The trait and factor approach of career counseling incorporates

Career Counseling And Career Development

Topic: Career Counseling and Career Development.

Type of paper: Critical thinking

Discipline: Psychology and Education: Counseling

Format or citation style: APA

1. Please define career counseling and career development. In your definitions, please discuss the myths counseling students may have about career counseling as well as the rationale for the importance for counselors, regardless of their intended focus, to have competency in career counseling. In your chosen counseling path, how would you implement the competencies you learn in this course to work with your population of interest?
2. Please describe the similarities and differences between Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s SCCT and Gottfredson’s theory of Circumscription, Compromise and Self-Creation?
3. Share your understanding of one of the Career Development Theories discussed in chapters 2 and 3 that appeals to you the most and evaluate its strengths and limitations for diverse populations.
4. Tim and Scott and have been married for 1 year. Scott comes to you for counseling due to Tim’s (stay at home dad) expressing not feeling appreciated by Scott (a surgeon in the ER of their local hospital). Scott reports to you that he feels left out by his family (they have two children 3-year old girl and 5-year old boy), and not as connected to Tim emotionally as they used to be. He works between 60 and 70 hours per week at 12-hour shifts. He feels like his work is important and due to being a small town, his unique skills are essential for the small hospital and is often needed for critical procedures. With the information you have, please discuss some challenges Scott is facing? Integrating your reading of the course materials, how would you go about working with Scott? What are career related concerns that may be important to Scott? Any other thoughts or valuations of this case?

2, 3 a. theories and models of career development, counseling, and decision making;

1, 2, 3, 8 b. approaches for conceptualizing the interrelationships among and between work, mental well-being, relationships, and other life roles and factors;

6, 7 c. processes for identifying and using career, avocational, educational, occupational and labor market information resources, technology, and information systems;

1, 2, 3, 4 d. approaches for assessing the conditions of the work environment on clients’ life experiences;

1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 e. strategies for assessing abilities, interests, values, personality, and other factors that contribute to career development;

10, 11, 12, 13, 14 f. strategies for career development program planning, organization, implementation, administration, and evaluation;

1, 4 g. strategies for advocating for diverse clients’ career and educational development and employment opportunities in a global economy;

8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 h. strategies for facilitating client skill development for career, educational, and life-work planning and management;

1, 8 i. methods of identifying and using assessment tools and techniques relevant to career planning and decision making;

4, 15 j. ethical and culturally relevant strategies for addressing career development.

Career Development—studies that provide an understanding of career development and related life factors, including all of the following:

2016 CACREP StAndARdS RElAtEd to CAREER dEvEloPmEnt

Source: Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. (2015). 2016 CACREP Standards. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Book Chapter CACREP Standard

2, 3 a. theories and models of career development, counseling, and decision making;

1, 2, 3, 8 b. approaches for conceptualizing the interrelationships among and between work, mental well-being, relationships, and other life roles and factors;

6, 7 c. processes for identifying and using career, avocational, educational, occupational and labor market information resources, technology, and information systems;

1, 2, 3, 4 d. approaches for assessing the conditions of the work environment on clients’ life experiences;

1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 e. strategies for assessing abilities, interests, values, personality, and other factors that contribute to career development;

10, 11, 12, 13, 14 f. strategies for career development program planning, organization, implementation, administration, and evaluation;

1, 4 g. strategies for advocating for diverse clients’ career and educational development and employment opportunities in a global economy;

8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 h. strategies for facilitating client skill development for career, educational, and life-work planning and management;

1, 8 i. methods of identifying and using assessment tools and techniques relevant to career planning and decision making;

4, 15 j. ethical and culturally relevant strategies for addressing career development.

Career Development—studies that provide an understanding of career development and related life factors, including all of the following:

2016 CACREP StAndARdS RElAtEd to CAREER dEvEloPmEnt

Source: Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. (2015). 2016 CACREP Standards. Alexandria, VA: Author.

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Career Development InterventIons

FIFth eDItIon

Spencer G. Niles The College of William & Mary

JoAnn Harris-Bowlsbey Kuder, Inc., Adel, Iowa

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Niles, Spencer G., author. [Career development interventions in the 21st century] Career development interventions / Spencer G. Niles, JoAnn Harris-Bowlsbey.—Fifth edition. pages cm Earlier editions published as: Career development interventions in the 21st century. ISBN 978-0-13-428630-3 – ISBN 0-13-428630-8 1. Career development. 2. Career development–Case studies. I. Harris-Bowlsbey, JoAnn, author. II. Title. HF5381.N547 2017 650.14–dc23 2015031672

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preface

We have taught career courses to students in numerous universities in the United States as well as in Canada, Japan, Denmark, Portugal, England, Turkey, Australia, United Arab Emirates, Ire- land, Qatar, and Spain, to mention just a few. Wherever students are interested in learning about career development theory and practice, we are eager to go! In each instance, however, not only are we teaching students about career development interventions, but students also teach us. The idea for this book began in response to student requests (pleas) for a career development text- book that was readable, useful, and interesting. These are high but reasonable expectations, which have served as our guiding principles as we composed the chapters of this book.

new to this edition

In addition to consistently updating this textbook to reflect the most cutting-edge research, trends, and pedagogy, we have made the following changes to this edition:

• Greater use of case studies representing clients from diverse contexts in all chapters • Extensive updates of current literature applying to each chapter • Updated statistics related to demographic trends related to labor market participation and

an expanded discussion of the implications of these trends for career development inter- ventions

• Separate chapters addressing career development interventions in elementary school, middle school, and high school

• Expanded discussion of the changing landscape of career development interventions in higher education

• Expansion of the research and work of recent theorists, with an eye toward their applica- bility for diverse populations

• Incorporation of the 2016 CACREP Standards and the 2015 National Career Develop- ment Association Code of Ethics

• Extensive rewriting of the chapter on the use of technology in career guidance ( Chapter 7) to discuss the use of social media in the job-seeking process

iii

iv PREFACE

• New in-text student assignments and activities to encourage application and practice of the theoretical concepts presented in each chapter

• Continued use of student assignments based upon video content we created for this book

The video feature continues to be unique to this career development text. The videos pro- vide outstanding examples of how leading career development experts conduct career counsel- ing with diverse career counseling clients. The clients are real clients with genuine career concerns. The career counseling sessions were not scripted, rehearsed, or edited in any way. The career counselors had very little information, and in some cases none, about their clients prior to their career counseling sessions. Thus, the videos offer a realistic view of how nationally recog- nized career counseling experts conduct career counseling. We also provide video interviews with leading career development theorists and/or representatives of the leading theories who were close collaborators with the theorists they represent. These videos are designed to show how theory translates to practice and can be accessed through the Video and Resource Library on the MyCounselingLab® Web site. (See below for more information about MyCounselingLab.)

One important goal of this text is to convey to our readers the deep respect and long-term commitment we have for career development theory and practice. We emphasize this goal in Chapter 1. As we note in the book, few things are more personal than career choice, and we remained cognizant of this fact as we wrote each chapter. Making career decisions involves decid- ing how we will spend one of the most precious commodities we have—our time on Earth. We realize that these decisions are often difficult and overwhelming. Thus, we draw upon the work of our colleagues in the field to present readers with state-of-the-art career theory and practice. However, the current situation evolved from the past contributions of many leaders in the field. We acknowledge their important foundational contributions in Chapter 1.

Although we cover a wide variety of theoretical perspectives in the book (especially in Chap- ters 2 and 3), we emphasize that careers develop over time. A decision point in one’s career development is just that: a point in time at which one makes decisions based on previous and current career development experiences. Although knowing how to help people at these impor- tant points in their career development is crucial, career practitioners can also intervene proac- tively in the lives of children, adolescents, and adults in ways that facilitate positive career development prior to the occurrence of career crises. Being able to provide assistance in both instances is critical.

We are especially concerned that career development theory and practice be inclusive. Con- structing culturally inclusive career development interventions should be standard practice within the field. Unfortunately, this has not traditionally been the case. In part because of their historical context, career theories and practices have focused primarily on the career experiences of European American middle-class males. Although we devote a chapter to providing culturally competent career development interventions (Chapter 4), throughout the book we also address the need for inclusive career interventions. Our case studies highlight the career experiences of clients from diverse backgrounds. We think both approaches (having a single chapter devoted to the topic and infusing diversity throughout the book) are needed to begin to more adequately address the career development needs of all people. We are proud of the career counseling vid- eos we produced for this book as they provide excellent examples of career counseling with diverse clients.

The need to provide clients with culturally sensitive career interventions provides an impor- tant foundation for discussing career counseling interventions in Chapter 8 and career assessment

PREFACE v

approaches in Chapter 5. The career counseling process and outcomes information provided here reflect the most recent work within the field. We also provide career information, resources, and Web site references (Chapters 6 and 7) that represent important aspects of the career devel- opment process. We highlight the essential considerations in designing and implementing career development programs in Chapter 9. We also emphasize in Chapter 9 the importance of engag- ing in the ongoing evaluation of career services. This is important for improving service delivery. However, when resources are limited, as they are in many situations, the need for both account- ability and the ability to demonstrate effectiveness is great. Finally, we highlight developmental approaches to providing career assistance in the schools (elementary, middle, and high), higher education, and community settings in Chapters 10 through 14.

Of course, the desire to engage in ethical practice is also a standard in the field. However, there are many challenges confronting career practitioners. Web-based services such as career counseling and career assessment, the possibility of dual relationships, and theories with deeply rooted value sets present challenges to practitioners as they engage in ethical practice. Thus, we address many of these current ethical challenges in Chapter 15 using the 2015 National Career Development Association (NCDA) Code of Ethics. This is the first, and still one of the few, career development textbooks with a chapter devoted to ethical practice.

To make the book even more useful to readers, we use a framework developed by the NCDA. Specifically, we use the NCDA’s career counseling competencies and the 2016 Council for Accred- itation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) Standards to guide us in the identification of chapter topics. These competencies and standards appear in the appendices at the end of the book.

Please note that printed on the inside front cover is a grid identifying the chapters that are most relevant to each competency category and the 2016 CACREP standards. For those focused on career interventions in K–12 settings, we also incorporate the National Career Development Guidelines into Chapters 10 (elementary school), 11 (middle school), and 12 (high school).

We hope that we have accomplished the goals that motivated us to write this book. We also hope that we have fulfilled our students’ expectations. In teaching our career courses, we con- sider it high praise when students tell us that they have a new respect and appreciation for career development interventions as a result of the class experience. This is what we hope occurs with this book. We invite readers to send us their feedback directly (sgniles@wm.edu; bowlsbeyj@ kuder.com). We are committed to improving the book in any way that we can. Although collec- tively we have nearly a century devoted to the study and practice of career development, we have much yet to learn and we are eager to do so. Your comments will guide us in the revisions that we make. We are also happy to speak (either in person or virtually) to classes that are using our text. Simply contact us with such requests, and we will arrange for a time to make this happen. Finally, we wish you the very best as you embark on an exciting adventure with regard to your ongoing professional development.

also available with myCounselinglab®

This title is also available with MyCounselingLab–an online homework, tutorial, and assess- ment program designed to work with the text to engage students and improve results. Within its structured environment, students see key concepts demonstrated through video clips, practice

mailto:sgniles@wm.edu
vi Preface

what they learn, test their understanding, and receive feedback to guide their learning and ensure they master key learning outcomes.

• Learning Outcomes and Standards measure student results. MycounselingLab organizes all assignments around essential learning outcomes and national standards for counselors.

• Video- and Case-Based Assignments develop decision-making skills. Video- and case-based assignments introduce students to a broader range of clients, and therefore a broader range of presenting problems, than they will encounter in their own pre-profes- sional clinical experiences. Students watch videos of actual client-therapist sessions or high-quality role-play scenarios featuring expert counselors. They are then guided in their analysis of the videos through a series of short-answer questions. These exercises help students develop the techniques and decision-making skills they need to be effective counselors before they are in a critical situation with a real client.

• Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for certification. automatically graded, multiple-choice Licensure Quizzes help students prepare for their certification examina- tions, master foundational course content, and improve their performance in the course.

• Video Library offers a wealth of observation opportunities. The Video Library pro- vides more than 400 video clips of actual client-therapist sessions and high-quality role plays in a database organized by topic and searchable by keyword. The Video Library includes every video clip from the MycounselingLab courses plus additional videos from Pearson’s extensive library of footage. Instructors can create additional assignments around the videos or use them for in-class activities. Students can expand their observation expe- riences to include other course areas and increase the amount of time they spend watching expert counselors in action.

• Comprehensive online course content. filled with a wealth of content that is tightly integrated with your textbook, MyLab lets you easily add, remove, or modify existing instructional material. You can also add your own course materials to suit the needs of your students or department. In short, MyLab lets you teach exactly as you’d like.

• Robust gradebook tracking. The online gradebook automatically tracks your students’ results on tests, homework, and practice exercises and gives you control over managing results and calculating grades. The gradebook provides a number of flexible grading options, including exporting grades to a spreadsheet program such as Microsoft excel. and, it lets you measure and document your students’ learning outcomes.

access to MycounselingLab can be packaged with this textbook or purchased standalone. To find out how to package student access to this website and gain access as an Instructor, go to www.MycounselingLab.com, email us at counseling@pearson.com, or contact your Pearson sales representative.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful for and humbled by the support and love I have received from my family members and mentors. My mother, Pauline, taught me at an early age about the importance of Donald Super’s life-space theory segment as she balanced work and family demands as a single parent. She was a pioneer who lived with grace and dignity, despite substantial challenges presented both to professional women and single parents.

http://www.MyCounselingLab.com
mailto:counseling@pearson.com
Preface vii

My children, Jenny and Jonathan, teach me about love each day and help to make me a bet- ter person. I am fortunate to have the opportunity to watch as their careers unfold. I am particu- larly thrilled that they both work in the field of education, one as an elementary school counselor (Jenny) and one as a trainer in the area of career development (Jonathan). I am profoundly proud of the people they are and the important work that they do.

My professional mentors and cherished friends have guided me through multiple career development tasks. edwin L. Herr was the first to provide support and guidance, and he has continued to do so for more than 25 years. He embodies the best of what a mentor should repre- sent. I will forever be indebted to ed for his personal and professional assistance. Mark L. Savickas and Donald e. Super have also provided guidance, and I am honored that, at various times in my career, they have cared. finally, I have been honored to coauthor this book with Joann Harris- Bowlsbey. She is incredibly knowledgeable, wise, gracious, and kind. She too, is a valued mentor and dear friend. I look forward to future editions and opportunities to work together.

Spencer G. Niles

Like Spencer, my life was molded by a mother who was a single parent and who worked incredibly hard to ensure that I had a level of education and access that she never enjoyed. She taught me the principles of faith, responsibility, commitment, and service. I want to acknowledge her role in laying the foundation that made my present life and contributions possible.

My most valued professional mentor was Donald e. Super, who was kind enough to share his writings and thoughts with me for 30 years. I have personally enjoyed the fullness of his career rainbow in my life. Nancy Schlossberg and David Tiedeman also contributed mightily to my conception of the process of career development and have enriched the well from which the content of this book flows.

My professional contributions would not have been possible without the ongoing support of my late husband, Stan. for the 33 years of our marriage, he placed a very high priority on my career and helped all that he could—editing, proofreading, doing home chores—to nourish it, never pressuring for more of my time. finally, my ongoing friendship with and respect for Spen- cer Niles deepens as we experience the authorship of this book and other professional pursuits together.

Joann Harris-Bowlsbey

We both appreciate the dedicated assistance and support provided by Kevin Davis and Lau- ren carlson at Pearson.

We wish to thank those who reviewed the fourth edition and made suggestions for improve- ment that we have incorporated into this fifth edition of the book: Stephanie Tursic Burns, West- ern Michigan University; James M. O’Neil, University of connecticut; chester r. robinson, Texas a&M University–commerce; and Joan N. Strutton, The University of Texas at Tyler.

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Brief Contents

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 1

CHAPTER 2 Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development 31

CHAPTER 3 Understanding and Applying Recent Theories of Career Development 71

CHAPTER 4 Providing Culturally Competent Career Development Interventions 97

CHAPTER 5 Assessment and Career Planning 126

CHAPTER 6 Career Information and Resources 157

CHAPTER 7 Using Information and Communication Technologies to Support Career Counseling and Planning 180

CHAPTER 8 Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques for the 21st Century 200

CHAPTER 9 Designing, Implementing, and Evaluating Career Development Programs and Services 231

CHAPTER 10 Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools 269

CHAPTER 11 Career Development Interventions in Middle Schools 306

CHAPTER 12 Career Development Interventions in High Schools 325

CHAPTER 13 Career Development Interventions in Higher Education 355

CHAPTER 14 Career Development Interventions in Community Settings 388

CHAPTER 15 Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions 408

APPEnDIx A

NCDA Code of Ethics Preamble A-1 APPEnDIx B

Educational and Career Planning Portfolio A-28

APPEnDIx C

Career Counseling Competencies of the national Career Development Association (nCDA) A-34

APPEnDIx D

2016 CACREP Standards Related to Career Development A-38

APPEnDIx E

national Career Development Guidelines (nCDG) Framework A-39

ix

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Career Development Interventions 1 The Meaning of Work Across Time 6 Linking Work with Worth 9 Providing Systematic Career Development

Interventions 10 Definition of Terms 11

Career 12 Career Development 12 Career Development Interventions 12 Career Counseling 12 Career Education 13 Career Development Programs 13 Career Development Practitioners 13

Important Events in the History of Career Development Interventions 13

Frank Parsons 14 Future Trends in Career Development

Interventions 25 Move to Viewing Career Decisions as Values-Based

Decisions 26 Move Beyond Objective Assessment 26 Move to Counseling-Based Career

Assistance 27 Move to a Stronger Emphasis on Multicultural

Career Development Theories and Interventions 27

Move to Focusing on Multiple Life Roles 28 Move to Advocating for Social Justice 28 SuMMARy 29 CASE STuDy 29 STuDEnT ACTIVITIES 30

CHAPTER 2

understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development 31 Career Development Theories 32 Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory 34

Life Span 37 Life Space 40 Self-Concepts 41 Applying Super’s Theory 42 Contextual Factors Influencing Life-Role

Salience 44 Evaluating Super’s Theory 47

Anne Roe’s Personality Theory of Career Choice 48 Evaluating Roe’s Theory 49

Linda Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation 49 Stage One: Orientation to Size and Power 50 Stage Two: Orientation to Sex Roles 50 Stage Three: Orientation to Social Valuation 51 Stage Four: Orientation to the Internal,

Unique Self 51

Contents

xi

xii contents

Applying Gottfredson’s Theory to Practice 51 Evaluating Gottfredson’s Theory 52

John Holland’s theory of types and Person- environment Interactions 53 The Realistic Type 54 The Investigative Type 54 The Artistic Type 54 The Social Type 55 The Enterprising Type 55 The Conventional Type 55 Congruence 56 Differentiation 57 Consistency 58 Vocational Identity 58 Applying Holland’s Theory 58 Evaluating Holland’s Theory 61

John Krumboltz’s Learning theory of career counseling 63 Social Learning Theory of Career Decision

Making 63 Learning Theory of Career Counseling 66 Applying LTCC 67 Evaluating Career Development

Interventions 68 Evaluating LTCC 68

summary 69 student actIvItIes 69

cHaPter 3

understanding and applying recent theories of career development 71 recent theories 72 Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s social cognitive

career theory 73 Applying SCCT 74 Evaluating SCCT 76

the cognitive Information Processing approach 78 Applying the CIP Approach 80 Evaluating CIP 82

savickas’s career construction theory 84 Applying Career Construction Theory 85 Evaluating Career Construction Theory 86

Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning 86

Applying ILP 88 Evaluating ILP 88

Postmodern approaches 88 Creating Narratives 89 Constructivist Career Counseling 90 Chaos Theory of Careers 92 Evaluating the Chaos Theory of Careers 93

summary 94 case study 95 student actIvItIes 96

cHaPter 4

Providing culturally competent career development Interventions 97 traditional assumptions of career theories in the

united states 101 universal versus culture-specific models 102 ethnocentrism 103 acculturation 104 Identity development models 105

Racial Identity Models 106 Gender Identity Models 108 Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/ Questioning

Identity Models 111 Persons with Disabilities 114

assessment 118 recommendations for culturally effective career

counseling 121 summary 123 case study 124 student actIvItIes 124

cHaPter 5

assessment and career Planning 126 The Relationship of Assessment to the Career

Planning Process 129 Step 1: Become Aware of the Need to Make Career

Decisions 129 Step 2: Learn About or Reevaluate Vocational Self-

Concept 130 Step 3: Identify Occupational Alternatives 130 Step 4: Obtain Information About Identified

Alternatives 130

contents xiii

Step 5: Make Tentative Choices from Among Available Occupations 130

Step 6: Make Educational Choices 130 Step 7: Implement a Vocational Choice 131

Purposes of Assessment 132 Learning More About the Needs of an Individual

or Group 132 Learning More About the Characteristics of

Individuals and Helping Them Learn More About Themselves 133

Determining the Change or Progress of an Individual or Group 134

Responsibilities and competencies of the counselor 135 Possess General Knowledge About Assessment 135 Have Detailed Knowledge About the Instruments

Used 135 Evaluate the Instrument for Usefulness with Diverse

Populations 137 Prepare Students or Clients Adequately 138 Administer Instruments Properly 139 Interpret Instruments Properly 139 Follow Through with Clients 140

Informal Assessments 141 Formal Assessments 143

Types of Formal Assessments 145 Ways in Which Assessment Instruments May Be

Administered 150 types of Reports 152 selection of Instruments 154 suMMARy 155 cAse study 155 student ActIvItIes 155

cHAPteR 6

career Information and Resources 157 the counselor’s Role in Providing data 159

Barriers and Decision Styles 160 Career Information and Diversity 161

the client’s Role in Receiving data 162 types of data needed by clients 163

Programs of Study 163 Occupations 165 Schools 167

Financial Aid 169 Jobs 170

other Methods of collecting data 170 organizing occupations 171

The Holland System 171 The World-of-Work Map 172 O*NET Classification System 173 The National Career Clusters 174

the career center 174 Helping clients turn data into

Information 175 suMMARy 178 cAse study 179 student ActIvItIes 179

cHAPteR 7

using Information and communication technologies to support career counseling and Planning 180 Information and communication technologies:

trends of the 21st century 182 the Internet as the deliverer of career

Guidance 183 Stand-alone Web Sites 183 Integrated Career Planning Systems 184 Virtual Career Centers 185 Mobile Phone Applications 186 Social Networking 186 Distance Counseling 188

counselor Responsibilities Related to Ict-supported career Guidance and counseling 188 Know and Abide by Ethical Guidelines 189 Select Web Sites and Integrated Career Planning

Systems 189 Add High touch to High tech 191

Counselor Competencies and Types of Support 192

Issues and concerns Related to use of Ict 193

the Promise of Ict 195 suMMARy 197 cAse study 197 student ActIvItIes 198

xiv contents

cHAPteR 8

career counseling strategies and techniques for the 21st century 200 Is career counseling effective? 201 expanding the Limited View of career

counseling 202 career counseling in the 21st century 203 Designing career counseling strategies 204

Providing Counseling-Based Career Assistance 205

Providing Support in Career Counseling 207 A Framework for career counseling 213

The Beginning or Initial Phase of Career Counseling 213

The Middle or Working Phase of Career Counseling 216

The Ending or Termination Phase of Career Counseling 218

career counseling Groups 222 An Example of a Structured Group Career

Intervention 222 Less-Structured Career Groups 225

career counseling Professional Designations and Related service Providers 227

summARy 229 cAse stuDy 229 stuDent ActIVItIes 230

cHAPteR 9

Designing, Implementing, and evaluating career Development Programs and services 231 steps for Designing and Implementing a career

Development Program 233 Step 1: Define the Target Population and Its

Characteristics 233 Step 2: Determine the Needs of the Target

Population 234 Step 3: Write Measurable Objectives to Meet

Needs 236 Step 4: Determine How to Deliver the Career

Planning Services 238 Step 5: Determine the Content of the

Program 240

Step 6: Determine the Cost of the Program 240 Step 7: Begin to Promote and Explain Your

Services 241 Step 8: Start Promoting and Delivering the Full-

Blown Program of Services 242 Step 9: Evaluate the Program 242 Planning Evaluation 243 Stakeholders 244 Types of Data Collected 244 Benchmarks for Evaluation 245 Methods of Evaluation 248 Using the Results of Evaluation 249 Roadblocks to Evaluation 252 Step 10: Revise the Program as Needed 252

some sample Programs 252 Example 1: An Elementary School 253 Example 2: A Middle School 255 Example 3: A High School 257 Example 4: A University 260 Example 5: A Corporation 262 Example 6: A Community Agency 264

summARy 267 cAse stuDy 267 stuDent ActIVItIes 267

cHAPteR 10

career Development Interventions in the elementary schools 269 overview of career Development standards for

constructing career Interventions in the schools 270

Important considerations in Developing career Development Interventions in the schools 273

systematic and coordinated Planning for career Development Programs in the schools 274

career Development in the elementary schools 276

Goals of career Development Interventions at the elementary school Level 279

career Development Interventions in the elementary schools 281

Parental Involvement 285 summARy 286 cAse stuDy 287 stuDent ActIVItIes 287

CONTENTS xv

CHAPTER 11

Career Development Interventions in Middle Schools 306 Middle/Junior High School 307 Career Development Goals for Middle

School Students 310 Career Development Interventions in

Middle School 310 SUMMARY 315 CASE STUDY 316 STUDENT ACTIVITIES 316

CHAPTER 12

Career Development Interventions in High Schools 325 Career Development Goals for High School

Students 331 Career Development Interventions in High

Schools 331 Career Development Interventions for At-Risk

Students 336 SUMMARY 338 CASE STUDY 339 STUDENT ACTIVITIES 339

CHAPTER 13

Career Development Interventions in Higher Education 355 The Changing Landscape of Higher

Education 357 The Evolution of Career Development

Interventions in Higher Education 361 Career Development Competencies in

Adulthood 364 Personal Social Development 364 Educational Achievement and Lifelong

Learning 365 Career Management 366

Models, Services, and Standards for Career Development Interventions in Higher Education 368 Models 368

Services 370 Standards 373

Managing Career Services in Higher Education 375

SUMMARY 378 CASE STUDY 378 STUDENT ACTIVITIES 379

CHAPTER 14

Career Development Interventions in Community Settings 388 Training, Certification, and Licensure 390 Competencies 391

Coordination 391 Consultation 393 Advocacy 393 Case Management 394

Similarities and Differences in Community-Based Settings 395

Settings for Community-Based Career Counselors 395 Private Practice 396 The World Wide Web: Online Counseling and Career

Advising 397 Mental Health Centers 397 Substance Abuse Centers 398 Rehabilitation Settings 398 Corrections and Probation 398 Military Settings 399 Job Service Offices and One-Stop Centers 399 Faith-Based Organizations 401 Corporations and Other Organizations 402

SUMMARY 403 CASE STUDY 403 STUDENT ACTIVITIES 404

CHAPTER 15

Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions 408 Ethical Dilemmas Versus Moral

Temptations 412 Using Principles to Resolve Ethical

Decisions 413

xvi CONTENTS

The Role of Values in Defining Career Development Interventions 415

Using Ethical Codes 418 Progress on Ethical Challenges Facing Career

Counselors 418 Are All Individual Career Interventions Governed by

the Same Ethical Standards? 418 Should Those Without Traditional Training and

Credentials as Professional Career Counselors Provide Career Counseling Services? 420

How Should the Internet Be Used in Career Development Interventions? 421

The Ethical Standards of NCDA 422 Section A: The Professional Relationship 422 Section B: Confidentiality, Privileged

Communication, and Privacy 422 Section C: Professional Responsibility 423 Section D: Relationships with Other

Professionals 423 Section E: Evaluation, Assessment, and

Interpretation 423 Section F: Providing Career Services Online,

Technology, and Social Media 423 Section G: Supervision, Training, and

Teaching 424 Section H: Research and Publication 424 Section I: Resolving Ethical Issues 424 Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model 426

SUMMARY 427 CASE STUDY 428 STUDENT ACTIVITIES 428

APPENDIx A

NCDA Code of Ethics Preamble A-1

APPENDIx B

Educational and Career Planning Portfolio A-28

APPENDIx C

Career Counseling Competencies of the National Career Development Association (NCDA) A-34

APPENDIx D

2016 CACREP Standards Related to Career Development A-38

APPENDIx E

National Career Development Guidelines (NCDG) Framework A-39

REFERENCES R-1

INDEx I-1

1

Chapter 1

IntroductIon to career development InterventIons

Like it or not, what we do for money is a big part of our lives. In many ways it defines who we are, and it’s how most of us pay for the basic needs of day-to-day living, such as food, shelter, and transportation. In time, if you’re lucky, your job can provide more quality leisure time, investments for the education of your children, and a home. Every day we get up and go to work—there’s no getting out of it. So it’s imperative to choose a field or endeavor that will enrich your life. And whether you’re a contractor build- ing a house, a doctor repairing a heart, or a teacher educating students, you need to focus on the finished product and take pride in the process that achieves that finished product. You should never settle for anything less than your best effort, because it matters. It matters to the homeowner, the patient, and the students, and it most certainly should matter to you.

David H., Contractor

Work is something I do because I have to. If I won the lottery, I wouldn’t work. As a single parent of two young children, I have to be responsible. I do it for them. Can work be meaningful? I hope to experi- ence that someday. Right now, it’s how my family and I get by—that’s the most important thing. And most days it’s not fun.

Ann D., Food service worker

My work means everything to me—well, almost everything. As an oncologist, I am dedicated to my work and my patients. I feel a tremendous responsibility to be the best physician that I can be. I also feel a responsibility to be the best I can be as a representative of my family and the African American com- munity. I have dedicated much of my life to this activity. It is what gives me meaning and purpose. I feel fortunate to do the work I do.

Camille S., Physician

Chandra and her colleagues were discussing their career development course and won- dering why, as graduate students in counselor education, they were required to take it. José declared that he had no interest in providing career counseling and was not likely to need to know much about it. Jonathan added that he found the prospect of adminis- tering tests just plain boring. Beth was set on establishing a private practice and said

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Visit the MyCounselingLab® site for Career Development Interventions, Fifth Edition, to enhance your understanding of chapter concepts. You will have the opportunity to practice applying what you learned in the chapter by completing the video- and case-based exercises in the MyLab. Taking the Licensure Quizzes will help you prepare for your certification exam.

2 CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions

that she would probably refer clients with career concerns to practitioners specializing in the field.

Chandra had a different take. She had witnessed the powerful impact of work on her family when her father’s employer moved overseas and laid him off from his engi- neering job. While Chandra’s father sought new employment, her mother struggled to keep her full-time nursing job while caring for Chandra and her two younger brothers. When her father had to settle for a position that provided less pay, challenge, and satis- faction than had his old one, she watched as he became depressed and tension mounted between her parents. No one was spared: Her brothers were getting into trouble at school, and Chandra, beset by anxiety, developed insomnia. Chandra under- stood all too well the link between work and well-being and hoped that learning about career development might empower her to help other families avoid what had hap- pened to hers.

David H., Ann D., and Camille S. communicate some of the diverse values, purposes, and goals that people attach to work. Some view work as a way to express themselves and confer meaning and purpose on life. Others work to provide for their families and, often due to circumstances beyond their control, approach work strictly as a way to bring in money. Some, like Camille S., the physician, see work as a way to fulfill their responsibility to an ethnic or cultural group. Still others struggle simply to find work. the unemployment rate in the United States in December 2014 was 5.6%; in April 2011 it was 9%; and in April 2001 it was 4.4% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). these numbers, however, can be misleading. For example, if you were unemployed and stopped looking for work for a month, you would not have been counted as unemployed—and there are significant numbers of people who have given up trying to find work. Moreover, in April 2013 an estimated 22 million Americans were unemployed or underemployed (underemployed workers include those who are highly skilled and working in low-paying jobs, highly skilled and working in jobs requiring less skill, and those working part-time who want to work full-time). this is a global issue. the International Labour Organization estimates the number of unemployed workers worldwide to be a record 202 million (Moore, 2013).

Chandra’s experience is not unusual. We live in uncertain times: Seasoned adults struggle to cope with their careers while recent college graduates have trouble landing their first job. Adoles- cents feel pressured to succeed but can’t see how high school life connects to their future lives as working adults. Children are constantly exposed to occupational stereotypes—police officer, firefighter, doctor—that influence their perceptions of what opportunities await them. So let us be clear: Counselors are expected to, and indeed must, provide career assistance in every profes- sional setting. Counselors in grade school, higher education, and community settings will, to varying degrees and at various times, encounter clients confronting career development issues. It is for good reason that the American School Counselor Association (2003) identifies career development as one of three areas essential to the work of school counselors. Survey results examining the concerns of college students consistently identify career planning assistance as their dominant issue. It’s no different for working adults who find themselves out of work as their employers downsize.

Despite this, many students in counseling and related programs react with as little enthusiasm as did José, Jonathan, and Beth when required to take a career information course

CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 3

(Heppner, O’Brien, Hinkelman, & Flores, 1996). Perhaps some think they’ll be required to memorize blocks of data or spend hours learning how to administer and interpret occupational questionnaires. Perhaps they view career development interventions as separate from general counseling interventions, with the former involving information dissemination, advising, and test administration, and the latter employing more “sophisticated” therapeutic techniques. Maybe they envision mechanical career development interventions in which the counselor dic- tates a course of action and takes complete responsibility for the outcome. Or maybe, like Beth, they view career development interventions as irrelevant to their counseling careers.

No matter what their objections are to studying career development, we challenge them. We believe (and think Chandra would agree) that competent career practitioners must pos-

sess expertise in a broad array of counseling-related competencies. the knowledge and skills required for providing effective career assistance encompass and transcend those required for general counseling (Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston, 2009; Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). For example, the competencies identified by the National Career Devel- opment Association* (National Career Development Association, 2009) include knowledge and skills in career development theory; individual and group counseling; individual and group assessment; career information and resources; program promotion, management, and imple- mentation; career coaching and consultation; multicultural counseling; supervision; ethical and legal issues; and using technology effectively in the career intervention process. these competen- cies extend far beyond those required for career advising and test administration.

Moreover, areas of inquiry related to career development interventions are fascinating, chal- lenging, and connected to recent psychological emphases on optimal human functioning, maxi- mizing happiness, and fulfilling human potential (Hartung, 2002; Niles, Amundson, & Neault, 2011; Savickas, 2009). Career counselors meet their clients at the intersection of what has been and what could be in their lives; interventions help these clients consider how to develop and deploy their talents as their lives progress. Career development practitioners in the 21st century also seek to empower people to derive meaning from their unique life experiences and translate that meaning into rewarding occupational and other choices. translating life experiences into rewarding choices requires self-awareness. Accordingly, career practitioners provide interven- tions that help people clarify and articulate how they see themselves. these interventions may include formal, standardized assessments as well as informal, nonstandardized activities that creatively engage clients in the process (Amundson, 2009). Because planning a career and sort- ing through related concerns are complex processes, competent counselors must be skilled at developing effective working alliances with their clients (Anderson & Niles, 2000; Multon, Heppner, Gysbers, Zook, & ellis-Kalton, 2001; Perrone, 2005). When career counselors work collaboratively and innovatively with their clients to identify a clear career direction, both client and counselor experience the process as invigorating and fulfilling (Anderson & Niles).

We also realize that practitioners face multiple challenges in the career intervention process. Making career decisions is rarely simple, and good career counseling is never mechanistic or routine. People make decisions about work within the contexts of their other roles and responsi- bilities, and the complex and stressful nature of such decisions becomes clear (Perrone, Webb, & Blalock, 2005). What might seem to be a straightforward work decision can become frustrating

*Until 1985, the National Career Development Association was known as the National Vocational Guidance Association, or NVGA.

4 CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions

and overwhelming to someone who feels buffeted by limited work opportunities, family expectations, financial constraints, and multiple life-role commitments. Given the complexity of making career decisions, it isn’t surprising that many people who seek career counseling experi- ence substantial levels of psychological distress (Multon et al., 2001). Obviously, counselors must address clients’ distress as they help them identify their values, skills, life-role priorities, interests, and motivations. When clients also experience low self-esteem, weak self-efficacy, and little hope that the future can be more satisfying than the past, the counselor’s task becomes even more challenging (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2002). Such clients require more help resolving their career dilemmas than a test battery can provide. Given this fact, many clients describe a support- ive and effective alliance with their career practitioner as one of the most helpful aspects of the counseling experience (Anderson & Niles, 2000; Multon et al., 2001). Obviously, the abilities to establish rapport, listen closely, and express empathic understanding are essential career coun- seling skills.

Working collaboratively and effectively with clients also requires career practitioners to pos- sess advanced multicultural competencies (Leong, 1995). Clients operating from a collectivistic orientation, for example, engage in the career planning process differently than those coming from an individualistic orientation (Hartung, Speight, & Lewis, 1996). thus, working within a client’s cultural context is essential to providing effective assistance. Kim, Li, and Liang (2002) found that career counselors focusing on the expression of emotion were perceived as having greater cross-cultural competence than counselors focusing on the expression of cognition when working with Asian American college students with high adherence to Asian values. Leong (2002) found acculturation to be positively related to job satisfaction and negatively related to occupational stress and strain. Gomez and colleagues (2001) found that the career decisions of Latina clients were strongly influenced by sociopolitical, cultural, contextual, and personal vari- ables: Socioeconomic status, family obligations, cultural identity, and the existence of a support network were all concerns of the Latinas participating in the Gomez et al. study. Madonna, Miville, Warren, Gainor, and Lewis-Coles (2006) highlight the importance of understanding a client’s religious beliefs to effective career counseling. Paul (2008) describes the use of a con- structive-developmental approach that incorporates a client’s sexual identity into the career counseling process; Pepper and Lorah (2008) discuss the unique concerns of transsexual clients. Powell and Greenhaus (2012) offer a counseling framework that factors family influences into the career decision-making process.

Clearly, a client’s constellation of cultural and contextual variables affects the career interven- tion process. therefore, as with general counseling interventions, the career development inter- vention process is a dynamic, complex, and challenging one that requires practitioners to use multicultural counseling skills to help their clients.

Tips from the Field

Because there are few decisions more personal than choosing a career, it is important to remember that good career counselors are, first, good counselors.

In addition, indications are that the career development process will soon become more complex. Change, transition, and instability dominate the career development landscape. the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015) reports that one in four workers has been with his or her

CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 5

current employer for less than a year. Also, in 2014, the median number of years that workers had been with their current employers was 4.6: 4.7 for men and 4.5 for women. this level of transition involves costs to companies, as they must train new employees, and to society, as tran- sitioning workers claim benefits from government programs such as temporary Assistance for Needy Families (tANF) and unemployment insurance.

In addition to decreased longevity with an employer, today’s workers operate in a globalized economy. thomas Friedman (2005) described this in The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century, noting that technological advances have created a more level economic playing field, with previously disadvantaged countries now rivaling the knowledge and wealth of the United States and other world powers. Computer and communication technologies, previously a strong- hold of developed countries, have been accessed and mastered by China and India, making these nations more competitive economically. this “flattening” of access and opportunity has had a major impact on the nature of work around the world, accelerating the economic interdepen- dence of national economies so that what happens in one country impacts the economies of oth- ers. recent global unemployment rates support this assertion.

Another effect of economic globalization is the outsourcing of jobs from one country to another. On the plus side, this improves the receiving country’s economy and standard of living: Its workers have greater employment opportunities, and the country gains access to the latest technology. the outsourcing country benefits from lower labor costs, and consumers benefit as well because globalization increases competition, and companies then lower their prices. Friedman’s theory is that these developments will continue until world economies are lateral— that is, they show a flat line. A flat world means we are economically dependent on one another and communicating more with one another.

What are the practical implications of the trends Friedman identifies? to compete effectively in a flat world, Friedman believes that 21st-century workers must focus on and develop some new capacities. First, they must be constantly engaged in learning: Workers must learn new ways of doing old things as well as new ways of doing new things. Second, they must cultivate a pas- sion for, and curiosity about, life. Passion and curiosity are potent forces that infuse the work- place with energy and innovation. third, they must expand their capacity to work collaboratively. employees with strong interpersonal skills are valued as team players who cope well with work- place challenges. Finally, they must be able to balance analytical thinking with creative energy, bringing a fuller perspective to solving complex problems. Friedman’s list of self-management skills for the 21st century can be expanded to include (a) the capacity to cope with change and tolerate ambiguity, (b) the ability to acquire and use occupational information effectively, (c) the ability to adjust quickly to changing work demands, and (d) a working knowledge of technology. Developing these capacities along with specific job content skills will enable workers to stay cur- rent in the expanding global economy.

Before leaving our discussion of globalization, we should note that the phenomenon is not strictly positive. Workers in manufacturing and some white-collar jobs have fewer opportunities in nations where this work has been outsourced: Computer programmers, editors, engineers, and accountants are some examples of the latter. Globalization has also led to the increased exploitation of workers in developing countries. A United Nations (UN) report (2000) asserts that globalization has increased inequality and discrimination, widening the gap between the haves and have-nots. Safety standards are often ignored to produce goods less expensively. Also, many developing countries lack child labor laws, and young workers often toil in inhumane con- ditions. Companies build factories in countries without environmental regulations and discharge

6 CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions

pollutants into soil and waterways. Also, globalization has sparked increased human trafficking. Finally, the UN report notes that multinational companies have become increasingly influential in local politics, influencing legislation and public policies that are friendly to business but not to the people they employ.

Adding to the new problems are some old ones: discrimination and disparities in opportuni- ties and income between men and women; workers from dominant and minority ethnic groups; heterosexuals and members of sexual minorities; those who are able-bodied and those who are physically challenged; those who have access to quality education and the doors it opens, and those for whom those doors are closed; and so on. Such issues highlight the need for career prac- titioners to advocate for social justice. In fact, we believe that the ability to advocate effectively for social justice is utterly essential for career practitioners in the 21st century.

Among other things, advocating for social justice requires career development practitioners to learn about legislation and public policies that support workers and provide career develop- ment services (the Workforce Investment Act and Americans with Disabilities Act, to name two). relating to this, Friedman (2005) identifies the need for legislation that makes it easier for people to switch jobs by connecting retirement benefits and health insurance less to their employers and providing insurance that would help cover a possible drop in income. Friedman also believes we should put more energy into inspiring young people to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and math (SteM), as fewer of them are entering these fields. this provides implicit support for inserting career development language into the next iteration of the elementary and Secondary education Act, familiarly known as No Child Left Behind.

It follows that knowing how to shape public policy and legislation is an important skill for career development practitioners: Acquainting legislators with the importance of career services to their constituents, and reminding them of the benefits that accrue to the community, are pow- erful actions that career practitioners can take. Being multiculturally sensitive and aware is also an essential component of providing effective career interventions. the bottom line is that all people at some point must cope with career development tasks to successfully manage their lives and careers. We believe that all counselors, regardless of their work setting, must understand the career development process and be skilled at providing career interventions.

the meanIng of Work across tIme Understanding the career development process and being able to provide holistic, comprehen- sive, and systematic career development interventions across a worker’s life span require prac- titioners to appreciate the role that work plays in people’s lives. Substantial evidence indicates that the meaning of work for people around the world is changing (e.g., Ardichvili & Kuchinke, 2009; Borchert & Landherr, 2009; Ferrar et al., 2009). Unfortunately, many shifts are not positive for workers. Most workers in industrialized nations now enjoy the benefits of paid vacation time (typically about three weeks per year) and paid parental leave. Currently, 134 countries have laws establishing a maximum length to the work week. the exception is the United States. According to the International Labour Organization, Americans work 137 more hours per year than Japanese workers, 260 more than British workers, and 499 more than French workers. Currently, 85.8% of men and 66.5% of all women in the United States work more than 40 hours per week. So it should come as no surprise that Americans report sharply higher levels of work– family conflict than do citizens of other industrialized nations. Fully

CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 7

90% of American mothers and 95% of American fathers report work–family conflict (Williams & Boushey, 2010).

the centrality of work to American life may have lessened since the 19th century, when the average citizen worked 70 hours per week, but current data indicate that work continues to dominate the lives of many Americans. this makes sense because the work you choose deter- mines the people with whom you will associate for a major portion of your daily life; it also affects how much time off you will get and when you will get it, the sorts of continuing education and training you will engage in, the type of supervision you will labor under, the degree of autonomy you will experience, and the lifestyle you will enjoy. thus, one of the first questions we ask a new acquaintance is, “What do you do?” Although people might respond by describing a variety of activities, they seldom do: there is an implicit, if not explicit, understanding that the query relates to what you do for a living. Such interactions reinforce the contention that occupa- tion is one of the principal determinants in industrial society of social status (Super, 1976). they also support Sigmund Freud’s statement that “work is the individual’s link to reality.” For better or worse, our choice of work colors the perceptual lens through which others view us and through which we view ourselves; we make different assumptions about people who say they are neurosurgeons compared to those who say they work at fast-food restaurants. In many countries, an occupational title tends to be used, correctly or incorrectly, to identify a person more than does any other single characteristic. It is important to note, however, that in some contexts and at different periods of history, one’s choice of work was not as closely connected to one’s identity as it is today; then, your surname or residence provided a primary means for self-identification.

How is it that work has become a core component of our identity? In primitive societies, work was taken for granted. You worked to survive. In classical societies, work was viewed as a curse insofar as it involved manual rather than intellectual labor. (It is interesting to note that the Greek word for work has the same root as the word for sorrow.) the early Christians viewed work as providing an opportunity to help those less fortunate by sharing the fruits of their labors. the notion that “idleness is akin to sinfulness” also emerged from early Christianity and was main- tained throughout the Middle Ages, with the growing idea that work was appropriate for all people as a means of spiritual purification.

the reformation brought little change to this attitude except for the influence of Martin Luther and John Calvin. Luther viewed work as a way to serve God: All work had equal spiritual value as long as you did it to the best of your ability. the meaning of work shifted dramatically in the theological perspective espoused by John Calvin and his followers. Calvin built on earlier traditions that viewed work as the will of God by adding the idea that the results of work— profits, for example—should be used to finance more ventures for more profit and, in turn, for more investment. In addition, Calvin’s doctrine of predestination—that your fate after life is predetermined by God, not determined by you during your time on earth—led his followers to search for visible signs in this life that they were predestined for eternal bliss in the next one. Success in work came to be viewed as a manifestation that one was predestined for eternal life. this evolved into the notion that one was obligated to God to achieve the most exalted and rewarding occupation; hence, striving for upward mobility became morally justified. this coin- cided with the belief that God rewards those who devote time and effort to work; thus was born the attitude known as the Protestant work ethic. the value attached to hard work, the need for all persons to work, and the justification of profit emerging from Calvinism would eventually form the basis of modern capitalism and industrialism. the values associated with the Protestant work ethic also served as the foundation of the 19th-century view of work labeled by Savickas (1993)

8 CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions

as the “vocational ethic.” this ethic valued independent effort, self-sufficiency, frugality, self-dis- cipline, and humility, and it was brought across the Atlantic by the Puritans.

the meaning of work continued to evolve as some countries industrialized and increased their reliance on mechanically generated energy to perform it. the determination of a person’s status became a question not only of how hard he worked but also a question of the type of work he did. In essence, occupation replaced work as a means of determining a person’s status. Savickas (1993) noted that this shift in the nature of work occurred on the brink of the 20th century, when people turned their efforts toward organizing craftspeople into companies and building large cities around industries. the rugged individualism reflected in self-employment on farms and in small, craft-oriented businesses was replaced for many people by the challenge of working for a company and moving up the corporate ladder. Because people working for companies found little reward for independence, self-sufficiency, and self-management, a new work ethic emerged in the 20th century, described by Maccoby and terzi (1981) as the “career ethic.” the career ethic can be described as exhorting workers to “find your fit and don’t quit.” It defined successful careers as work of extended tenure within the same company, and successful career paths as those that ascended through organizational ranks. today, this largely male, Caucasian middle- and upper-socioeconomic class model provides, at best, a minimally useful description of the careers most people experience.

recent developments in the nature of work bring into question the viability of the career ethic (McCortney & engels, 2003). Organizations served by the career ethic are downsizing in unprecedented numbers, with many workers finding that computers are performing the work they once did. Many employers view workers as expendable commodities. Workers who have lost their jobs to downsizing often feel betrayed and anxious about their prospects. After working long hours, and in some cases relocating to new communities to maintain their employment, many workers are less willing to sacrifice everything for their employers when their employers are so willing to sacrifice them. Survivors of downsizing realize that their situations are anything but secure (McCortney & engels).

In addition, companies are flattening their organizational structures, leaving fewer career ladders to climb. the elimination of vertical hierarchies challenges the definition of a “successful” career. Hall and associates (1996) argue that changes in the structure of employment opportuni- ties portend a future in which “people’s careers will increasingly become a succession of ‘ ministages’ of exploration-trial-mastery-exit, as they move in and out of various product areas, technologies, functions, organizations and other work environments” (p. 33). these shifts have led some people to suggest that “work has ended” and the “career has died” (Bridges, 1994; rifkin, 1995). the tragic echoes of September 11, 2001, and the recent global economic down- turn with resultant high unemployment reverberate widely, influencing politics, economics, international relations, and by logical extension, work. We are still sorting through how these events will shape people’s approach to work. McCortney and engels (2003) note that “it is essen- tial to consider whether the current concept of the work ethic can be accurately, uniformly applied to all individuals in the ‘salad bowl’ of the United States today” (p. 135). thanks to glo- balization, the question applies to nations outside the United States as well.

these changes in the work ethic highlight the fact that career development occurs amid relent- less economic, social, cultural, technological, political, global, and historical change. these changes also underscore the fact that career development, like human development, is an evolutionary process. However, unlike biological development—which is ontogenetic and fairly predictable— career development is dynamic, interactive, contextual, relational, and often unpredictable.

CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 9

lInkIng Work WIth Worth Despite historical changes in the meaning people attach to work and whether it is viewed as a blessing or a curse, work continues to play a central role in our lives (Brief & Nord, 1990; Mannheim, 1993). More recently, Doherty (2009) found that work provided vital social interac- tions for study participants, fulfilling social and personal needs and providing a sense of personal identity and meaning. results supporting the primacy of work in the Doherty study were uni- form across workplaces and occupations.

this phenomenon is not limited to the United States; results of cross-national studies sug- gest that many people in other countries view work as being more important than leisure, com- munity, and even religion (Ardichvili & Kuchinke, 2009; Borchert & Landherr, 2009). Harpaz (1999) found that in several multinational studies, work was second in importance only to fam- ily activities. Not only do we continue to place an extremely high value on work, but people in the United States also tend to use psychological definitions of work. For example, Super (1976) defined work as:

the systematic pursuit of an objective valued by oneself (even if only for survival) and desired by others; directed and consecutive, it requires expenditure of effort. It may be compensated (paid work) or uncompensated (volunteer work or an avocation). the objective may be intrinsic enjoy- ment of work itself, the structure given to life by the work role, the economic support which work makes possible, or the type of leisure that it facilitates. (p. 12)

Psychologically oriented definitions of work place the perceptions and motivations relative to work within a person’s actions and control. Such definitions reflect a largely American view of work, which emphasizes individual control in career development (motivation, discipline, perse- verance, goal-directedness) and deemphasizes the role played by sociological contextual variables (opportunity structure, the economy, socioeconomic status) in shaping one’s career. thus, if a person has a “successful career,” we tend to attribute positive qualities to the person, regardless of whether we know him or her. the corresponding assumption is that a person without a success- ful career is inferior. Our denial of both the sociological factors affecting the trajectory of a per- son’s career and the centrality of work in our culture becomes problematic because we link work with self-worth (Shanahan & Porfeli, 2002; Subich, 2001). Obviously, if our sense of self-worth is dependent on how we feel about our work contributions, our self-esteem can unravel quickly when work situations go awry (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004). If you have ever felt undecided about your career choice, or if you have ever been fired from a job, or worked in a dissatisfying job, or been unable to find a job, or lived with anyone experiencing any of these events, you prob- ably have a good sense of the bad feelings that often surface in negative work-related situations.

Linking work with self-worth also becomes problematic when we develop unrealistic expec- tations of work. For example, O’toole (1981) suggests that “when it is said that work should be meaningful, what is meant is that it should contribute to the self-esteem, to the sense of self- fulfillment, through the mastering of one’s self and one’s environment, and to the sense that one is valued by society” (p. 15). these themes still inform the expectations that many people have for their careers. Although these are clearly desirable experiences, issues such as dehumanizing work conditions, unemployment, prejudicial hiring practices, downsizing, and mismatches between people and their jobs lead to the conclusion that work is anything but meaningful for many people. Denying contextual factors can lead people to blame the victim when work experi- ences are negative for reasons beyond their control.

10 CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions

Not only do many workers experience negative work situations and job dissatisfaction; they also do not know how to improve things. A 2011 Harris interactive survey sponsored by the National Career Development Association (2011) revealed that 59% of adults in the American workforce would try to get more and/or different information about career options if they could start their work life over. In the same poll, 45% of adult workers thought they needed more train- ing or education to at least maintain their current earning power. An earlier National Career Development Association (NCDA) poll (NCDA, 1999) revealed that 39% of Americans did not have a career plan and 69% did not know how to make informed career choices. Obviously, many adults have information and skill deficits related to career planning and self-management. Many people also have limited opportunities to engage in systematic self-exploration for career develop- ment and are unclear about their training and educational needs. the same poll indicated that almost half of all U.S. workers experience job-related stress and think that their skills are being underutilized. Given the prevalence of these issues and our tendency to link work with self-worth, we may deduce that the need for competent career practitioners is substantial and urgent.

Difficulties in managing career tasks can be tracked developmentally. Mortimer, Zimmer- Gembeck, Holmes, and Shanahan (2002) offer evidence that many adolescents do not receive assistance in acquiring career development skills. Drawing on 69 interviews (43 females, 26 males) with participants in the Youth Development Project (n = 1,000), a longitudinal study of work through adolescence and early adulthood, researchers reported that the young participants had little formal instruction in how to find suitable work as they moved into postsecondary school. the lack of institutional support for young people making the school-to-work transition is perplexing given the centrality of work in people’s lives. Mortimer and her colleagues contend that “more systematic efforts are needed to provide vocational information to youth in high schools” (p. 463) and that effort should be made to connect students with the schools and occu- pations in which they express an interest. Having actual experiences with potential occupations is important in differentiating between satisfied and dissatisfied entrants to the labor force, as well as those whose interests and jobs are congruent. “For youth who lack vocational direction, shifting schools and jobs can entail substantial economic, personal, and social costs” (Mortimer et al., p. 463).

High levels of career uncertainty and occupational dissatisfaction correlate with high levels of psychological and physical distress (Herr, 1989). High levels of unemployment are associated with increased rates of chemical dependency, interpersonal violence, suicide, criminal activity, and admission to psychiatric facilities (Herr et al., 2004; Kalton, 2001; Liem & rayman, 1982). Difficult career situations often translate to difficult life situations. Fritzche and Parrish (2005) cite research supporting the “spillover hypothesis,” which suggests that feelings in one area of life affect feelings in other areas. the ripple effect occurring when career situations go awry can be dramatic and tragic. Moreover, all counselors, regardless of work setting, will encounter these ripple effects either directly (by working with a client experiencing career difficulties) or indi- rectly (by working with a family member of a person experiencing career difficulties).

provIdIng systematIc career development InterventIons the need to provide systematic assistance to people trying to manage the influence of work on their lives is tremendous (National Career Development Association, 2011). the young, the elderly, the unemployed, the underemployed, the displaced worker, and members of diverse

CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 11

racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups all confront work-related issues that affect their lives. How well they can cope with these issues may be the difference between living a life that is mean- ingful and productive and one that is largely devoid of meaning and satisfaction.

Career counselors assist their clients in diverse ways. Counselors in high school, postsec- ondary, and community settings teach clients skills (self-assessment, job search, and career infor- mation acquisition) necessary for effective career planning and decision making. Counselors in all settings also help their students or clients realize that decisions about work influence one’s life outside of work. Correspondingly, counselors can help clients develop realistic expectations of what work can provide in terms of personal satisfaction, and they can explain that activities and relationships outside of work can provide satisfaction when it isn’t forthcoming on the job. Given our emphasis on intra-individual variables in career development, a major task confronting counselors is helping people see that their job doesn’t have to define their self-worth, and that self-worth derives more from how they live than where they work.

More specifically, effective career counselors help their clients or students learn how to do the following:

1. Use both rational and intuitive approaches when making career decisions. 2. Achieve clarity about the importance they attach to their various life roles and the val-

ues they want to embody by inhabiting these roles. 3. Cope effectively with ambiguity, change, and transition. 4. Develop and maintain self-awareness, especially as it pertains to their interests, values,

motivation, and aptitudes. 5. Develop and maintain occupational and career awareness. 6. Develop occupationally relevant skills and knowledge, and keep them up to date. 7. Access and participate in lifelong learning opportunities. 8. Search for jobs effectively. 9. Provide and receive career mentoring.

10. Develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication.

Skills related to these areas must be placed in a developmental context so that counselors working with children, adolescents, and adults can provide appropriate career interventions and respond to former labor secretary elaine L. Chao’s point that “to succeed in the 21st century, our nation must be prepared to adapt to changes in our economy—in how we work, where we work, and how we balance our professional and family lives. We cannot simply react to changes. We must anticipate them, thus helping all workers to have as fulfilling and financially rewarding careers as they aspire to have.”

defInItIon of terms A major issue in the career development field is the misuse of terminology by practitioners as well as clients. For example, it is common for counselors to use the terms career and work inter- changeably; it is also common for counselors to talk about “doing career development” as if it were an intervention rather than the object of an intervention. Similarly, counselors often con- flate career guidance with career counseling. this lack of precision confuses practitioners, students, and clients and compromises the efficacy of career development interventions. When people use language imprecisely, they imply that terminology does not matter. However, practitioners are

12 CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions

“engaged in a verbal profession in which words and symbols frequently become the content of the interactions they have with clients” (Herr, 1997, p. 241). their words have power, and they need to communicate with clarity and precision. this enhances the credibility of our profession and provides common ground for devising, implementing, and evaluating career development interventions. We define key terms in the following paragraphs.

Career

rather than limiting the definition of career to work, we advocate viewing career as a lifestyle concept. Accordingly, we concur with Super’s (1976) view of career as the course of events con- stituting a life, and Herr et al.’s (2004) notion of career as the total constellation of roles played over the course of a lifetime. these definitions are broader than the one offered by Sears (1982), which defines career as the totality of work one does in a lifetime. Broader definitions acknowl- edge both the multiple life roles people play and differences in the importance they assign to these roles, especially with regard to work (richardson, 1993). Broad definitions of career include the life role of homemaker, for example, as well as community volunteer.

Career Development

Career development refers to the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as con- textual influences shaping a person’s career over the life span. As such, it involves the person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, values expression, and life-role self-concepts (Herr et al., 2004).

Career Development Interventions

Career development interventions, defined broadly, comprise activities that empower people to cope effectively with career development tasks (Spokane, 1991). every activity that helps people develop self-awareness and occupational awareness, learn decision-making skills, acquire job- search skills, adjust to occupational choices after they have been implemented, and cope with job stress can be labeled career development interventions. these activities include individual and group career counseling, career development programs, career education, computer-assisted career development programs, and computer information delivery systems as well as other forms of delivering career information to clients.

Career Counseling

Career counseling is a formal relationship in which a professional counselor assists a client or group of clients to cope more effectively with career concerns (choosing a career, managing career transitions, coping with job-related stress, looking for a job). Career counselors typically establish rapport with their clients, assess clients’ career concerns, establish goals for the coun- seling relationship, intervene in ways that help clients cope more effectively with career concerns, evaluate clients’ progress, and, depending on clients’ progress, either offer additional interven- tions or terminate counseling.

CHAPter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions 13

Career Education

Career education is a systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults through various kinds of educational strategies, including providing occupational infor- mation, worksite-based experiences, career planning courses, and infusing career-related con- cepts into the academic curriculum (Hoyt, evans, Mackin, & Magnum, 1972).

Career Development Programs

Career development programs are defined as “a systematic program of counselor-coordinated information and experiences designed to facilitate individual career development” (Herr & Cramer, 1996, p. 33). these programs typically contain goals, objectives, activities, and methods for evaluating the effectiveness of the activities in achieving the goals.

Career Development Practitioners

A variety of practitioners provide career assistance in various settings. Doctoral-level psycholo- gists specializing in career development interventions work in private practice, university coun- seling centers, corporate settings, and community-based agencies. they typically hold a doctorate in counseling psychology from a program accredited by the American Psychological Association and use the term vocational or career psychologist to describe themselves. Licensed professional counselors also provide career interventions in settings similar to those in which vocational psy- chologists work. In addition, they often work in school settings, introducing career information and providing assistance to students in elementary, middle, and high schools. Most practitioners have a master’s and/or doctoral degree in counseling, often from a program accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and related educational Programs (CACreP). Career development facilitators (CDFs) may or may not have a postsecondary degree but have com- pleted 120 hours of training with an approved provider that equips them to offer more entry- level career assistance, often focusing on job search skills (résumé writing, interview skills, networking) and using basic self-assessment activities. they work primarily in employment centers, schools, and postsecondary settings.

Important events In the hIstory of career development InterventIons

the rise of career development interventions accelerated in the late 1800s as the United States shifted from an agriculture-based national economy to one grounded in industry and manufac- turing. this shift brought new industrial and manufacturing work opportunities, which in turn created new dilemmas for American workers. Workers were confronted with identifying and accessing these new jobs, which were often located in urban areas and required them to move away from their rural homes. In addition, large numbers of immigrants arrived in the United States seeking new lives and opportunities (Herr, 2001).