Understanding human communication 13th edition rent

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Understanding Human Communication

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9780190297084_i-xxii_fm.indd iii 10/05/16 07:38 PM

OXFORD NEW YORK OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

H CU

Understanding Human Communication

THIRTEENTH EDITION

Ronald B. Adler SANTA BARBARA CITY COLLEGE

George Rodman BROOKLYN COLLEGE

CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK

Athena du Pré UNIVERSITY OF WEST FLORIDA

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Adler, Ronald B. (Ronald Brian), 1946– author. | Rodman, George R., 1948– author. | DuPré, Athena, author. Title: Understanding human communication / Ronald B. Adler, Santa Barbara City College; George Rodman, Brooklyn College, City University of New York ; Athena duPré, University of West Florida. Description: Thirteenth edition. | New York: Oxford University Press, [2016] Identifiers: LCCN 2016033665 | ISBN 9780190297084 Subjects: LCSH: Communication. | Interpersonal communication. Classification: LCC P90 .A32 2016 | DDC 302.2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016033665

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Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America

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v

Brief Contents Preface xiii About the Authors xxii

PART ONE: FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Communication: What and Why 3

The Self, Perception, and Communication 35

Communication and Culture 67

PART TWO: COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS

Language 95

Listening 123

Nonverbal Communication 153

PART THREE: INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Understanding Interpersonal Communication 181

Managing Conflict in Interpersonal Relationships 213

PART FOUR: COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS

Communicating in Groups and Teams 243

Solving Problems in Groups and Teams 271

PART FIVE: PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Preparing and Presenting Your Speech 297

Organization and Support 323

Informative Speaking 349

Persuasive Speaking 373

Notes N-1 Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1

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Communication Defined 5 Characteristics of Communication 5 Modeling Communication 7

Types of Communication 10 Intrapersonal Communication 10 Dyadic/Interpersonal Communication 11 Small Group Communication 11 Organizational Communication 11 Public Communication 13 Mass Communication 13

Communication in a Changing World 13 Changing Technology 14 Changing Discipline 15

Understanding Social Media 16 Mediated Versus Face-to-Face Communication 17 How People Use Social Media 18

Functions of Communication 18 Physical Needs 18 Identity Needs 19 Social Needs 19 Practical Needs 19

Communication Competence: What Makes an Effective Communicator? 20

Communication Competence Defined 20 Characteristics of Competent Communicators 21 Communicating Competently with

Social Media 24

Clarifying Misconceptions About Communication 29 Communication Does Not Always Require Complete

Understanding 29 Communication Will Not Solve All Problems 30 Communication Isn’t Always a Good Thing 30 Meanings Rest in People, Not Words 30 Communication Is Not Simple 31 More Communication Isn’t Always Better 31

> FEATURES Self-Assessment Your Communication Choices 8

@Work Communication Skills and Career Success 12

Self-Assessment Your Communication Strengths and Goals 22

Understanding Communication Technology Dear Social Media, I Need a Little Space 25

Checklist Use Social Media Courteously and Wisely 30

Ethical Challenge To Communicate or Not to Communicate? 31

Contents Preface xiii About the Authors xxii

PART ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Communication: What and Why 31CHAPTER

The Self, Perception, and Communication 352CHAPTER

Communication and the Self 36 Self-Concept Defined 36 Biology, Personality, and the Self 38 External Influence on the Self-Concept 38 Culture and the Self-Concept 40 The Self-Concept and Communication

with Others 40 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

and Communication 41

Perceiving Others 42 Steps in the Perception Process 43 Influences on Perception 44 Narratives, Perception, and Communication 48 Common Perceptual Tendencies 49 Perception in Mediated Communication 52 Empathy, Perception, and Communication 52

Communication and Identity Management 55 vi

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Contents

Public and Private Selves 55 Characteristics of Identity Management 56 Identity Management in the Workplace 59 Why Manage Identities? 59 Identity Management in Mediated Communication 61 Identity Management and Honesty 61

> FEATURES Self-Assessment Communication and Your Self-Esteem 39

Ethical Challenge Is Honesty Always the Best Policy? 40

Checklist Check Your Perceptions Before Responding 54

Understanding Diversity Managing Identity and Coming Out 58

@Work Humblebragging in Job Interviews 60

Understanding Communication Technology Identity Management in Social Media 62

Ethical Challenge Honesty and Multiple Identities 63

Communication and Culture 673CHAPTER

PART TWO COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS

Language 954CHAPTER

Understanding Cultures and Cocultures 69 Intercultural and Intergroup Communication: A Matter

of Salience 70 Cultural Differences Are Generalizations 71

Cultural Values and Norms Shape Communication 71 Individualism and Collectivism 72 High and Low Cultural Context 74 Uncertainty Avoidance 75 Power Distance 76 Beliefs About Talk and Silence 76 Competitive and Cooperative Cultures 77

Cocultures and Communication 78 Race and Ethnicity 78 Regional Differences 79 Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity 80 Religion 82 Physical Ability/Disability 83 Age/Generation 84

Socioeconomic Status 85

Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 87 Increased Contact 87 Tolerance for Ambiguity 88 Open-Mindedness 89 Knowledge and Skill 89 Patience and Perseverance 91

> FEATURES @Work Power Distance and Culture in the Workplace 77

Understanding Diversity Gender Pronouns 81

Understanding Diversity Communicating with People Who Have Disabilities 83

@Work Organizations Are Cultures, Too 86

Self-Assessment What Is Your Intercultural Sensitivity? 90

Ethical Challenge Civility When Values Clash 91

The Nature of Language 96 Language Is Symbolic 97 Meanings Are in People, Not Words 97 Language Is Rule Governed 98

The Power of Language 100 Language Shapes Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs 100 Language Reflects Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs 104

Troublesome Language 107 The Language of Misunderstandings 107

Disruptive Language 112 Evasive Language 114

Gender and Language 116

> FEATURES @Work What’s in a Name? 101

Ethical Challenge 102

Understanding Diversity Language and Worldview 103

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Listening 1235CHAPTER

Nonverbal Communication 1536CHAPTER

The Value of Listening 125

Misconceptions About Listening 126 Myth 1: Listening and Hearing Are the Same Thing 126 Myth 2: Listening Is a Natural Process 127 Myth 3: All Listeners Receive the Same Message 128

Overcoming Challenges to Effective Listening 129 Reasons for Poor Listening 129 Faulty Listening Habits 132

Types of Listening 134 Task-Oriented Listening 134 Relational Listening 137 Analytical Listening 139 Critical Listening 140

Listening and Social Support 142 Online Social Support 142 Gender and Social Support 142

Types of Supportive Responses 144 When and How to Help 149

> FEATURES Checklist Tips for More Mindful Listening 128

@Work Multitasking Can Make You Stupid 130

Checklist Techniques for Listening Nondefensively 132

Self-Assessment What Is Your Listening Style? 134

Checklist Three Ways to Paraphrase 137

Checklist Taking Detailed Notes 138

Ethical Challenge How Carefully Should You Listen? 139

Checklist Evaluating a Speaker’s Message 140

Understanding Communication Technology Who Is Listening to You Online? 143

Checklist Factors to Consider Before Offering Advice 144

Checklist When and How to Offer an Analysis 146

Checklist Conditions That Make Paraphrasing a Good Option 149

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 155 Nonverbal Behavior Has Communicative Value 155 Nonverbal Communication Is Primarily

Relational 156 Nonverbal Communication Is Ambiguous 157 Nonverbal Communication Differs from Verbal

Communication 158 Nonverbal Skills Are Important 158

Influences on Nonverbal Communication 159 Culture 159 Gender 161

Functions of Nonverbal Communication 162 Repeating 162 Substituting 162 Complementing 162 Accenting 162

Regulating 163 Contradicting 164 Deceiving 164

Types of Nonverbal Communication 166 Body Movements 166 Voice 168 Appearance 170 Touch 172 Space 173 Environment 174 Time 175

Building Competence in Nonverbal Communication 176 Tune Out Words 176 Use Perception Checking 176 Pay Attention to Your Own Nonverbal Behavior 177

Understanding Communication Technology Twitter Lingo Incites Controversy 109

Ethical Challenge Euphemisms and Equivocations 114

Self-Assessment Your Use of Language 115

Checklist Choose Your Words Carefully 116

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> FEATURES Understanding Communication Technology Nonverbal Expressiveness Online 163

Self-Assessment How Worldly Are Your Nonverbal Communication Skills? 167

@Work Vocal Cues and Career Success 169

PART THREE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Understanding Interpersonal Communication 1817CHAPTER

Ethical Challenge Clothing and Impression Management 172

@Work Touch and Career Success 172

Self-Assessment ANSWERS to “How Worldly Are Your Nonverbal Communication Skills?” 179

Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication 183 What Makes Communication Interpersonal? 183 Mediated Interpersonal Communication 184

How We Choose Relational Partners 185 Evaluating Relationship Potential 185 Relationship Reality Check 187

Types of Interpersonal Relationships 188 Friendship 188 Family Relationships 191 Romantic Partners 192

Communication Patterns in Relationships 198 Content and Relational Messages 198 Metacommunication 200 Self-Disclosure in Interpersonal Relationships 200 Dialectical Perspective of Interpersonal Relationships 203 Lies and Evasions 206

> FEATURES Ethical Challenge Is It Cheating? 185

Understanding Diversity Can Men and Women Be Just Friends? 189

Checklist Being a Better Friend 190

Checklist Being a Better Family Member 192

Self-Assessment What Is Your Love Language? 194

Checklist Meeting an Online Date for the First Time 196

Understanding Communication Technology To End This Romance, Just Press “Send” 198

Checklist When and How Much to Self-Disclose 202

Ethical Challenge The Ethics of Lying and Evading 206

Self-Assessment ANSWERS to “What Is Your Love Language?”

Managing Conflict in Interpersonal Relationships 2138CHAPTER

Understanding Interpersonal Conflict 215

Communication Climates in Interpersonal Relationships 216 Confirming and Disconfirming Messages 218 How Communication Climates Develop 221

Approaches to Conflict 222 Styles of Expressing Conflict 223 Characteristics of an Assertive Message 226 Gender and Conflict Style 230 Cultural Influences on Conflict 231 Conflict in Online Communication 233

Managing Interpersonal Conflicts 234

Methods for Conflict Resolution 234 Steps in Win–Win Problem Solving 236

> FEATURES Self-Assessment How Sunny Is Your Communication Climate? 217

Understanding Communication Technology Can You Hear Me Now? 220

Checklist Creating Positive Communication Climates 222

@Work Dealing with Sexual Harassment 226

Ethical Challenge It’s Nothing! 227

Self-Assessment How Assertive Are You? 228

Understanding Diversity They Seem to Be Arguing 232

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The Nature of Groups and Teams 245 What Is a Group? 245 What Makes a Group a Team? 247 Virtual Groups 248

Goals of Groups and Their Members 249 Group Goals 249 Individual Goals 249

Characteristics of Groups and Teams 250 Rules and Norms 250 Patterns of Interaction 250 Roles 252

Leadership and Communication 256 Understanding Leadership 256 Becoming a Leader 261

Followership and Communication 263 Types of Followers 263 The Power of Followers 264

> FEATURES Checklist Building an Effective Team Online 248

Checklist Getting Slackers to Do Their Share 249

Ethical Challenge Rules for Hidden Agendas 250

@Work “I’ll Do It Myself”—Or Should I? 259

Checklist Working with a Difficult Boss 260

Self-Assessment Your Leadership Approach 262

Self-Assessment How Good a Follower Are You? 264

PART FOUR COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS

Communicating in Groups and Teams 2439CHAPTER

Solving Problems in Groups and Teams 27110CHAPTER

Problem Solving in Groups: When and Why 273 Advantages of Group Problem Solving 273 When to Use Groups for Problem

Solving 274

Setting the Stage for Problem Solving 276 Maintain Positive Relationships 276 Recognize Stages of Team Development 280

Group Problem-Solving Strategies and Formats 280 Group Discussion Formats 281 Solving Problems in Virtual Groups 282

Approaches and Stages in Problem Solving 284 A Structured Problem-Solving

Approach 284 Decision-Making Methods 289

Overcoming Dangers in Group Discussion 291

Information Underload and Overload 291 Unequal Participation 291 Pressure to Conform 293

> FEATURES Understanding Diversity Maximizing the Effectiveness of Multicultural Teams 275

Checklist Is This a Good Opportunity for Teamwork? 276

Self-Assessment How Effective Is Your Team? 277

Checklist Dealing with Difficult Team Members 279

@Work The Power of Constructive Dialogue 282

Understanding Communication Technology Developing Trust Long Distance 283

Checklist Coping with Information Overload 291

Ethical Challenge Overly Talkative and Quiet Group Members 292

Checklist Avoiding Groupthink 293

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PART FIVE PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Preparing and Presenting Your Speech 29711CHAPTER

Getting Started 299 Choosing Your Topic 299 Defining Your Purpose 299 Writing a Purpose Statement 299 Stating Your Thesis 300

Analyzing the Speaking Situation 301 The Listeners 301 The Occasion 304

Gathering Information 304 Online Research 305 Library Research 306 Interviewing 306 Survey Research 306

Managing Communication Apprehension 307 Facilitative and Debilitative Communication

Apprehension 307 Sources of Debilitative Communication

Apprehension 308

Overcoming Debilitative Communication Apprehension 309

Presenting Your Speech 311 Choosing an Effective Type of Delivery 311 Practicing Your Speech 311

Guidelines for Delivery 311 Visual Aspects of Delivery 312 Auditory Aspects of Delivery 313

Sample Speech 315

> FEATURES Ethical Challenge Adapting to Speaking Situations 302

@Work Sample Analysis of a Speaking Situation 305

Checklist Evaluating Websites 306

Self-Assessment Speech Anxiety Symptoms 310

Checklist Practicing Your Presentation 312

Understanding Diversity A Compendium of American Dialects 315

Organization and Support 32312CHAPTER

Structuring Your Speech 324 Your Working Outline 325 Your Formal Outline 325 Your Speaking Notes 325

Principles of Outlining 327 Standard Symbols 327 Standard Format 327 The Rule of Division 327 The Rule of Parallel Wording 327

Organizing Your Outline into a Logical Pattern 328 Time Patterns 329 Space Patterns 329 Topic Patterns 329 Problem-Solution Patterns 330 Cause-Effect Patterns 330 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence 331

Beginnings, Endings, and Transitions 332 The Introduction 332 The Conclusion 334

Transitions 334

Supporting Material 335 Functions of Supporting Material 335 Types of Supporting Material 337 Styles of Support: Narration and Citation 340

Sample Speech 341 Speech Outline 341 Bibliography 342

> FEATURES Self-Assessment Main Points and Subpoints 328

Understanding Diversity Nontraditional Patterns of Organization 331

Checklist Capturing Audience Attention 333

Checklist Effective Conclusions 334

@Work Organizing Business Presentations 336

Ethical Challenge The Ethics of Support 340

Understanding Communication Technology Plagiarism in a Digital Age 340

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Informative Speaking 34913CHAPTER

Persuasive Speaking 37314CHAPTER

Types of Informative Speaking 352 By Content 352 By Purpose 352

Informative Versus Persuasive Topics 353 An Informative Topic Tends to Be

Noncontroversial 353 The Informative Speaker Does Not

Intend to Change Audience Attitudes 353

Techniques of Informative Speaking 353 Define a Specific Informative Purpose 354 Create Information Hunger 355 Make It Easy to Listen 355 Use Clear, Simple Language 356 Use a Clear Organization and Structure 356 Use Supporting Material Effectively 357 Emphasize Important Points 358

Generate Audience Involvement 358

Using Visual Aids 361 Types of Visual Aids 361 Using Presentation Software 364 Alternative Media for Presenting Graphics 364 Rules for Using Visual Aids 365

Sample Speech 365

> FEATURES Self-Assessment Are You Overloaded with Information? 351

Understanding Diversity How Culture Affects Information 354

Checklist Techniques of Informative Speaking 355

Ethical Challenge The Ethics of Simplicity 356

@Work The Pros and Cons of Presentation Software 366

Characteristics of Persuasion 375 Persuasion Is Not Coercive 375 Persuasion Is Usually Incremental 375 Persuasion Is Interactive 376 Persuasion Can Be Ethical 377

Categorizing Types of Persuasion 378 By Types of Proposition 378 By Desired Outcome 380 By Directness of Approach 381

Creating the Persuasive Message 382 Set a Clear, Persuasive Purpose 382 Structure the Message Carefully 382 Use Solid Evidence 385 Avoid Fallacies 386

Adapting to the Audience 388 Establish Common Ground 389

Organize According to the Expected Response 389 Neutralize Potential Hostility 389

Building Credibility as a Speaker 390 Competence 390 Character 391 Charisma 392

Sample Speech 393 Bibliography 394

> FEATURES Ethical Challenge Analyzing Communication Behaviors 378

Understanding Diversity Cultural Differences in Persuasion 387

Ethical Challenge Adapting to a Hostile Audience 390

Self-Assessment Persuasive Speech 391

@Work Persuasion Skills in the World of Sales 392

Checklist Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 393

Communicating for Career Success Available at www.oup.com/us/adleruhcONLINE APPENDIX

Notes N-1 Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1

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Preface If you want to push most communication professors’ buttons, claim that the prin- ciples they study and teach are “just common sense.”

The truth is that communication, like many things in life, may look straight- forward. But beneath the veneer of simplicity, it’s fraught with challenges and questions. For example: • Why do others misunderstand you? (And why do they accuse you of not

understanding them?)

• How can you know when another person is telling the truth? • When it comes to communicating, are men from Mars and women from

Venus, or are we more or less the same?

• Why do we often get the most defensive when we know we’re wrong? • What makes some teams so effective and others disappointing? • Why are so many well-informed speakers uninteresting and hard to

understand?

• Why do people feel so nervous when speaking in public, and what can they do about it?

Understanding Human Communication answers questions such as these. It aims to provide an engaging, comprehensive, useful introduction to the academic study of human communication as it is practiced in the 21st century. To see how well this book succeeds, we invite you flip to any page and ask three questions: Is the content important? Is the explanation clear? Is it useful?

Approach This 13th edition builds on the approach that has served well over half a million students and their professors. Rather than take sides in the theory-versus-skills debate that often rages in our discipline, Understanding Human Communication treats scholarship and skill development as mutually reinforcing. Its reader-friendly approach strives to present material clearly without being overly simplistic. Exam- ples on virtually every page make concepts clear and interesting. A contemporary design makes the material inviting, as do amusing and instructive cartoons and photos that link concepts in the text to today’s world.

New to This Edition Beyond its user-friendly voice and engaging design, this edition reflects both the growth of scholarship and changing trends in the academic marketplace. Longtime users will discover not only a more contemporary look and feel but expanded cov- erage of key concepts and a wealth of new learning tools.

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New Content • Expanded coverage of social media. Throughout the book, readers will find

new and updated coverage of topics including social media etiquette and the uses and gratifications of social media (Chapter 1), the risks of overusing mediated communication channels (Chapters 1 and 7), identity management on social media (Chapter 2), online social support (Chapter 5), the differ- ences between mediated and in-person close relationships (Chapter 7), tips for meeting an online date for the first time (Chapter 7), working in virtual groups (Chapter 9), and cyberspace work environments (Chapter 10). New and updated “Understanding Communication Technology” boxes highlight the increasingly important role of technology in human communication.

• Updated discussions of communication and culture. Chapter 3 is devoted entirely to communication and culture. It focuses on cocultural factors that students are likely to encounter close to home every day: ethnicity, regional differences, gender/sexual orientation, religion, physical abilities, age/gen- eration, and socioeconomic status. Updated material addresses cultural hegemony and intersectionality theory. The discussion of culture extends throughout the book, most visibly in “Understanding Diversity” boxes. New and updated boxes in this edition explore the challenge of manag- ing personal pronouns in an era of increasing gender fluidity (Chapter 3), the effect of language on worldview (Chapter 4), and the advantages of multicultural teams (Chapter 10). In-text discussions and captioned photos address topics such as microaggressions (Chapter 2), cultural conflict styles (Chapter 8), and cultural leadership preferences (Chapter 9).

• New tips for career success. “@Work” boxes appear throughout the text, covering new and expanded topics such as the connection between com- munication skills and career success (Chapter 1), professional identity man- agement and job interviewing (Chapter 2), the risks of humblebragging (Chapter 2), vocal cues and career success (Chapter 6), and new examples of effective presentations at work (Chapters 11–14). An online appendix, “Communicating for Career Success,” is available at www.oup.com/us/ adleruhc and contains advice on how to communicate professionally in seeking employment and once on the job.

• New chapter-opening profiles. These stories highlight real-life communica- tion challenges and are woven into the fabric of the chapter content. Profiles feature interesting and relevant personal stories, including those of Zappos founder Tony Hsieh, television personality and former Olympian Caitlyn Jenner, young publishing executive Erica Nicole, body language expert Amy Cuddy, relationship expert Brené Brown, startup whiz Matt Mullenweg, human rights activist Malala Yousafzai, students who have overcome dis- abilities, and others who have fought for equal rights. Questions at the end of the profiles prompt students to connect the material to their own lives.

• New and expanded coverage of important topics in each chapter. For example:

◦ Chapter 1 discusses the social and physical benefits of effective commu- nication. It includes a new “Understanding Communication Technol- ogy” box on controlling social media use and a new checklist on social media etiquette.

◦ Chapter 2 now includes an expanded discussion of self-esteem, social influences on the self-concept, how stereotyping and scripts degrade the

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quality of communication, and how empathy and frame switching pro- vide better understanding of others.

◦ Chapter 3 includes a new “Understanding Diversity” box on gender pronouns as well as expanded discussions of cultural dominance and religion-based stereotyping.

◦ Chapter 4 contains a new discussion of the differences between connota- tive and denotative meaning. In addition, it includes a clearer, expanded explanation of pragmatic rules and a more complete explanation of how power relationships are expressed in language use. Chapter 4 also offers a current view of similarities and differences between characteristically male and female speech.

◦ Chapter 5 offers new evidence on the personal and career benefits of effective listening, as well as gender differences in social support.

◦ Chapter 6 addresses contemporary speech mannerisms such as uptalk and vocal fry.

◦ Chapter 7 now includes treatment of the role communication plays in maintaining friendships, family connections, and romantic relation- ships. It also includes a clearer treatment of how dialectical tensions shape communication in close relationships, and the roles of lies and evasions in relational maintenance.

◦ Chapter 8 (now titled “Managing Conflict in Interpersonal Relation- ships”) has been reorganized to present both familiar and new material in a clearer and more useful way.

◦ Chapter 9 includes new material on transformational leadership.

◦ Chapter 10 includes three new checklists on teamwork and a new table on decision-making methods.

◦ Chapters 11–14 have all new sample speeches, outlines, and analyses. Their topics include many forms of diversity, including LGBTQ life, as well as current controversies such as gun control. Chapter 13 provides new examples of how to spark visual interest in a speech, how to use vocal citations, and how to incorporate photos, videos, and audio files into a presentation.

Learning Tools

• Checklists in every chapter, many of them new for this edition, provide handy reference tools to help students build their skill sets and internalize what they have learned. New checklists address how to use social media courteously (Chapter 1); perception checking (Chapter 2); minimizing mis- understandings (Chapter 4); mindful listening, paraphrasing, and control- ling defensiveness (Chapter 5); being a better friend (Chapter 7); creating positive communication climates (Chapter 8); getting slackers to do their share in groups and working with difficult bosses (Chapter 9); and dealing with difficult team members (Chapter 10).

• Self-assessments invite students to evaluate and improve their communica- tion skills and to consider their identities as communicators. These features include quizzes to help students understand more about their listening styles (Chapter 5), love languages (Chapter 7), interpersonal communica- tion climates (Chapter 8), leadership and followership styles (Chapter 9), team effectiveness (Chapter 10), and more.

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• Learning Objectives now correspond to major headings in each chapter and coordinate with the end-of-chapter summary and review. They provide a clear map of what students need to learn and where to find that material.

• A new “Making the Grade” section at the end of each chapter helps students test and deepen their mastery of the material. Organized by learning objec- tive, this section summarizes the key points from the text and includes related questions and prompts to promote understanding and application.

• “Understanding Communication Technology” boxes highlight the increasingly important role of technology in human communication.

• “Understanding Diversity” boxes provide a more in-depth treatment of intercultural communication topics.

• “@Work” boxes show students how key concepts from the text operate in the workplace.

• “Ethical Challenge” boxes engage students in debates such as whether honesty is always the best policy, the acceptability of presenting multiple identities, and how to deal effectively with difficult group members.

• Key Terms are boldfaced on first use and listed at the end of each chapter, and a new Marginal Glossary helps students learn new terms.

• Activities at the end of each chapter can be completed in class and help students apply the material to their everyday lives. Additional activities are available in the Instructor’s Manual (The Complete Guide to Teaching Com- munication) at https://arc2.oup-arc.com/.

• Ask Yourself prompts in the margins invite students to apply the material to their own lives. These also provide a confidence-building opportunity to get students speaking in class before undertaking formal presentations.

• Marginal cultural idioms not only highlight the use of idioms in commu- nication but also help nonnative English speakers appreciate the idiosyn- cratic expressions and colloquialisms they normally take for granted.

• An enhanced support package for every chapter (described in detail below) includes video links, pre- and post-reading quizzes, activities, discussion topics, examples, tools for recording and uploading student speeches for assessment, an online gradebook, and more.

Optional Chapter Along with the topics included in the text itself, a custom chapter is available on Mass Communication. Ask your Oxford University Press representative for details, or see the Understanding Human Communication website at www.oup.com/us/adleruhc.

Ancillary Package The 13th edition of Understanding Human Communication contains a robust pack- age of ancillary materials that will make teaching more efficient and learning more effective. Instructors and students alike will be pleased to find a complete suite of supplements.

Online Learning This edition of Understanding Human Communication offers a host of options for online learning:

• Dashboard delivers high-quality content, tools, and assessments to track student progress in an intuitive, web-based learning environment.

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Dashboard gives instructors the ability to manage digital content from Understanding Human Communication, 13th edition, and its supplemen- tary materials in order to make assignments, administer tests, and track student progress. Assessments are designed to accompany this text and are automatically graded so that instructors can easily check students’ progress as they complete their assignments. The color-coded gradebook illustrates at a glance where students are succeeding and where they can improve. Dashboard is engineered to be simple, informative, and mobile. All Dashboard content is engineered to work on mobile devices, includ- ing iOS platforms.

With this edition’s Dashboard, professors and students have access to a variety of interactive study and assessment tools designed to enhance their learning experience, including:

◦ Multiple choice pre- and posttests to accompany each chapter

◦ Interactive drag-and-drop questions in each chapter

◦ Animations with assessment questions based on the 13th edition’s fig- ures, which help reinforce difficult and abstract concepts

◦ Short video clips with assessment in each chapter to show communica- tion in action and help students apply what they have learned

◦ Examples of professional and student speeches, accompanied by review and analysis questions

◦ Interactive flashcards to aid in self-study

• Course cartridges are an alternative to Dashboard. They are avail- able for a variety of Learning Management Systems, including Black- board Learn, Canvas, Moodle, D2L, and Angel. Course cartridges allow instructors to create their own course websites integrating student and instructor resources available on the Ancillary Resource Center and Companion Website. Contact your Oxford University Press representa- tive for access or for more information about these supplements or cus- tomized options.

For Instructors Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at https://arc2.oup-arc.com/. This convenient, instructor-focused website provides access to all of the up-to-date teaching resources for this text—at any time—while guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources. In addition, it allows OUP to keep instructors informed when new con- tent becomes available. The following items are available on the ARC:

• The Complete Guide to Teaching Communication, written by co-author Athena du Pré, provides a complete syllabus, teaching tips, preparation checklists, grab-and-go lesson plans, high-impact activities, links to rel- evant video clips, and coordinating PowerPoint lecture slides and Prezi presentations.

• A comprehensive Computerized Test Bank includes 60 exam questions per chapter in multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay formats. The ques- tions have been extensively revised for this edition, are labeled according to difficulty, and include the page reference and chapter section where the answers may be found.

• PowerPoint and Prezi lecture slides include key concepts, video clips, dis- cussion questions, and other elements to engage students. They correspond to content in the lesson plans, making them ready to use and fully editable so that preparing for class is faster and easier than ever.

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• Now Playing, Instructor’s Edition, includes an introduction on how to incorporate film and television clips in class, as well as even more film examples, viewing guides and assignments, a complete set of sample responses to the discussion questions in the student edition, a full list of references, and an index by subject for ease of use. Now Playing also has an accompanying companion website at www.oup.com/us/nowplaying, which features descriptions of films from previous editions and selected film clips.

For Students

• Now Playing, Student Edition, available free in a package with a new copy of the book, explores contemporary films and television shows through the lens of communication principles. Updated yearly, it illustrates how com- munication concepts play out in a variety of situations, using mass media that are interactive, familiar, and easily accessible to students.

• The Companion Website is an open-access student website at www.oup. com/us/adleruhc that offers activities, audio tutorials, chapter outlines, review questions, worksheets, practice quizzes, flashcards, and other study tools. This companion site is perfect for students who are looking for a little extra study material online.

Acknowledgments Anyone involved with creating a textbook knows that success isn’t possible without the contributions of many people.

We owe a debt to our colleagues, whose reviews helped shape the edition you are holding. In particular, we wish to thank Anastacia Kurylo of St. Joseph’s Col- lege for her insightful comments on Chapter 3, and Molly Steen of the University of California, Santa Barbara, for her guidance on communication strategies for job-seekers. Thanks yet again to Russ Proctor, University of Northern Kentucky, for sharing his work and insights. We also thank the following reviewers commis- sioned by Oxford University Press:

Theresa Albury Miami Dade College

Mark Bergmooser Monroe County Community College

Jaime Bochantin University of North Carolina, Charlotte

Kelly Crue St. Cloud Technical and Community College

Lisa Fitzgerald Austin Community College

David Flatley Central Carolina Community College

Sarah D. Fogle Embry-Riddle University

Karley Goen Tarleton State University

Donna L. Halper Lesley University

Lysia Hand Phoenix College

Milton Hunt Austin Community College

Amy K. Lenoce Naugatuck Valley Community College

Allyn Lueders East Texas Baptist University

Kim P. Nyman Collin College

Christopher Palmi Lewis University

Evelyn Plummer Seton Hall University

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Delwin E. Richey Tarleton State University

Charles Roberts East Tennessee State University

John H. Saunders University of Central Arkansas

Kim G. Smith Bishop State Community College

Linda H. Straubel Embry-Riddle University

Raymond D. Taylor Blue Ridge Community College

Lori E. Vela Austin Community College

We also continue to be grateful to the many professors whose reviews of previous editions continue to bring value to this book:

Deanna Armentrout, West Virginia University; Miki Bacino-Thiessen, Rock Valley College; Marie Baker-Ohler, Northern Arizona University; Kimberly Batty-Herbert, South Florida Community College; Mark Bergmooser, Monroe County Commu- nity College; Pete Bicak, SUNY Rockland; Brett N. Billman, Bowling Green State University; Shepherd Bliss, Sonoma State University; Beth Bryant, Northern Virginia Community College, Loudoun; Jo-Anne Bryant, Troy State University– Montgomery; Ironda Joyce Campbell, Pierpont Community and Technical College; Patricia Carr Connell, Gadsden State Community College; Cheryl Chambers, Mississippi State University; Kelly Crue, Saint Cloud Technical & Community College; Dee Ann Curry, McMurry University; Amber Davies-Sloan, Yavapai College; Heather Dorsey, University of Minnesota; Rebecca A. Ellison, Jefferson College; Gary G. Fallon, Broward Community College and Miami International University of Art and Design; Amber N. Finn, Texas Christian University; Sarah Fogle, Embry- Riddle Aeronautical University; Cole Franklin, East Texas Baptist University; Mikako Garard, Santa Barbara City College; Samantha Gonzalez, University of Hartford; Betsy Gordon, McKendree University; Sharon Grice, Kirkwood Community College–Cedar Rapids; Deborah Hill, Sauk Valley Commu- nity College; Lisa Katrina Hill, Harrisburg Area Community College– Gettysburg Campus; Brittany Hochstaetter, Wake Technical Community College; Emily Holler, Kennesaw State University; Maria Jaskot-Inclan, Wilbur Wright College; Kimberly Kline, University of Texas at San Antonio; Carol Knudson, Gateway Tech College–Kenosha; Kara Laskowski, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania; Jen- nifer Lehtinen, State University of New York at Orange; Kurt Lindemann, San Diego State University; Judy Litterst, St. Cloud State College; Natashia Lopez-Gomez, Notre Dame De Namur University; Jennifer McCullough, Kent State University; Bruce C. McKinney, University of North Carolina– Wilmington; Brenda Meyer, Anoka Ramsey Community College–Cambridge; Jim Mignerey, St. Petersburg Col- lege; Randy Mueller, Gateway Technical College, Kenosha; Kimberly M. Myers, Manchester College and Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne; Gregg Nelson, Chippewa Valley Technical College, River Falls; Catriona O’Curry, Bellevue Community College; Emily Osbun-Bermes, Indiana University–Purdue University at Fort Wayne; Doug Parry, University of Alaska at Anchorage; Daniel M. Paulnock, Saint Paul College; Cheryl Pawlowski, University of Northern Colorado; Stacey A. Peterson, Notre Dame of Maryland University; Kelly Aikin Petkus, Austin Com- munity College–Cypress Creek; Russell F. Proctor, Northern Kentucky Univer- sity; Shannon Proctor, Highline Community College; Robert Pucci, SUNY Ulster; Terry Quinn, Gateway Technical College, Kenosha; Elizabeth Ribarsky, University of Illinois at Springfield; Dan Robinette, Eastern Kentucky University; B. Hannah Rockwell, Loyola University Chicago; Dan Rogers, Cedar Valley College; Theresa Rogers, Baltimore City Community College, Liberty; Michele Russell, Northern Virginia Community College; Gerald Gregory Scanlon, Colorado Mountain Col- lege; David Schneider, Saginaw Valley State University; Cady Short-Thompson, Northern Kentucky University; Karen Solliday, Gateway Technical College; Patricia

xx Preface

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Spence, Richland Community College; Sarah Stout, Kellogg Community College; Don Taylor, Blue Ridge Community College; Cornelius Tyson, Central Connecti- cut State University; Curt VanGeison, St. Charles Community College; Robert W. Wawee, The University of Houston–Downtown; Kathy Wenell-Nesbit, Chippewa Valley Technical College; Shawnalee Whitney, University of Alaska, Anchorage; Princess Williams, Suffolk County Community College; Rebecca Wolniewicz, Southwestern College; and Jason Ziebart, Central Carolina Community College.

Many thanks are due to colleagues who developed and refined elements of the ancillary package:

Mary Ann McHugh: Test Bank, Dashboard, Companion Website

Tanika Smith and Windolyn Yarberry: Dashboard

John James: PowerPoints/Prezis

The enhanced package that is the result of their efforts will help instructors teach more effectively and students succeed in mastering the material in this text.

As most instructors know, ancillaries are anything but secondary. The previ- ous edition’s ancillaries were reviewed for accuracy, ease of use, efficacy, relevancy, and rigor. It was this direct instructor feedback that we used to craft the current edition’s program. We would like to thank the following reviewers of ancillary materials for their thoughtful insights:

Jessica Akey Champlain College

Manuel G. Aviles-Santiago Arizona State University

Jaime Bochantin DePaul University/University of North Carolina, Charlotte

James Canney Naugatuck Valley Community College

Kelly Crue St. Cloud Technical and Community College

Stuart Doyle Embry-Riddle University

Vance Elderkin Alamance Community College

Rebecca A. Ellison Jefferson College

Milton Hunt Austin Community College

Audrey E. Kali Framingham State University

James Keller Lone Star College CyFair

Sarah Kercsmar University of Kentucky

Randall E. King Indiana Wesleyan University

Maria LeBerre Northern Virginia Community College

Michelle M. Maresh-Fuehrer Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi

James L. Redfield St. Cloud Technical and Community College

Emily Richardson University of Pikeville

Delwin E. Richey Tarleton State University

Jacqueline A. Shirley Tarrant County College

Kim G. Smith Bishop State Community College

Linda H. Straubel Embry-Riddle University

Charlotte Toguchi Kapi‘olani Community College

Archie Wortham Northeast Lakeview College

Windolyn Yarberry Florida State College at Jacksonville

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In an age when publishing is becoming increasingly corporate, impersonal, and sales driven, we continue to be grateful for the privilege and pleasure of work- ing with the professionals at the venerable Oxford University Press. They blend the best old-school practices with cutting-edge thinking.

Our Editor, Toni Magyar, has been a hardworking advocate for this book. We count our lucky stars for all the contributions of Development Editor Lauren Mine. She is an author’s dream—smart, responsive, resourceful, and congenial. Associate Editor Paul Longo has been a valuable member of the UHC team, coordinating the ancillary package, figure updates, and countless other details. Senior Production Editor Barbara Mathieu’s steady hand and Art Director Michele Laseau’s design talents have transformed this project from a plain manuscript into the handsome book you are now reading. Marketing Manager David Jurman and the entire OUP sales team have gone the extra mile in bringing this book to users and supporting their teaching efforts. We are grateful to Sherri Adler and Sandy Cooke for their resourcefulness and the artistic sense they applied in choosing photos in these pages. We are also grateful to the eagle-eyed James Fraleigh for reviewing this manuscript and to Susan Monahan for her indexing talents.

Finally, as always, we thank our partners Sherri, Linda, and Grant for their good-natured understanding and support while we’ve worked on this edition for more than a year. When it comes to communication, they continue to be the best judges of whether we practice what we preach.

Ron Adler George Rodman

Athena du Pré

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About the Authors Ronald B. Adler is Professor of Communication Emeritus, at Santa Barbara City College. He is coauthor of Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication; Essential Communication; Looking Out, Looking In; and Communicating at Work: Prin- ciples and Practices for Business and the Professions.

George Rodman is Professor in the Department of Television and Radio at Brook- lyn College, City University of New York, where he founded the graduate media studies program. He is the author of Mass Media in a Changing World, Making Sense of Media, and several books on public speaking.

Athena du Pré is Distinguished University Professor of Communication at the University of West Florida. She is the author of Communicating About Health: Cur- rent Issues and Perspectives and coauthor of Essential Communication, as well as other books, journal articles, and chapters on communicating effectively.

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Understanding Human Communication

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Communication: What and Why

1 CHAPTER OUTLINE

Communication Defined 5 Characteristics of Communication

Modeling Communication

Types of Communication 10 Intrapersonal Communication

Dyadic/Interpersonal Communication

Small Group Communication

Organizational Communication

Public Communication

Mass Communication

Communication in a Changing World 13 Changing Technology

Changing Discipline

Understanding Social Media 16 Mediated Versus Face-to-Face Communication

How People Use Social Media

Functions of Communication 18 Physical Needs

Identity Needs

Social Needs

Practical Needs

Communication Competence: What Makes an Effective Communicator? 20

Communication Competence Defined

Characteristics of Competent Communicators

Communicating Competently with Social Media

Clarifying Misconceptions About Communication 29 Communication Does Not Always Require Complete Understanding

Communication Will Not Solve All Problems

Communication Isn’t Always a Good Thing

Meanings Rest in People, Not Words

Communication Is Not Simple

More Communication Isn’t Always Better

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1.1

Apply the transactional communication model described on pages 9–10 to a specific incident, explaining how that exchange is part of a relational, symbolic process.

1.2

Identify the types of communication that operate in human interaction.

1.3

Compare and contrast face-to-face and mediated communication, including social media.

1.4

Describe the effects of changing communication technology on the study of human communication in recent decades.

1.5

Explain the key needs you and others attempt to satisfy by communicating.

1.6

Suggest ways of improving your communication competence in a specific situation.

1.7

Identify how misconceptions about communication can create problems, and suggest how changes in communication can lead to better outcomes.

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ZAPPOS IS A BILLION-DOLLAR COMPANY. But if you go looking

for the CEO, don’t ask directions to the executive suite. Tony Hsieh (pro-

nounced Shay) sits at a standard-issue desk in the midst of the company’s

busy call center. “I think I would probably get lonely in an office. I’d be

away from all the action,” explains the energetic visionary.1

Hsieh maintains a legendary fervor for open communication. By being

in the same room as everyone else, he can easily share information and

listen to employees’ ideas in real time. It’s an unconventional approach

with unconventional results: Zappos skyrocketed to success as an online

retail company in about 10 years. Behind that success is the philosophy

that supportive relationships, enhanced by effective communication,

matter more than anything else.

We’ll return to Hsieh as an example throughout the chapter. His success

makes a strong case for the importance of communication. But perhaps

the strongest argument for studying this subject is its central role in our

lives. The average person spends 7 out of every 10 waking hours actively

communicating with family members, friends, coworkers, teachers, and

even strangers.2 With computers, phones, tablets, and all the rest, it’s pos-

sible to carry on several conversations at one time. Of course, more com-

munication isn’t always better communication. In this chapter, we begin

to explore how to make wise choices about what messages we share with

others and how we share them.

You don’t have to be CEO of a billion-dollar

company to recognize the importance of effective

communication.

?

Tony Hsieh uses communication to build

relationships with colleagues and customers. What role

does communication play in the quality of your

relationships at school, at work, and in your

personal life?

?

Describe the communica- tion style of someone you admire. In what ways does that person display respect

for others? How does he or she encourage mutual

understanding?

?

What communication skills do you think will be most essential in the career you

envision for yourself? Why?

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Communication Defined The term communication isn’t as simple as it might seem. People use it in a variety of ways that are only vaguely related:

• A dog scratches at the back door to be let out. • Data flows from one computer database to another in a cas-

cade of electronic impulses.

• Strangers who live thousands of miles apart notice each oth- er’s social media postings, and they build a relationship via email, text messaging, and instant messaging.

• Locals offer directions to a group of confused-looking people who seem to be from out of town.

• A religious leader gives a sermon encouraging the congrega- tion to get more involved in the community.

We need to narrow our focus before going on. A look at this book’s table of contents shows that it does not deal with animals. Neither is it about Holy Communion, the bestowing of a material thing, or many of the other subjects mentioned in the Oxford Eng- lish Dictionary’s 1,200-word definition of communication. What, then, are we talk- ing about when we use the term?

Characteristics of Communication As its title suggests, this is a book about understanding human communication—so we’ll start by explaining what it means to study communication that is unique to members of our species. For our purposes we’ll define human communication as the process of creating meaning through symbolic interaction. Examining this definition reveals some important insights.

Communication Is a Process We often think about communication as if it occurs in discrete, individual acts such as one person’s utterance or a conversation. But in fact, communication is a continuous, on- going process. There are probably people in your life who have changed your outlook through their words and actions. This change typically occurs over time, not instantly.

As a case in point, consider the CEO of Zappos. Tony Hsieh recognizes that creating a culture of happiness at Zappos re- quires more than a speech, a memo from HR, or slogans on the wall. Developing trust, creativity, and respect takes time. Hsieh made a commitment to listen to team members every day and take their ideas seriously. Open communication and effective listening have allowed Zappos to become one of the best places to work in the country.3

Consistency is key. Even what appears to be an isolated message is often part of a much larger process. Consider, for example, a friend’s compliment about your appearance. Your interpretation of those words will depend on a long series of experiences stretching far back in time: How have others judged your appearance? How do you feel about your looks? How honest has your friend been in the past? How have you been feeling about each other recently? All this history will help shape your response to the friend’s remark. In turn, the

communication The process of creating meaning through symbolic

interaction.

Communication (without an “s”) refers to the study of how people share messages. That’s the primary focus of this book. Communications (with an “s”) usually refers to the technologies that enable the exchange of information.

Can you give examples of the proper use of “communication” versus “communications”?

Source: © The New Yorker Collection 1984 Warren Miller from cartoonbank.com. ALL RIGHTS

RESERVED.

CHAPTER 1 Communication: What and Why6

9780190297084_ch01_001-033.indd 6 10/06/16 12:52 PM

words you speak and the way you say them will shape the way your friend behaves toward you and others—both in this situation and in the future.

This simple example shows that it’s inaccurate to talk about “acts” of commu- nication as if they occur in isolation. To put it differently, communication isn’t a series of incidents pasted together like photographs in a scrapbook; instead, it is more like a motion picture in which the meaning comes from the unfolding of an interrelated series of images. The fact that communication is a process is reflected in the transactional model introduced later in this chapter.

Communication Is Relational, Not Individual Communication isn’t some- thing we do to others; rather, it is something we do with them. Like many types of dancing, communication depends on the involvement of a partner. A great dancer who doesn’t consider and adapt to the skill level of his or her partner can make both people look bad. In communication and in dancing, even two highly skilled partners must work at adaptation and coordination. Finally, relational communication—like dancing—is a unique creation that arises out of the way in which the partners interact: It varies with different partners.

Psychologist Kenneth Gergen captures the relational nature of communica- tion well when he points out how our success depends on interaction with others. As he says, “one cannot be ‘attractive’ without others who are attracted, a ‘leader’ without others willing to follow, or a ‘loving person’ without others to affirm with appreciation.”4

Because communication is relational, or transactional, it’s often a mistake to suggest that just one person is responsible for a relationship. Although it’s easy to blame each other for a disappointing outcome, that’s often fruitless and counter- productive. It’s usually far better to ask, “How did we handle this situation poorly, and what can we do to make it better?”

The transactional nature of communication shows up in school, where teach- ers and students influence one another’s behavior. For example, teachers who regard some students negatively may treat them with subtle or overt disfavor. As a result, these students are likely to react to their teachers’ behavior negatively, which reinforces the teachers’ original attitudes and expectations.5

Communication Is Symbolic Chapter 4 discusses the nature of symbols in more detail, but this idea is so important that it needs an introduction now. Symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas, or events in ways that make com- munication possible.

One feature of symbols is their arbitrary nature. For example, there’s no logi- cal reason why the letters in the word book should stand for the object you’re read- ing now. Speakers of Spanish call it a libro, and Germans call it a Buch. Even in English, another term would work just as well as long as everyone agreed to use it in the same way.

Conflicts can arise when people attach different meanings to a symbol. (See the Confederate flag photo on this page.) Is calling your friend a “gangsta” a joke or an insult? Are flowers offered after a fight an expression of apology or an at- tempt to avoid guilt? How people feel about each other depends a great deal on how they interpret one another’s actions.

Animals don’t use symbols in the varied and complex ways that we do. There’s nothing symbolic about a dog scratching at the door to be let out; there is a natu- ral connection between the door and the dog’s goal. By contrast, the significance of a word or action is only arbitrarily related to the meaning we give it. Besides reflecting our identity, symbolic communication allows people to think or talk about the past, explain the present, and speculate about the future.

symbol An arbitrary sign used to represent a thing, person, idea, event,

or relationship in ways that make com-

munication possible.

Communication is something we do with, not to others.

How well is your communication synchronized with others in important relationships?

More than 150 years after the U.S. Civil War, the Confederate flag still evokes strong emotions. Some view it as a symbol of racism, while others see it as honoring the sacrifices of brave Confederate soldiers.

Which symbols communicate messages that draw you toward others? Which ones create discord?

Communication Defined 7

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Modeling Communication So far we have introduced a basic definition of communication and considered its character- istics. This information is useful, but it only begins to describe the process we will exam- ine throughout this book. One way to deepen your understanding is to look at some models that describe what happens when two or more people interact. Over the years, scholars have developed an increasingly accurate and sophis- ticated view of this process.

A Linear Model Until about 50 years ago, researchers viewed communication as some- thing that one person “does” to another.6 In this linear communication model, communication is like giving an injection: A sender encodes (puts into symbols) ideas and feelings into some sort of message and then conveys them to a receiver, who decodes (attaches meaning to) them (Figure 1-1).

One important element of the linear model is the communication channel—the method by which a message is conveyed between people. Face-to-face contact is the most obvious channel. Writing is another channel. In addition to these long-used forms, mediated communication channels in- clude telephone, email, instant messaging, faxes, voice mail, and video chats. (The word mediated reflects the fact that these messages are conveyed through some sort of communication medium.) The self-assessment on page 8 will help you appreciate how the channel you choose can help determine the suc- cess of your messages.

At first glance, the linear model suggests that communication is a straight- forward matter: If you choose your words correctly, your message should get through without distortion. But even in the closest relationships, misunder- standing is common. In one study, researchers invited several pairs of people into their lab.7 Some were married; others were strangers. The subjects invari- ably predicted that the married couples would understand each other better than strangers. In reality, the level of understanding was about the same. This finding highlights what the researchers called the “closeness-communication bias.” Overestimating how well we understand others can result in potentially serious misunderstandings.

The channel you choose can make a big difference in the effect of a message. For example, if you want to say “I love you,” a generic e-card probably wouldn’t have the same effect as a handwritten note. Likewise, saying “I love you” for the first time via text message could make a very different statement than saying the words in person.

Why are misunderstandings—even in our closest relationships—so common? One factor is what scholars call noise—a broad category that includes any force that interferes with the accurate reception of a message. Noise can occur at every stage of the communication process. Three types of noise can disrupt communication—external, physiological, and psychological. External noise (also called “physical” noise) includes those factors outside the receiver that make hearing difficult, as well as many other kinds of distractions. For instance, a weak signal would make it hard for you to understand another person on the phone, and sitting in the rear of an auditorium might make hearing a speaker’s remarks difficult. External noise can disrupt communication almost anywhere

linear communication model A characterization of communication as a

one-way event in which a message flows

from sender to receiver.

sender The originator of a message.

encode Put thoughts into symbols, most commonly words.

message A sender’s planned and un- planned words and nonverbal behaviors.

receiver One who notices and attends to a message.

decode To attach meaning to a message.

channel The medium through which a message passes from sender to receiver.

mediated communication Commu- nication sent via a medium other than

face-to-face interaction.

noise External, physiological, and psychological distractions that interfere

with the accurate transmission and

reception of a message.

Sender

Encodes

Message

Decodes

Receiver

NoiseSender’s Environment Receiver’s Environment

FIGURE 1-1 Linear Communication Model

CHAPTER 1 Communication: What and Why8

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S E L F A S S E S S M E N T

Your Communication Choices INSTRUCTIONS:

Consider which communication channel(s) you would use in each situation described below.

Scenario Your Communication Choice

Face-to- Face

Phone Email Text Social Media

1. You have been concerned about a friend. The last time you were together you asked, “Is anything wrong?” Your friend replied, “I’m fine.” Now it’s been several weeks since you have heard from your friend, and you’re worried. Which channel do you think is best for gauging your friend’s true emotions?

2. You’re angry and frustrated with a professor and want to deal with this concern before the problem gets worse. Which communication choice offers you the best opportunity to address the problem?

3. On Thursday your boss tells you it’s okay to come in late Monday morning. You’re worried he will forget that he gave you permission. What channel(s) should you use to make sure he remembers?

4. You’re applying for a job when a friend says, “You won’t believe the photo of you that I’m going to post from the party last weekend!” How would you try to dissuade your friend from posting the photo?

5. You just ended a long-time relationship. What’s the best way to let your friends and family know?

6. What is a communication challenge you currently face? Which channel(s) would be best suited to addressing it?

S E L F - A S S E S S M E N T

EVALUATING YOUR RESPONSES Explain the reasoning behind your choices. After reading this book, retake this assessment to see if your choices have changed.

in our model—in the sender, channel, message, or receiver. Physiological noise involves biological factors in the receiver or sender that interfere with accurate reception: illness, fatigue, and so on. Psychological noise refers to forces within a communicator that interfere with the ability to express or understand a message accurately. For instance, worrying about a recent conflict might make it hard to focus on work or school. In the same way, you might be so upset to learn you failed a test that you would be unable (perhaps unwilling) to understand clearly where you went wrong.

A linear model shows that communicators often occupy different environments— fields of experience that help them understand others’ behavior. In communication terminology, environment refers not only to a physical location but also to the personal experiences and cultural backgrounds that participants bring to a conversation.

environment Both the physical setting in which communication occurs and

the personal perspectives of the parties

involved.

Communication Defined 9

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Consider just some of the factors that might contribute to different environments:

• A might belong to one ethnic group and B to another. • A might be rich and B poor. • A might be in a rush and B have nowhere to go. • A might have lived a long, eventful life, and B might be young and

inexperienced.

• A might be passionately concerned with the subject and B indifferent to it. Notice how the model in Figure 1-1 (page 7) shows that the environments of

the sender and receiver overlap. This area represents the background that the com- municators must have in common. As the shared environment becomes smaller, communication becomes more difficult. Consider a few examples in which differ- ent perspectives can make understanding difficult:

• Bosses who have trouble understanding the perspective of their employees will be less effective managers, and workers who do not appreciate the chal- lenges of being a boss are more likely to be uncooperative (and probably less suitable for advancement).

• Parents who have trouble recalling their youth are likely to clash with their children, who have never known and may not appreciate the responsibility that comes with parenting.

• Members of a dominant culture who have never experienced how it feels to be outside of it may not appreciate the concerns of people from nondomi- nant cocultures, who may not have experienced how it feels to be in the majority.

Differing environments make understanding others challenging but certainly not impossible. Hard work and many of the skills described in this book pro- vide ways to bridge the gap that separates all of us to a greater or lesser degree. For now, recognizing the challenge that comes from dissimilar environments is a good start. You can’t solve a problem until you recognize that it exists.

A Transactional Model Because of its simplicity, the linear model does not effectively represent the way most communication operates. The transactional communication model in Figure 1-2 (page 10) presents a more accurate picture in several respects.

Most notably, the transactional model shows that sending and receiving are simultaneous. Although some types of mass communication do flow in a one-way, linear manner, most types of personal communication are two-way exchanges. The roles of sender and receiver that seemed separate in the linear model are now superimposed and redefined as those of communicators. This new term reflects the fact that at a given moment we are capable of receiving, decoding, and responding to another person’s behavior, while at the same time that other person is receiving and responding to ours.

Consider, for instance, the significance of a friend’s yawn as you describe your romantic problems. Or imagine the blush you may see as you tell one of your raunchier jokes to a new acquaintance. Nonverbal behaviors like these show that most face-to-face communication is a two-way affair. The discernible response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback. Not all feedback is nonverbal, of course. Sometimes it is oral, as when you ask an instructor questions about an upcoming test or volunteer your opinion of a friend’s new haircut. In other cases it is written, as when you answer the questions on a midterm exam or respond to a letter from a friend. Figure 1-2 makes the importance of feedback clear. It shows that most communication is, indeed, a two-way affair.

transactional communication model A characterization of communi- cation as the simultaneous sending and

receiving of messages in an ongoing,

irreversible process.

feedback The discernible response of a receiver to a sender’s message.

CHAPTER 1 Communication: What and Why10

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Some forms of mediated communication, such as email and text messaging, don’t appear to be simultaneous. Even here, though, the process is more complicated than the linear model suggests. For example, if you’ve ever waited impatiently for the response to a text message or instant message (IM), you under- stand that even a nonresponse can have sym- bolic meaning. Is the unresponsive recipient busy? Thoughtful? Offended? Indifferent? Whether or not your interpretation is accurate, the silence is a form of communication.

Another weakness of the traditional linear model is the questionable assumption that all communication involves encoding. We cer-

tainly choose symbols to convey most verbal messages. But what about the many nonverbal cues that occur whether or not people speak: facial expressions, gestures, postures, vocal tones, and so on? Cues like these clearly do offer information about others, although they are often unconscious and thus don’t involve encoding. For this reason, the transactional model replaces the term encodes with the broader term responds, because it describes both intentional and unintentional actions that can be observed and interpreted.

Types of Communication Within the domain of human interaction, there are several types of communica- tion. Each occurs in a different context. Despite the features they all share, each has its own characteristics.

Intrapersonal Communication By definition, intrapersonal communication means “communicating with one- self.”8 One way that each of us communicates internally is by listening to the little voice in our mind. Take a moment and listen to what it is saying. Try it now, before reading on. Did you hear it? It may have been saying something like, “What little voice? I don’t have any little voice!” This voice is the “sound” of your thinking.

Rather than listening to other people’s definitions of success, Tony Hsieh tunes in to his own thoughts. “I made a list of the happiest periods in my life, and I real- ized that none of them involved money,” he says.9 Instead, relationships emerged as his prime source of satisfaction. “Connecting with a friend and talking through the entire night until the sun rose made me happy,” says Hsieh. “Trick-or-treating in middle school with a group of my closest friends made me happy.” As a result, he made interacting with friends a priority in his life.

The way we mentally process information influences our interaction with others. Even though intrapersonal communication doesn’t include other people directly and may not be apparent, it does affect almost every type of interaction. You can understand the role of intrapersonal communication by imagining your thoughts in each of the following situations:

• You are planning to approach a stranger whom you would like to get to know better.

• You pause a minute and look at the audience before beginning a 10-minute speech.

• The boss yawns while you are asking for a raise.

Transactional Communication Model

Communicator Communicator

Responds

RespondsDecodes

Decodes

Communicator’s Environment

Communicator’s Environment

Noise

Messages

FIGURE 1-2 Transactional Communication Model

intrapersonal communication Communication that occurs within a

single person.

Types of Communication 11

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• A friend seems irritated lately, and you’re not sure whether you are responsible.

The way you handle all of these situations would depend on the intraper- sonal communication that precedes or accompanies your overt behavior. Much of Chapter 2 deals with the perception process in everyday situations, and part of Chapter 13 focuses on the intrapersonal communication that can minimize anxiety when you deliver a speech.

Dyadic/Interpersonal Communication Social scientists call two persons interacting a dyad, and they often use the term dyadic communication to describe this type of communication. Dyadic com- munication can occur in person or via mediated channels that include telephone, email, text messaging, instant messaging, and social networking websites.

Dyadic is the most common type of personal communication. It is also one of the most powerful predictors of relationship quality. Researchers in one study found that they could reliably predict whether family members were satisfied with each other by studying how they joked around, shared news of their day, and dis- cussed their relationships together.10 Even communication within larger groups (think of classrooms, parties, and work environments as examples) often consists of multiple, shifting dyadic encounters.

Dyadic interaction is sometimes considered identical to interpersonal communication, but as Chapter 7 explains, not all two-person interaction can be considered interpersonal in the fullest sense of the word. In fact, you will learn that the qualities that characterize interpersonal communication aren’t limited to twosomes. They can be present in threesomes or even in small groups.

Dyadic relationships are as important in business as in personal life. At Zappos, staffers are not evaluated on how many calls they field or how much mer- chandise they sell, but on the quality of the one-on-one relationships they build with customers. They are encouraged to get to know callers and to spend time exceeding their expectations, even when the result is not a direct sale. The effect is that the company’s customer service reputation is exceptionally high, increasing the likelihood of future sales.

Small Group Communication Small groups are a fixture of everyday life. Your family is an example. So are an athletic team, a team of coworkers in several time zones who communicate online, and a team working on a class project. In small group communication, every person can participate actively with the other members.

Whether small groups meet in person or via mediated channels, they possess characteristics that are not present in a dyad. For instance, in a group, the ma- jority of members can put pressure on those in the minority to conform, either consciously or unconsciously, but in a dyad no such majority pressure exists. Con- formity pressures can also be comforting, leading group members to take risks that they would not dare to take if they were alone or in a dyad. With their greater size, groups also have the ability to be more creative than dyads. Finally, commu- nication in groups is affected strongly by the type of leader who is in a position of authority. Groups are such an important communication setting that Chapters 9 and 10 focus exclusively on them.

Organizational Communication Larger, more permanent collections of people engage in organizational communication when they work collectively to achieve goals. Organizations operate for a variety of reasons: commercial (e.g., corporations), nonprofit (e.g.,

Dyadic communication is arguably the context in which most close relationships operate.

How are your dyadic relationships— with friends, romantic partners, and even strangers—maintained through communication? What channels do you use?

dyad A two-person unit.

dyadic communication Two-person communication.

interpersonal communication Com- munication in which the parties consider

one another as unique individuals rather

than as objects. It is characterized by

minimal use of stereotyped labels;

unique, idiosyncratic social rules; and a

high degree of information exchange.

small group communication Com- munication within a group of a size

such that every member can participate

actively with the other members.

organizational communica- tion Communication that occurs among a structured collection of people

in order to meet a need or pursue a goal.

CHAPTER 1 Communication: What and Why12

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charities and religious groups), political (e.g., government or political action groups), health-related (e.g., hospitals and doctor’s offices), and even recreational (e.g., sports leagues).

Zappos has built a work environment designed to nurture teamwork, happi- ness, and individuality. The open floor plan encourages ongoing communication, and Hsieh supports a “no job title, no hierarchy” approach in which associates work together to foster continual improvement and innovation based on their own ideas, not managers’.19

Regardless of the context, the unique qualities of organizational communica- tion make it worth studying. For example, it involves specific roles (e.g., sales as- sociate, general manager, corporate trainer) that shape what people communicate about and their relationships with one another. It also involves complex and fas- cinating communication networks. As you’ll read in Chapter 3, each organization develops its own culture, and analyzing the traditions and customs of organiza- tions is a useful field of study.

@Work

Communication Skills and Career Success Regardless of the job, people spend most of their working lives communicating.11 Consider emails: The average worker receives nearly 12,000 every year and spends the equivalent of 111 workdays responding to them.12 Combine that with telephone and face-to-face conversations, instant messag- ing, team meetings, videoconferences, presentations, and many other types of interaction, and you’ll see that commu- nication is at the heart of the workplace.13

On-the-job communication isn’t just frequent; it’s essential for success. Most adults recognize this fact. In one survey, more than 3,000 U.S. adults were asked what skills they be- lieve are most important “to get ahead in the world today.” Across the board, communication skills topped the list— ahead of math, writing, logic, and scientific ability.14

Communication skills are more important today than ever. The only jobs that have shown consistent wage growth over the last two decades are those that require social skills, all of which involve communication.15 Traditional middle-skill jobs, such as clerical or factory work, have been largely replaced or made scarce by technology. High-wage, high-demand jobs combine technical and interpersonal expertise: Think physical therapy, general contracting, computer program- ming (usually a team endeavor), and medicine.16

Employers also recognize that communication skills are indispensable. In an annual survey, representatives from a wide range of industries ranked the “ability to verbally com- municate with persons inside and outside the organization”

as the most essential skill for career success. In fact, commu- nication skill was rated as more important than “technical knowledge related to the job.”17 Other research reinforces the value of communication. An analysis of almost 15 million job advertisements from across all occupations revealed that the ability to speak and write effectively were the most requested skills, identified twice as often as any other quality.18

Evidence like this makes it clear that communication skills can make the difference between a successful and a disap- pointing career. For more on increasing your efficiency and productivity at work, see Communicating for Career Success at www.oup.com/us/adleruhc.

http://www.oup.com/us/adleruhc
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Public Communication Public communication occurs when a group becomes too large for all members to contribute. One characteristic of public communication is an unequal amount of speaking. One or more people are likely to deliver their remarks to the remaining members, who act as an audience. This leads to a second characteristic of public settings: limited verbal feedback. The audiences aren’t able to talk back in a two- way conversation the way they might in a dyadic or small group setting. This doesn’t mean that speakers operate in a vacuum when delivering their remarks. Audiences often have a chance to ask questions and offer brief comments, and their nonverbal reactions offer a wide range of clues about their reception of the speaker’s remarks.

Public speakers usually have a greater chance to plan and structure their remarks than do communicators in smaller settings. For this reason, several chapters of this book describe the steps you can take to prepare and deliver an effective speech.

Mass Communication Mass communication consists of messages that are transmitted to large, widespread audiences via electronic and print media: newspapers, magazines, television, radio, blogs, websites, and so on. As you can see in the Mass Communication section of this book’s companion website (www.oup.com/us/adleruhc), this type of communication differs from the interpersonal, small group, organizational, and public varieties in several ways.

• First, most mass messages are aimed at a large audience without any per- sonal contact between sender and receivers.

• Second, many of the messages sent via mass communication channels are developed, or at least financed, by large organizations. In this sense, mass communication is far less personal and more of a product than the other types of communication we have examined so far.

• Finally, although blogs have given ordinary people the chance to reach enormous audiences, the bulk of mass messages are still controlled by cor- porate, media, and governmental sources that determine what messages will be delivered to consumers, how they will be constructed, and when they will be delivered.

Communication in a Changing World Over the past several decades, the nature of communication has changed dramati- cally. Today we are equipped with a range of communication technologies that, even two decades ago, would have been the stuff of fantasy and science fiction.

Yet along with the technological opportunities in today’s world, communica- tion challenges abound. How do we use the newest communication tools in ways that make life richer rather than simply busier? How can we deal with people whose communication practices differ dramatically from our own? This section will provide some tools to help answer these questions.

public communication Communica- tion that occurs when a group becomes

too large for all members to contribute.

It is characterized by an unequal amount

of speaking and by limited verbal

feedback.

mass communication The transmis- sion of messages to large, usually wide-

spread audiences via broadcast, print,

multimedia, and other forms of media,

such as recordings and movies.

Lizzie Velasquez was once taunted online as “the world’s ugliest woman,” and online trolls urged her to kill herself. Instead, she has become a successful motivational speaker. Her speech “How Do You Define Yourself?” has been viewed more than 10 million times on YouTube.

What would you talk about if you had the microphone and an attentive group of listeners?

cultural idiom operate in a vacuum: operate independently of outside influences

http://www.oup.com/us/adleruhc
CHAPTER 1 Communication: What and Why14

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Changing Technology Figure 1-3 shows that communication technology is changing more rapidly than ever before. For most of human history, face-to-face speech was the primary form of communication. Writing developed approximately 5,000 years ago, but until the last few centuries, the vast majority of people were illiterate. In most societ- ies only a small elite class mastered the arts of reading and writing. Books were scarce, and the amount of information available was small. Speaking and listen- ing were the predominant communication “technologies.”

By the mid-18th century, literacy grew in industrial societies, giving ordinary people access to ideas that had been available only to the most privileged. By the end of the 19th century, affordable rail travel increased mobility, and the telegraph made possible transmission of both news and personal messages over vast distances.

The first half of the 20th century introduced a burst of communication tech- nology. The invention of the telephone extended the reach of both personal and business relationships. Radio and, later, television gave mass audiences a taste of the wider world. Information was no longer a privilege of the elite class.

By the dawn of the 21st century, cellular technologies and the Internet broad- ened the ability to communicate even further, beyond the dreams of earlier gen- erations. Pocket-sized telephones made it cheap and easy to talk, send data, and exchange images with people around the globe. Now, new fiber-optic technology allows for more than 150 million phone calls every second.20 Videoconferencing is another channel for remote connection, allowing us to see one another’s facial cues, body movements, and gestures almost as if we were face-to-face.

The accelerating pace of innovations in communication technology is aston- ishing: It took 38 years for radio to reach 50 million listeners. It took television only 13 years to capture the same number of viewers. It took less than 4 years for the Internet to attract 50 million users. Facebook added 100 million users in less than 9 months.21

ASK YOURSELF

How have techno-

logical changes in your

lifetime affected the

way you communicate

with people?

?

The Accelerating Pace of Communication Technology

Face-to-Face Communication For most of human history, face-to-face speech was the primary form of communication. Speaking and listening were the predominant communication “technologies.”

Literate Populations By the mid-eighteenth century, literacy had developed in industrial societies, giving ordinary people access to ideas that had been available only to the most privileged.

Phones, Radio, and Television Telephones reduced distance, expanding the reach of both personal relationships and commerce. Radio and later, television gave mass audiences a taste of the wider world. Information was no a privilege of the elite.

1963: First communication satellite 1936: Regular TV broadcasts (London) 1920: First radio broadcast 1876: First telephone demonstrated 1843: Long-distance telegraph

Into the Future Analysis predicts that we may one day communicate via lifelike holograms and have embedded implants that allow us to exchange messages via brainwaves.

Digital Age By the dawn of the 21st century, communication technology had expanded beyond the dreams of earlier generations.

2015: Wearable technologies become ubiquitous 2010: Tablets enhance mobile computing 2009: Smartphone sales top 170 million 2006: Twitter launched 2005: YouTube.com appears online 1997: First social network (SixDegrees.com) 1996: Instant messaging developed 1994: Personal blogging begins 1992: First text message sent 1991: World Wide Web begins 1981: IBM markets –rst personal computer 1975: First microcomputer, the Altair 8800 1973: First cell phone call 1972: First email with “@” in address 1969: ARPANET (forerunner to Internet)

Trains, Telegraphs, Mail Service By the end of the nineteenth century, affordable rail travel

increased mobility and the telegraph enabled the transmission