

Children’s Social-Emotional Development 234 Initiative Versus Guilt 234 Industry Versus Inferiority 235 Play 235

7.4 Adolescents 237 Physical and Sexual Changes 237

Early and Late Maturation 238 Adolescent Egocentrism 238

The Imaginary Audience and the Personal Fable 239 Identity Formation 239

Identity Diffusion 240 Foreclosure 240 Moratorium 240 Identity Achieved 240

CONTENTS

7.5 Adults 241 Erikson’s Stages of Adulthood 241

Intimacy Versus Isolation 242 Generativity Versus Self-Absorption 243 Integrity Versus Despair 243

Main Points 243 Study Terms 244

chapter 8 Personality 247

8.1 Personality 249 Personality and Self 249

The Real Person 250 8.2 The Common-Sense Approach 250

8.3 The Trait-Type Approach 252 Early Trait-Type Approaches 254 The Big Five 255

Extraversion 256 Openness 256 Neuroticism 256 Conscientiousness 256 Agreeableness 256

Stability of Personality 257 8.4 Biological Approaches 258

Sheldon’s Body Types 259 Research on Somatotypes 259

Eysenck’s Biological Theory 261 Research Evidence 261 Eysenck’s Organization of Personality 262

8.5 A Psychodynamic Approach: Freud 263 Freud’s Basic Ideas 263

Three Components of Personality 263 Psychosexual Stages 264 Normal and Abnormal Personality 266 Defense Mechanisms 267 Review of Freudian Theory 268

8.6 Learning-Based Approaches 268 Behaviorism 268 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 269

Observational Learning 269 Reciprocal Determinism 270

CONTENTS

Personal Agency 270 Relevance of Bandura’s Theory 270

Rotter’s Cognitive Approach 271 Externality-Internality 271

8.7 Humanistic Approaches 272 Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualized Person 272 Rogers’s Phenomenology 273

8.8 Measuring Personality Variables 274 Projective Measures 274

The Rorschach 274 The Thematic Apperception Test 275

Nonprojective Measures 276 The NEO-PI-R 276 The MMPI-2 276

Some Cautions 277 Main Points 277

Study Terms 278

chapter 9 Psychological Disorders and Therapies 279

9.1 Historical and Current Views of Mental Disorders 281 Historical Views of the Causes of Mental Disorders 282 Current Definitions and Models 282

The Statistical Model 283 Medical/Biological Models 284 Behavioral Models 284 Cognitive Models 284 Psychodynamic Models 285 Which Model? 285 A Definition 286

Classifications of Disorders 286 The Most Common Disorders 289

9.2 Anxiety Disorders 290 Panic Attacks 290 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 291 Phobic Disorders 291

Agoraphobia 291 Social Phobias 292 Specific Phobias 293

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 293 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 293

CONTENTS

9.3 Impulse-Control Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Children 294 Aggression-Based Impulse-Control Disorders 294 Conduct Disorder 294 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 295 Other Impulse-Control Disorders 295

9.4 Mood Disorders 296 Major Depressive Disorder 296 Bipolar Disorder 296 Dysthymic Disorder 297

9.5 Substance-Related Disorders 297 Substance Use Disorders 297

Prevalence and Types of Drug Use 298 9.6 Other Axis I Disorders 300

Dissociative Disorders 300 Dissociative Amnesia 300 Dissociative Fugue 300 Dissociative Identity Disorder 301 Depersonalization Disorder 302

Psychotic Disorders 302 Schizophrenia 302 Causes 303

Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders 303 Gender Identity Disorders 303 Paraphilias 304 Sexual Dysfunctions 304

Somatoform Disorders 304 9.7 Axis II Personality Disorders 305

9.8 Therapies 306 Medical Therapy 306

Drug Therapy 307 Psychosurgery 307

Insight Therapy 307 Learning-Based and Cognitive Therapy 308

Behavior Modification 309 Positive Reinforcement 309 Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 309

The Effectiveness of Therapies 311 Main Points 311

Study Terms 313

CONTENTS

chapter 10 Social Psychology 315

10.1 Social Psychology 317 What Is Social Psychology? 317

10.2 Attitudes and Attitude Change 317 Compliance and Conformity 319 Social Pressure and Compliance 319 Obedience 321

The Milgram Studies 322 The Prison Experiment 324

Persuasion 325 Importance of Message Characteristics 325 Importance of Message Source 325 Importance of Audience Characteristics 326

Cognitive Dissonance 326 Attribution and Attitude Change 327

Overjustification 327 10.3 Antisocial Behaviors 328

Aggression and Violence 328 Theories of Aggression 328 Violence in Society 333

Bystander Apathy 334 The Bystander Effect 335 An Explanation 336 How Common Is the Bystander Effect? 337

10.4 Prosocial Behaviors 338 Altruism 338

10.5 Interpersonal Relationships 339 The Rules of Attraction 340

Propinquity 340 Similarity 340 Physical Attractiveness 341

Liking and Loving 342 A Model of Love 343 A Last Word to the Poets 346

Main Points 346 Study Terms 347

Glossary 349 References 373 Photo Credits 409

About the Author

Guy R . Lefrançois makes few claims to anything notable . “I’m an obscure French Canadian from a long line of obscure ancestors,” he insists . “Like me,” he says, “most are better remem- bered not for the things they did but for those they never accomplished . Some of the things I haven’t done yet are truly amazing!” He cur- rently holds an appointment at the University of Alberta, where he also received his PhD and where he first started teaching in 1966 . Since then, he has written numerous books in psy- chology, many of which have been translated into other languages, including Chinese, Russian, Italian, Spanish, French, and German (he does not speak all these other languages) . He has been happily married to Marie for more years that he can easily count and loves to fish, watch birds, pick berries, read other people’s words, and go on extended bicycle tours . He has 3 children (Laurier, Claire, and Rémi), and 5 grandchildren, to whom this book is dedicated .

Preface

Dear Reader,

The purpose of Psychology: The Human Puzzle is to explore psychology’s view of one of the most captivating and puzzling of all topics: ourselves . Its content is the story of the search for pieces of this puzzle and an account of how the pieces have begun to fit together . Its purpose is to teach .

But good teaching is more than just telling a story . It isn’t enough simply to gather and organize pieces of the puzzle and squeeze them into a text . Good teaching also requires motivating, illustrating, explaining, relating, evaluating, reviewing, maybe even inspir- ing . Good teachers sometimes have to do awesome somersaults and leap over burning buildings and juggle burning brands while balancing on tall ladders . Really .

Psychology: The Human Puzzle tries to be a good teacher . It illustrates and explains; it evalu- ates and reviews; it tries to inspire . Sometimes it pauses to tell stories about the heart- warming generosity of strangers, to shock with accounts of the misbehavior of violent adolescents, to intrigue with descriptions of mental disorders in other cultures, to amaze with tales of astonishing memories, to move with an analysis of the thing we call love . At least once that I can think of, it nearly does a somersault and even juggles a few things that, from far away, almost look like burning brands .

Characteristics of Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Psychology: The Human Puzzle has a number of characteristics intended to make it as useful a teaching-learning tool as it can be .

The graphic layout and format are designed with the student in mind . Pages are unclut- tered; text material flows with little interruption . All the important stuff is right in the text; there are no boxed inserts, sidebars, marginal notes, or other little gizmos to grab your eye and make you wonder where to go next . All the graphics and photographs are relevant, and definitions of important terms are gathered in the glossary . A brief summary and a list of important study terms follow each chapter .

Although it assembles all the important and essential pieces of the puzzle, this book is deliberately shorter than most other comparable textbooks, so that it can comfortably be covered in a single course .

I hope you enjoy and learn . I suspect that each is necessary for the other .

Sincerely,

Guy R . Lefrançois

PREFACE

Dear People Involved with the Making of this Book,

Most of you know who you are . Sadly, I don’t know many of you . But I deeply appreci- ate everything you have done . The reviews were remarkably intelligent, and I am truly grateful to the instructors who shared their thoughts on the manuscript . I owe a debt of gratitude, as well, to Steve Wainwright, Sponsoring Editor, who initiated the project and guided its first steps, and to Dan Moneypenny, Development Editor, who developed the project astonishingly smoothly and rapidly . Thank you as well to Kim Purcell, Media Edi- tor, the copy editor, Susan Zorn, who cleaned up my mess so effortlessly, and to Shawn Vazinski of Lachina Publishing Services, and Illustrator Maury Aaseng . Finally, thank you to my amazing family, who nurture my work and my leisure, and to the University of Alberta for providing such a rich environment in which to look for pieces of the puzzle .

Sincerely,

Guy R . Lefrançois

Acknowledgments

1

The Science of Psychology

Focus Questions

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: • How is psychology defined? • What are the principal responsibilities of members of the main divisions in psychology? • What were the key beliefs and contributions of some of the early contributors to

the development of psychology? • What are the identifying characteristics of the scientific method? • What are some key types of descriptive research? • How does descriptive research differ from experiments and ex post facto studies? • What is the correlation fallacy? • What are some of the main sources of error in interpreting the results of psycho-

logical investigations?

Lef66243_01_c01_p001-030.indd 1 6/30/11 8:26 PM

CHAPTER 1The Science of Psychology

1. Boldfaced terms are defined in the glossary.

The purpose of psychology is

to give us a completely different idea of the things we

know best. ­—Paul­Valéry,­Tel Quel,­1943

Chapter Outline

1.1 What Is Psychology? What Psychologists Do

1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology Recent Origins of Psychology

1.3 Principles of Science The Scientific Method

1.4 Sources of Psychological Information Descriptive Research Experiments Ex Post Facto Studies

1.5 Cautions in Interpreting Psychological Research

Experimenter Bias Subject Bias Sampling Bias Other Problems of Psychological Research

1.6 Philosophical Issues and Psychological Controversy

1.7 Psychology’s Relevance

1.8 This Book

My grandmother was convinced she knew best. “Not true,” she would declare when I tried to tell her what I was learning as a novice psychology student. And then, her knitting needles clacking, she would go on to inform me that boys who mature early are always messed up later. She also believed that people use only 10 percent of their brain because that is what she had read somewhere. And she knew that those suffering from mental disorders are like night and day from her and other sane people. Nor did she trust psychologists: “They have sneaky ways of looking into people’s minds,” she informed me. “Except people who have ESP powers.”

“And mark my word,” she said one time; “most geniuses are crazy.” “But you don’t have to worry,” she added.

These and a wide range of similar beliefs make up what is sometimes called bubba psychology1 (bubba or bubbe—or sometimes bubbie—means “grandmother” in some Eastern European lan- guages). Bubba psychology is also labeled naïve psychology or folk psychology.

Psychological research has not been kind to many of my grandmother’s beliefs—which is not to say that all our folk wisdom is untrue or that psychology’s beliefs are always correct. In fact, much of our folk wisdom is correct; and psychology, like most sciences, does occasionally change its mind.

Lef66243_01_c01_p001-030.indd 2 6/30/11 8:26 PM

CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1 What Is Psychology?

My grandmother’s belief that psychologists have devious ways of peering into one’s mind is one reason why it is important to have a clear understanding of what psy- chology is and is not. While it’s true that its goal is to solve the puzzles of human thought and behavior, it is a science and not a collection of special powers.

In its simplest sense, psychology is the science that studies behavior and mental processes. Unfortunately, this definition does little justice to the tremendous variety of activities and interests that make up the field. In fact, members of the American Psychological Asso- ciation divide themselves into 54 different divisions (APA, 2010). These divisions reflect different interests and specializations, such as the study of aging or the application of psychological knowledge and principles in clinical settings.

What Psychologists Do