Weinstein and fantini model of curriculum development

PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services

Table 13-2 Steps in Curriculum Development

I. Planning the Curriculum

l. Who assigns committee members?

2. What groups are represented within the committee?

3. Who determines priorities. standards, competencies, etc.?

4. How do we identify needs, problems, issues, etc.?

5. Who formulates goals and objectives? What type of goals, objectives?

II. Implementing the Curriculum

l . Who defines what knowledge is most important?

2. Who decides on instructional materials and media?

3. Who evaluates teachers? What measurement criteria ore used?

4. Who decides how teachers will be prepared and trained for the program?

5. Who determines how much money/resources will be made available?

Ill. Evaluating the Curriculum

l . Who decides how the curriculum will be evaluated?

2. I,A/ho decides on assessment procedures? Tests? And how ore they to be used?

3. Have our goals and objectives been addressed in the evaluation?

4. Does the program work? To what extent? How can it be improved?

5. Who is responsible for reporting the results? To whom?

6. Do we wish to make comparisons or judgments about the program? Why? Why not?

during the early period and set the stage for the modern period. 19 Tyler proposed a number of steps in planning a curriculum, outlined in Figure 13-1, starting with the goals of the school. These goals would be selected on the basis of what he called sources of information about important aspects of contemporary life, subject matter, and the needs and interests of learners. By analyzing changing society, at the local, state, or national level, it could be determined what goals (and also what subject matter) were most important. By consulting with sub- ject specialists (as well as teachers), helpful decisions could be determined about concepts, skills, and tasks to be taught in the various subjects (reading, math, science, etc.). By identifying the needs and interests of students, a beginning point in content, methods, and materials could be determined. (Hence, Tyler helped popularize the concept of a needs assessment study.)

Tyler then suggested that the school staff, possibly organized as a curriculum committee, screen the rec- ommended goals according to the school's (or school

1"Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.

district's) philosophy and beliefs about psychology learning {or what some might call learning theory . What resulted from this screening process would be instructional objectives, more specific than the schoor~ goals and designed for classroom use.

Tyler then proceeded to the selection of learning experiences that would allow the attainment of obje.::- tives. Learning experiences would take into account the developmental stage of the learners, such as their age and abilities, and consider the learners' background (present attainments), external environment (classroom and school), and what the learners did (their behav- ior) when learning. Tyler next talked about organizing learning experiences in a systematic way to produce a maximum, positive effect. Here he elaborated on the vertical (recurring subject matter such as social studies from grade to grade) relationship and horizontal (in- tegration of different subjects at the same grade levei relationship of curriculum.

Tyler elaborated on the need for evaluation tt'' determine whether the objectives were achieved or the learning experiences actually produced the intended results. Also, it was necessary to determine whether

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CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Development and Implementation

ADMINISTRATIVE ADVICE -

Guidelines for Curriculum Development Below are some guiding statements to help clarify the steps involved in curriculum development. These statements are based on school practice and apply to all curriculum models.

• The curriculum-design committee should include teachers, parents, and administrators; some schools might include students, too.

• The committee should establish a sense of mission or purpose in the early stages or meetings.

• Needs and priorities should be addressed in relation to students and society.

• School goals and objectives should be reviewed, but they should not serve as the only guiding criteria on which to develop the curriculum. Such criteria should connote a broad educational philosophy to guide curriculum development.

• Alternative curriculum designs should be contrasted in terms of advantages and disadvantages such as cost, scheduling, class size, facilities and personnel required, existing relationship to present programs, and so on.

• To help teachers gain insight into a new or modified design, it should reveal expected cognitive and affective skills, concepts, and outcomes .

FIGURE 13-1

Tentative Objective

• Principals have significant impact on curriculum development through their influence on school climate and their support of the curriculum process.

• District administrators, especially the superinten- dent, have only a peripheral impact on curriculum development because their outlook and concerns center on managerial activities. Their curriculum role is minor, but their support and approval are essential.

• State education officials have even less impact on curriculum development, although various depart- ments publish guides, bulletins, and reports that can be informative. However, these educators establish policies, rules, and regulations that affect curriculum and instruction.

• The influence of special interest groups and local politics should not be underestimated. Polarization or conflict has frequently obscured reasonable efforts for reform and meaningful dialogue between educa- tors and parents in regard to educational matters.

Selecting Experiences

Evaluation

Organizing the Curriculum-A Behavioral Approach, Based on the Tyler Model

the curriculum was effective or ineffective and whether changes should be made or a new curriculum was warranted.

Although Tyler never introduced his model of cur- riculum development in a graphic manner, Figure 13-1

helps interpret what he was hoping to achieve. Because Tyler did not clarify at what level his model could be used, school district or school level, or whether it was a top-down (line staff) model or bottom-up (teacher empowerment) model, it can be applied to both

PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services

External Forces Legal Requirements Research Data Professional Associations State Guidelines

Curriculum I Goalsand ~ Curriculum Design Curriculum l Objectives Decisions made by f----- Implementation ~ Evaluation curriculum planners Decisions regarding Decisions assessing about the instruction by teachers. the effectiveness of characteristics of Various experiences the curriculum and

Bases of Curriculum a good curriculum: are included in the the teachers.

Society the content, its curriculum plan so

Learners organization. and that teachers have

Knowledge appropriate learning options. opportunities.

Feedback and Ad'ustment I FIGURE 13-2

Managing the Curriculum Source: Adapted from J. Galen Saylor, William M.Alexander, and Arthur J. Lewis, Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning, 4th ed (New York: Holt, Rinehart. 1981 ). pp. 29-30.

orientations. However, at the period of his writings, the top-down model prevailed in schools: Curriculum experts usually presented ideas for teachers to develop, and administrators either supervised or delegated supervisors to ensure that the ideas were implemented in the classroom.

Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis: Managerial Model

Galen Saylor and his colleagues belong to the mana- gerial school. As former administrators, they were very clear about the lines of authority and the need for su- pervisors and administrators to be in charge of the cur- riculum at the state and local district levels, in terms of curriculum guidelines and textbook selection, as well as at the school level, in terms of subjects for study on the basis of grade levels.20 Saylor saw curriculum as a general plan, through which particular plans for indi- vidual programs of studies, courses of study, syllabi, unit plans, policy statements, handbooks, and learning packages were used in different parts of the school and

20 ]. Galen Saylor, William ;\1. Alexander, and Arthur]. Lewis,

Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning, 4th ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981).

school district by many groups of people and individu- als. Curriculum had to be put together or incorporated as a total package, or curriculum plan, by those in charge of running the schools.

As Figure 13-2 indicates, a number of consider- ations enter into the development of curriculum. Goals and objectives are largely influenced ( 1) by external forces such as legal requirements, current research, pro- fessional knowledge, interest groups, and state agen- cies and (2) by the bases of curriculum such as society. learners, and knowledge. (These bases were similar to Tyler's sources, which had originally been elaborated on by Boyd Bode and John Dewey.)

Agreed on goals and objectives then provide a basis for curriculum design, that is, a view of teach- ing and learning. Five different designs are examined: ( 1 )subjectmatter/disciplines,(2)competencies,(3 )human traits and processes, ( 4) social functions and activities, and (5) individual needs and interests. A subject matter design emphasizes the role of knowledge and problem- solving activities. Specific competencies emphasize performance objectives, task analysis, and measurable outcomes. Human traits and processes are concerned with the learners' feelings, emotions, and values, as well as the affective domain of learning. A design that focuses on social functions and activities em- phasizes the needs of society and, to a lesser extent,

CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Development and Implementation

the needs of students. The individual needs and inter- ests design is concerned with what is relevant to and motivates learners and what learning experiences lead to their full potential. Depending on the na- ture of management, the design can be optional and chosen by the classroom teacher, or it can be recom- mended by a school curriculum committee (adminis- trators, supervisors, and/or teachers) or required by the central school district. School authorities, however, rarely require a particular design because curriculum matters involve teachers as well as possibly students and parents.

Curriculum implementation is mainly concerned with instructional activities that facilitate or put in practice the design. It includes instructional meth- ods, materials, and resources, often listed in courses of study, unit plans, and lesson plans and often observed in classrooms as the teaching and learn- ing process unfolds. Curriculum implementation includes supervision of instruction, teacher-supervisor planning and meetings, as well as staff development programs. The help teachers receive from resource per- sonnel, supervisors, and administrators is the basis of implementation.

Curriculum evaluation involves the procedures for evaluating student outcomes and the curriculum plan. Evaluative data become the basis for decision making and planning among administrators. Administrators rarely engage in this type of evaluation; rather, they often delegate it to supervisors or outside consultants who report their findings to administrators, who in turn have the option of communicating the findings to teachers, parents, or the community.

Macdonald: Systems Model

Theory development prior to the 1960s tended to sepa- rate curriculum and instruction from teaching and learn- ing. The classic model by James Macdonald showed the relationship between these four systems, as illustrated in Figure 13-3. He defined curriculum as a plan for in- struction as the plan is put into action. Teaching was defined as the broad behavior of the teacher and learn- ing as the change in learner.

Another way of explaining the Macdonald model is the following: Curriculum is planning endeavors that take place prior to instruction; instruction deals with teacher-student interaction (usually taking place in the classroom, library, or laboratory); teaching is the act of presenting stimuli or cues; and learning involves

FIGURE 13-3

Curriculum I

Instruction II

Systematizing the Curriculum Source: Adapted from James B. Macdonald, "Educa- tional Models for Instruction," in J. B. Macdonald (ed.). Theories of Instruction (Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Developme'!t. 1965), p. 5.

student responses. When appropriate instruction and teaching take place, desired responses will occur. When instruction or teaching is inappropriate, dysfunc- tional or unintended responses will take place.

Most curriculum leaders today agree with the Macdonald model: Curriculum is viewed as plan- ning; instruction is seen as implementation; teaching involves behavior, methods, and/or pedagogy; and learning connotes desired responses or student actions. Macdonald's view was easy to understand, a rea- son for the classic status of the model, and it helped show the relationship among the four systems. Break- ing from the previous generation of linear models by interrelating his systems, Macdonald contended that curriculum was the heart of the educational enterprise (note that it represents the largest component in his system, as per Figure 13-3) in part because everything that followed was based on this plan and in part be- cause he was a curriculum theorist-not a professor of pedagogy or philosophy. Had he been a professor of educational psychology, Macdonald probably would have seen teaching and learning as the most important

'

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CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Development and Implementation

Scientific-Aesthetic Model

Elliot Eisner combines scientific and behavioral prin- ciples with aesthetic components to form a curriculum planning model. It is more rational and measurable than one might expect from Eisner who tends to stress artistic and qualitative forms of education. His model comprises four major areas of planning: (1) aims and objectives, (2) curriculum planning, (3) teaching, and (4) evaluation. Each contains numerous categories, as shown in Figure 13-5.

Aims and Objectives (Category 1) include (a) behavioral objectives that can be easily observed and measured; (b) problem-solving objectives that in- volve broader concepts and various forms and solu- tions that cannot be easily measured; and (c) expressive outcomes-that is, results or qualities (intended or unintended, attitudinal or artistic) that are not always rational, predictable, or easy to measure. .

Curriculum Planning (Category 2) includes the mput and influence of the (a) federal and (b) state agencies, which provide direction, policies, and money; (c) t~e school district, which appoints curriculum commit- tees and personnel for planning content and develop- ing materials; (d) the teacher's role in planning, such as choosing topics, textbooks, and other materials to meet objectives; (e) research centers, which develop materials, methods, and pilot programs; (f) commercial publishers, which provide textbooks, materials, and (if the authors may add) tests; and (g) curriculum develop- ers, groups, and professional associations, which pre- scribe content in particular subject areas.

(l)

Aims and Objecti\·es (2)

Curriculum Planning

a. Federal influence b. State influence

Teaching (Category 3) involves (a) the art of teaching as expressive and qualitative forms and behaviors; (b) the difference between teaching and instruction, the latter of which is more technical and controls content and classroom activities; and (c) the difference between teaching and curriculum-in simple Eisner terms, "curriculum is the content that is taught and teaching is how the content is taught."

Evaluation (Category 4) is divided into five areas: (a) diagnose student learning and prescribe treatment; (b) revise, that is, modify and/or improve the cur- riculum; (c) compare programs to determine which is more effective for specific students; (d) identify edu- cation needs by employing interviews, questionnaires, and tests in order to justify programs and content; and (e) determine if objectives have been achieved-to what extent and whether revisions are needed, or possibly new objectives are needed.

While Eisner touches on the role of the artist in curriculum and teaching, it is important to note there is little discussion today on the contributions of the artist, musician and filmmaker in shaping curriculum, despite the fact that the media plays such an important role in shaping society worldwide. Artists are expected to i~­ spire people and challenge public thinkin~, but their role is often underrated and undervalued 1n schools, especially with regard to curriculum making. Read- ing, math, and science take preference, partially due to the emphasis on high-stake testing, the traditional no- tion that reading is the key to academic success, and the current notion that math and science are essential for a high-tech and innovative society.

(3) Teaching

(4) Evaluation

a. Diagnose a. Behavioral objectives b. Problem-solving

objectives

c. District influence a. The art of teaching b. Revise c. Compare d. Teacher·::. role

c. Expres-.ivc objectives e. Research centers f. Commercial publisher~ g. Curriculum de\ elopers

b. Teaching and instruction c. Teaching and curriculum d. Identify education need~

e. Determine if objectives ha\·e been achieved

Feedback su1rgested bv evaluation categorie~ such as revising. comparing. and detem1ining if objectives have been achieved. Eisner mak6 no mention of feedback proces~.

FIGURE 13-5

Eisner's Curriculum Planning Model Source: Adapted from Elliot W. Eisner, The Educational imagination, 3rd e_d. (Columbus. OH: Merril. 2002), chs. 6-7. 9-l 0. Diagram and sequencing have been Interpreted by the authors.

, PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services

component. Similarly, had he been a professor of supervision or administration, he might have viewed supervision (or supervision of instruction) as more important than curriculum, or curriculum as a subcom- ponent or one aspect of the larger field of educational leadership. Indeed, a person's professional background and knowledge base determines his or her view of what is essential or secondary in education, what is a macro- system and a microsystem.

Weinstein and Fantini: Humanistic Model

Gerald Weinstein and Mario Fantini link sociopsy- chological factors with cognition so learners can deal with their problems and concerns. For this reason, these authors consider their model a "curriculum of affect." In viewing the model, some readers might con- sider it part of the behavioral or managerial approach, but the model shifts from a deductive organization of curriculum to an inductive orientation and from tradi- tional content to relevant content.21

The first step, shown in Figure 13-4, is to identify the learners, their age, grade level, and common cultural and ethnic characteristics. Weinstein and Fantini are concerned with the group, as opposed to individuals, because most students are taught in groups. Therefore, knowledge of common characteristics and interests is considered prerequisite to differentiating and diagnos- ing individual problems.

In the second step, the school determines the learners' concerns and assesses the reasons for these concerns. Student concerns include the needs and interests of the learners, self-concept, and self-image. Because concerns

21 Gerald Weinstein and Mario D. Fantini, Toward Humanistic Education (New York: Praeger, 1970).

FIGURE 13-4

Curriculum of Affect Source: Gerald Weinstein and Mario D. Fantini, Toward Humanistic Education. p. 35. Copyright © 1970 by the Ford Foundation.

center on broad and persistent issues, they give the curriculum some consistency over time. Through di- agnosis, the teacher attempts to develop strategies for instruction to meet learners' concerns. Emphasis is on how students can gain greater control over their lives and feel more at ease with themselves. In organizing ideas, the next step, the teacher should select themes and topics around learners' concerns rather than on the demands of subject matter. The concepts and skills to be taught should help the learners cope with their concerns.

The content is organized around three major prin- ciples, or what Weinstein and Fantini call vehicles: life experiences of the learners, attitudes and feelings of the learners, and the social context in which they live. These three types of content influence the concepts, skills, and values that are taught in the classroom, and they form the basis of the "curriculum of affect."

According to the authors, learning skills include the basic skill of learning how to learn which in turn in- creases learners' coping activity and power over their environment. Learning skills also help students deal with the content vehicles and problem solve in differ- ent subject areas. Self-awareness skills and personal skills are recommended, too, to help students deal with their own feelings and how they relate to other people.

Teaching procedures are developed for learning skills, content vehicles, and organizing ideas. Teach- ing procedures should match the learning styles of students, which in turn are partially based on their common characteristics and concerns (the first two steps). In the last step, the teacher evaluates the out- comes of the curriculum: cognitive and affective ob- jectives. This evaluation component is similar to the evaluation components of the previous models (Tyler and Saylor); however, there is more emphasis on the needs, interests, and self-concept of learners-that is, affective outcomes.

PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services

Curriculum Overview

Figure 13-6 presents an overview of the procedures and steps to consider for planning, developing, and evaluat- ing the curriculum. The model is based on a behavioral/ managerial model, rooted in the Tyler-Taba (behavioral) and Saylor-Aiexander (managerial) approaches.

(I) Political Forces

(2) Knowledge Industry

(Con,ultants)

Subject Specialists

K-8 • Reading. Literacy •Math • Bilingual

9-12 • Core Subjects

t Learning Speciali~ts

Learning Styles Learning Processe~ Needs of Leamers Abilitie.;; of Learners

Aims j''\ or Goals \ Standards

(3) External Groups

National State City

• Reading •Math • Basic Skills

State Committees School Di.-.trict and

School Committees Publishing Companies

Ob . t. JCCtiVCS

School

Overall, the model reflects a traditional approach because decisions and actions take place within a formal organization that has a prescribed and expected way of doing things. In joining the school (or school district), participants accept an authority relationship and under- stand certain roles, limits, and expectations of behavior,

{4) Content

Knowledge Skills Concepts

(7) Supervision of Curriculum

(5) Instructional

Activities

Methods 1\olaterials Media

(6) Evaluation

Diagnostic Pla;ement Formative

Federal, state. and communi tv departments: · agencies and commi~sions

Federal 1-- State

District School

- Federal State Di!-trict School

• Program f--. Classroom

• Unit Plan f- Research Methods

Ideas f-- Places

• Classroom -+ Summati"e

A~\.:reditation

r\ational. state. and local departments, agencies. and opinion/information intluence policies. planning, and procedures for curriculum.

FIGURE 13-6

v Technology Specialiq.,.

D1s.tance EducatiOn Computers Videos CD-ROM Television

t Testing Spedali~t~

Criterion Reference ;\l"orm Reference

•IQTe,ts • Achievement

Te-;ts • Aptitude Tests • Personality Tests • Vocational Tests

Standards are expressed in reports and bulletins at the

• Lesson Plan

t Profes~ional A~sociation~

SubJect Areas Special Students Teacher Groups Administrative Groups Networks. and Leagues

t College Requirements

Carnegie Units • Required Cour~e:-. • Elective~ • Advanced Placement

SAT Test ACT Test

Traditionaltorces such as the testing and textbook industries. as well

Aims are expressed by national and state commis~ion~. task forces. and panels at the federal and state level. Goals can be expressed at all tour levels: federal. state. district. and school.

federal and state as college and level, as well as in professional newsletters at the a~sociations and district and school requirements. level. modify curriculum

objectives.

Planning and Developing the Curriculum

Values • Librar) • Computer Lab • Science Lab •Community

The elementary school principal takes an active role in selection and organization of content and instruction. as well as in various aspect~ of evaluation. The person is often considered an instructional leader. The secondary school principal usually relies on the chair or supervisor of various subject areas. and is often perceived as a general numa}(er. especially v.:ithin large schools.

Content deals with what is to be taught and learned- structured and organized around knowledge. skills. research methods. ideas, and values.

Instruction deals with the how of the curriculum. or the implementation process: what methods. materials media, and places of instruction the teacher plans.

Five types of evaluation are noted: for purpose of diagnosis and placement of students. formative (or ongoing), summative (or reporting). and accreditation.

Source: Allan C. Ornstein. "Curriculum Planning and Development." in Fred Lunenburg and Allan Ornstein. Educational Administration: Concepts and Practices, 4th ed. (Belmont. CA: Wadsworth, 2004). Copyright© by Allan Ornstein. 2003. Revised by Allan Ornstein. 2007, 2011.

CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Development and Implementation

certain policies and procedures for communication, and change (the three Cs).

As part of curriculum planning, the political forces cu.~.,,,,~,....,., 1) are considered, the situation as it "really

-or, more precisely, as it appears to the participants. 1, state, and local issues and opinion in general

will reflect in the aims, goals,22 and objectives of the cur- oculum, but they will change over time. Standards are ex-

at the federal and state level-and imposed on the ;.;xal or district/school level. Specialists, consultants, and experts can provide knowledge or expertise (category 2) !or modifying the school district's or school's goals and (?bjectives. These people will most likely be subject, learn- mg, technological, or testing specialists. In determining what to teach, external groups (category 3) play a ma- por role in influencing curriculum participants, organiza- nonal norms and policies, and criteria for the selection t.1t content. Major external groups are from the testing i.'ldustry, textbook companies, professional associations, .md colleges. The connection between the external forces .md individual participants is virtually "one way"; that is, external groups influence participants' decisions and ac- rions, but the reverse influence is almost nonexistent or slight. Viewed as "experts," those involved in determining rhe content of tests (and now standards), the content of textbooks, college requirements (or Carnegie units), and/ or establishing standards and policies of professional asso- .::iations transmit, from one generation to the next, many of the major ideas of objectives and subsequent content.

Instructional actlvittes (category 5)-methods, materials and media-usually take place in the class- room (although they can take place in the local and larger community) and represent the processes through which the teacher delivers the content. Activities are part of the implementation process. Although most ac- tivities are well entrenched by tradition, different meth- ods, materials, and media evolve and replace traditional modes of instruction. The tension between traditional and progressive ideas of education is clearly depicted in Dewey's compact book, Education and Experience (1938). The term instructional activities (category 5) closely resembles what Dewey called "techniques and practices," what Kilpatrick called "purposeful meth- ods," what Taba and Tyler referred to as "experiences," and what Bruner termed "processes." In short, instruc- tion deals with ways in which content (subject matter) is taught by the teacher and learned by the student- that is the how of implementation.

Curriculum evaluation provides information for the purpose of making judgments and decisions about stu- dents, teachers, and programs-or whether to postpone, modify, continue, or maintain the curriculum. Such decisions can be made at the classroom, school, and school district level. The role of the curriculum leader- resource teacher, program director, supervisor or chair, principal or superintendent in charge of curriculum- is crucial at this stage. The person in charge, the cur- riculum leader, provides direction, oversees content and instruction, and then based on some form of evaluation

makes recommendations and decisions for maintain- ing, improving, or terminating the program. Five pur-

"Experts" from external groups may see the world differently than teachers and principals, but the have little influence in determining the content

in (category 4); basically, their job is to imple- he curriculum. Curriculum implemelltatirm in-

c what and bow of curriculum. The content is sometimes called the heart of the curriculum,

activities represent the how. Con-

poses and forms of evaluation (category 6) are listed: diagnosing problems; placement of students; formative,

that is, during the implementation stage; summative, or at the end of the program; and accreditation, the whole program is assessed.

into knowledge, skills, concepts, research and values. (Knowledge and skills have elsewhere by Adler, Taba, and Tyler;

;: .. H.""'""ips are best represented by the Dewey, and Ausubel; research meth-

Bruner, Dewey, and Tyler; ideas . \Jler. Bruner, and Taba; and values :ki!er. Dewey, and Tyler).

l.7f ····:netimes used interchangeably at the Tyler also used them interchange-

'!ii.ii:''·.' P•i>tciples of Curriculum and Instruc-

Finally, curriculum leaders at the school level include program directors, coordinators, chairs, and principals. They are responsible for overseeing curriculum, instruc- tion, and evaluation. In Figure 13-6, this is represented by the term supervision of curriculum (category 7). At the district level, the curriculum leader is usually called a director or an assistant or associate superintendent .

Nontechnical Model

The danger in noting that one model is systematic, rational, or technical and another is nonsystematic, irrational, or nontechnical is that the latter will be

PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services

considered as fluff, watered down, or disorderly by most administrators, who rely on an orderly and rational world. Advocates of the latter model take issue with the assumption and consequences of traditional mod- els. They reject the high degree of objectivity, order, and logic; they also reject the assumption that reality can be defined and represented by symbolic forms-by boxes, arrows, or graphs. Finally, they feel that aims and goals of education cannot always be known in advance, stated precisely, or addressed in a linear or step-by-step approach.

It may not make practical sense for administrators who need to plan and who have only so much time in the day, but the world is much more complex, involving subjective, personal, aesthetic, heuristic, transactional, and intuitive forms of thinking and behavior. The argu- ment is that curriculum cannot be precisely planned-it evolves as a living organism as opposed to a machine which is precise and orderly.

Common among advocates of the nontechnical model, sometimes called naturalistics, conversational- ists, critical pedagogists, and postpositivists, is the belief that the focus should be on the student, not the con- tent or subject matter. Subject matter has importance only to the degree that students can find meaning in it for themselves. Subject matter should provide opportu- nities for reflection and personal growth.23

In contrast to the majority of teachers and admin- istrators who consider curriculum as a plan, blueprint, or product-consisting of a series of rational steps and outcomes-people in the nontechnical camp often view curriculum more as a drama or conversation. People don't develop conversation or plan it; they create op- portunities for it to evolve. If we accept that curricu- lum involves conversation, then it makes sense to reflect on the social, political, and moral thoughts and voices involved in curriculum making. Such consideration brings into focus concepts that are ignored in technical approaches, such as ideology, values, beliefs, and power. Communication, collegiality, and consensus are neces- sary processes or social activities to consider. Creating curricula through conversation relies on dialogue, de- bate, and deliberation-the ebb and flow of ideas and ideology.

23Gary D. Fenstermacher, et a!. Approaches to Teaching, rev. ed. (New York: Teachers College Press Columbia University, 2009); Herbert Kohl, Beyond the Silence (Westport, CT: Heinemann, 1998 ); Nel Noddings, The Challenge to Care, 2nd ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 2005).

The contemporary, nontraditional paradigm of cur- riculum questions the scientific paradigm of sound logical thought that rests on Newtonian logic. In a theoretical sense, these nontraditional people advocate that we detach ourselves from rational or scientific models of accepted procedures that follow preestab- lished rules. They suggest that our actions in creating curricula cannot be judged according to predetermined criteria, generalized findings, or rational or empirical judgment; moreover, what appears objective or ratio- nal is frequently selective, incomplete, or reflective of a political agenda.24

According to this model, old criteria cannot be used to critique new curricula. It challenges the technical ra- tionality of viewing the world as a machine that we can study, observe, and objectively evaluate as bystanders. It questions assumptions about facts as well as about cause and effect. The data we obtain through tests and evaluative procedures are also questioned. In short, all the old assumptions about curriculum development that administrators rely on are challenged by many who call themselves postmodern thinkers.

Nontechnical contemporary educators believe that curriculum making represents an uncertain system and an uncertain set of procedures. People like James Macdonald, Elliot Eisner, Peter McLaren, and William Pinar argue that aesthetic rationality and artistic forms complement our technical rationality. What we are asked to do as education leaders is to transform images and aspirations about education into curriculum programs.25

The nontechnical process evolves in an open, unex- pected, free-flowing way. It even permits chaos to occur so that some unplanned system may result. In the same vein, artistry is considered a special way of knowing and constructing reality. Reality, according to Peter Senge, ex- ists in circles and is constructed of overlapping and inter- acting systems, not neat little boxes or flowcharts. Reality involves circularity, confusion, and interrelatedness of

24Tom Barone, "Science, Art, and the Predispositions of Educational Researchers," Educational Researcher, 30 (2001): 24-28; Gerald W. Bracey, "How to Avoid Statistical Traps," Phi Delta Kappan, 63 (2006): 78-82; Elliot Eisner, "Back to Whole," Educational Leadership, 63 (2005): 14-19; and \'X1illiam A. Reid, "Reconceptualist and Dominant Perspectives in Curriculum Theory," Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, !3 (1998): 287-298. 25Elliot W. Eisner, The Kind of School We Need (Westport, CT: Heinemann, 1998); Peter McLaren, Life in Schools, 5th ed. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2007); William F. Pinar, Contempo- rary Curriculum Discourses (New York: Peter Lang, 1999).

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CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Developrr>e-' :;-,: ~::>ementation

EXEMPLARY EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATORS IN ACTION

LONNIE E. PALMER Superintendent, City School District of Albany, New York.

Words of Advice: One current trend in education is to test students extensively and to use these results to drive decision making. While the analytical part of my background agrees that such an approach will provide rhe best research for measured, productive, positive change, I'm also concerned that in the process we'll lose what truly makes learning a lifelong, exciting quest for knowledge and opportunity. The assumption that somehow we can teacher-proof the curriculum with research-tested, instructional methods and thereby help children from poverty to achieve test success, ignores some basic facts.

Teaching is as much an art as :1 science. And while the science can help us with strategies and tactics

decisions and actions.26 Goals (objectives) and outcomes (products) are no longer perceived so much as ends but as beginnings, a view advocated by Dewey that is now part of the new literature on change and curriculum reform. Of course, all this new dialogue is hard to sell to a school principal or superintendent who is responsible for meeting goals and achieving certain products and must deal with social, political, and educational reality- high-stake tests, state standards, and students who are entering the workforce or applying to college.

The nontechnical model maintains that curriculum specialists have lost their visionary, moral, and social purposes, their sense of reform and innovation. This argument dates back to George Counts, in his famous speech to the Progressive Education Association pub- lished a year later under the title Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order?27 Actually, Joseph Schwab's concern with theory and practice represents a bench- mark or transition period between the traditional and new models. An advocate of scientific methods and ra- tional planning, a person who appreciated the need for technical experts, Schwab also had a clear moral vision of schooling, an awareness of social and cultural forces influencing curriculum, and a concern for relations of people involved in curriculum making. He argued that

26Peter M. Senge, The Filth Discipline (New York: Doubleday, 1990). 27George S. Counts, Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order? (New York: John Day, 1932).

to overcome the obstacles that children face as they learn, nothing can replace the love of learning, the love of children, and the understanding of those factors in children's backgrounds that inhibit their success.

While the pendulum swings far to the right with federal Ko Child Left Behind policies and programs and }'o;ew York State-mandated testing and prescrip- tive academic intervention services, little attention is being paid to the hearts, souls, and values of those entering the education profession. Educators must not only be smarter, more attuned to research and data, and cognizant of the best research-based strategies for student learning; they must also care deeply for their students, their parents, and their communities.

"the field of curriculum [had become] moribund," 28 that it had ceased to flourish and offer anything new, and that it needed to be "resurrected to include alter- native perspectives and systems as viable solutions to varying problems."29 This rejection of the traditional curriculum by a traditionalist, and the need to revise or remake the curriculum in terms of alternative ways, is a prelude to the nontechnical interpretation of the field of curriculum today.30

A wider conception of curriculum-nontechnical and more philosophical, personal, and interesting methods- includes numerous theories and ideas that are artis- tic and aesthetic (Elliot Eisner), gay (James Sears) and feminist (Madeline Grumet), pluralistic and diverse (James Banks), political/social (Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren), moral/ethical (William Reid), visionary and imaginative (Maxine Greene), and even spiritual (William Pinar). These new theories and ideas repre- sent a rejection of traditional curriculum planning,

2Hjoseph J. Schwab, "Education and the State: Learning Com- munity," in R. M. Hutchins and M. J. Adler (eds.), The Great Ideas Today (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1976), p. 238. 29Ibid, p. 271. 30See William F. Pinar (ed. ), Contemporary Curriculum Discourses (New York: Peter Lang, 1999); William A. Reid, "Rethinking Schwab: Curriculum Theorizing as a Visionary Activity," Journal of' Curriculum and Supervision, 17 (2001 ): 29-41; Leonard J. Waks, "Reid's Theory of Curriculum as Institutionalized Practice," Journal of' Curriculum Studies, 32 (2000): 589-598.

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PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services

a rethinking of curriculum, but not necessarily a "prac- tical" interpretation (a term used by Schwab and later Reid) that assists teachers and curriculum leaders (directors, chairs, supervisors, principals, etc.) in the organization and operation of classrooms and schools. Although some of these new concepts may be consid- ered dysfunctional and divisive, as well as impracti- cal for practitioners, among theorists and academics they are considered relevant-or at least interesting. Much of the new "new" curriculum is considered more speculative, expressive, emotional, argumentative, and political-based on heated controversy and crisis, far different from the rational, logical, behaviorist, and technocratic ideas that have characterized mainstream curriculum making.

Components of Curriculum Development Curriculum leaders must always be concerned with what should be included and how to present or ar- range what is selected. In other words, they must first deal with content or subject matter and then learning experiences. Regardless of the curriculum approach or development model used, curriculum leaders cannot ig- nore these two components.

Groups charged with curriculum planning have op- tions in selection of content and experiences-to be determined in part by the philosophical and psycho- logical views of the committee members and school. Unquestionably, there are too much content and too many learning experiences to include, and committee members (or those in charge of curriculum) must de- cide what content and experiences to include.

Criteria for Selecting Content

Curriculum planners should apply criteria in choosing curriculum content. Although the following criteria are neutral and can fit into any curriculum approach or model, various philosophical camps might place greater emphasis on particular criteria. For example, Hilda Taba, in a classic text on curriculum, maintains that content should include the following functions.

1. Four Levels of Knowledge. These include specific facts, skills, and processes; basic ideas such as gen- eralizations, principles, and causal relationships within the subject matter; concepts dealing with

abstract ideas, complex systems, multiple causa- tions, and interdependence; and thought systems or methods of problem solving, inquiry, and discovery.

2. New Fundamentals to Master. The content in many subjects becomes increasingly obsolete, especially in light of the explosion of knowledge. The curri- culum must be periodically updated to include new content to be learned.

3. Scope. Scope is the breadth, depth, and variety of the content and includes the coverage of boundaries of the subject.

4. Sequence. By sequencing, there is recognition of and need for differentiating levels of knowledge, that learning is based on prior knowledge, and that the curriculum should be cumulative and continuous. 31

5. Integration. Integration emphasizes the relation- ships among various content themes, topics, or units; it helps explain how content in one subject is related to content in another subject.32

A more recent text established seven additional criteria to consider when selecting and organizing con- tent. Whereas Taba stresses cognitive learning theory for her five criteria, these seven combine cognitive and humanistic psychology:

1. Self-Sufficiency. A guiding principle for content se- lection is that it helps learners attain learning skills and self-sufficiency in learning (economy of the teacher's effort and time in instruction and economy of students' efforts and time in learning).

2. Significance. Content should contribute to learning particular concepts, skills, or values; it should be significant in terms of what knowledge needs to be transmitted to students.

3. Validity. As new knowledge is discovered, old knowledge that is less relevant, misleading, or incor- rect must be pruned. Only relevant and accurate knowledge should be a part of the curriculum content. The content should also be sound in rela- tion to stated goals and objectives.

31This concept is similar to Jerome Bruner's idea of a ~spiral curriculum". Previous learning is the basis of subsequent learn- ing; learning should be continuous, and the content (or subject matter) is built on a foundation (from grade to grade). 32Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962).